Definition and Scope

Chapter One

Definition and Scope

The word Sociology was created by August

e Comte in1837, when he combined the Lat
in word for society (socio)
with the Greek word for science (ogy).Thu
s Sociology is the science of society.

Sociology is a social science,which

studiesthe social relationships between
people as individuals and as groups and
the influence of social conditionson these
relationships.

The subject of our scientific study,society,

can be
defined as a group of people with shared v
alues. beliefs. svmbols. battern

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 Definition and Scope

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLO

GY

During the early period in Europe,

specifically between the 15th and 18th
centuries, European societies experienced
asurge in culture, and general
development that made people to look for
or give adequate meaning or interpretation
to allthe areas of endeavour in the society.

Various scholars from the father of

Sociology (Auguste Comte), who coined
the word Sociology,to Emile Durkheim,
Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Max Weber
und others contributed immensely to the
discipline.

Allthesescholars were concerned with

how best the society could be. They raised
the issue from social and philosophical
angle.The

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 Definition and Scope

Evolutionists notably Charles Darwin

traced the origin of man and plants. He
postulated that man originated from early
forms of life that existed. Herbert Spencer
was interested the development of
in

human society while Charles Booth

through his socialsurvey provided
information on the social condition of the

poor and suggested ways of Improvement.

Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist

was interested in the varieties of social
integration and in social disorganisation.
He explained different forms and features
of social life that characterised human
societies. He identified one which is
characterised by shared norms, beliefs,
values with collective activities which he
called mechanical Solidarity and the other
organic solidarity which is characterised
by various forms of social differentiation
based on mutual interdependence but
devoid of collective feelings. Karl Marx
was also interested in the development of
the society. He posits thatthe society was
polarised. He identified the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat.

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 Definition and Scope

uIE SULIELy. e pusi uE SUCIELy

uIat was
polarised. He identified the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat.

He said there was conflict in the society.

The haves dominating and controlling the
life of the have not. Marx also identified

the interrelationship between what he

called the infrastructure and the
superstructure. The infrastructure is the
various economic base (means
production)and the superstructurethe
various enabling environment that includes
the political and legal institutions. He
opined thatthe bourgeoisie had the means
of production and this is why they control
the form of government (political
institution) and even the legal institutions.
He called this form of arrangement
capitalism. He wrote in his book
"Communist Manifesto""aspectre is
hunting Europe, it is the spectre of
communism". Communism then, to Marx,
was the best form of government that can
adequately cater for the interest of the
masses. He posited that until this ideology
or the ideals of communism was practised
thatthe society will not be conducive for
all.

Chapter: 1 - Page:9
 Definition and Scope

are generalised sciences,attempting to

look at society as a whole in contrastto
the more specialised economics and
political science.

Social anthropology is closely tied to

ethnology,the descriptive study of peoples
and their cultures. Similarly, sociology is
related to demography, the quantitative
study of population.

The work of geographers of most interest

to sociologists is on the spatial factors of
population distribution and on
particular
migrationand the growth of cities. The
environment may have an important role in
shaping society, as among pastoral
peoples. Historians may be concerned only
with the description of unique past events,
but many lookfor common patterns found
m several societies or in the past of the
same society at different period of time.
Sociologists have not been very interested
in the past, but they are gradually coming
to realise that an understanding of what
went before is of considerablehelp in
understanding the present.

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 Definition and Scope

The differences between Sociology,

Economics and Political Science are of
domain rather than perspective. The
economists concentrate on the economic
relations of the society. His work is often
highly quantitative based, for instance, on
government and business statistics and it
may sometimes be questioned whether he
has any interest in the people whose
transactions are recorded in his data.

Political scientists are concerned with

power and the people who use it. Thus,
they focus on a particular segment of the
society and certain types of relationship
between people.

The boundaries between these fields and

sociologyare crossed by economic
sociologists (studyingthe economic
relations between individuals and
organisations, as in employment, and the
effect of social conditionson economic
behaviours)and political sociologists
(examining the social aspects of
government and politics, including political
attitudes of members of the public and the

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 Social Group

Chapter 2
Social Group

Sociology analyses social life at three

levels: interpersonal, group, and societal.
Each level is more complex and involves a
larger number of people than the one
before it.

THE INTERPERSONAL LEVEL

An interpersonal relation is the social

connection between two or more persons,
such as friend - friend, leader - follower, or
neighbor - neighbour. Interpersonal means
between persons but does not imply that
the relations involved must be close or
cordial. They may be friendly or hostile,
close or distant, deep or superficial.

THE GROUP LEVEL

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 Social Group

UIuIal. y uIay t IICIIuIy vi vOUIG;

close or distant, deep or superficial.

THE GROUP LEVEL

The next level of analysisdeals with

groups and group relations. Two major
examples are person-centred groups and
impersonal organisations.

The word group has a very general

meaning. It can includeeverythingfrom a
family to a nation. Two persons form a
group if they are friends or partners, that
is,if they are held together by mutual
interests or dependency and set apart from
others by their relationship.

People who have incomes or are

similar
alike in other ways, such as age,
occupation,or reading habits, do not
necessarily form a social group. Instead,
they are called statistical aggregates or
social categories

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 Social Group

Sometimes such categoriesare

transformed into socialgroups, and the
process by which this transformation
occurs is of great interest to sociologists.

The aged are an example of a social

category that is in the process of forming
social groups.

THE SOCIETAL LEVEL

The third level of sociological analysis

dealing with whole communities or
societies is called the societal level. A
society that is characterised by persistent
and distinct patterns of social organisation
is a social order.

The slave-based society of West Africa

and otherAfrican societies during the pre
and postcolonial period was a distinctive
social order. A kin-based society is another
kind of socialorder. In many societies,
L: LL.

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 Social Group

and other African societies during the pre

and postcolonial period was a distinctive
social order. A kin-based society is another
kind of socialorder. In many societies,
kinshipsare the most important social
bond and the family is the basis of social
organisation.

Societiesare familistic when the family is

the main type of social group and is
responsible -or keeping order, producing
goods and performing religious duties. In a
familistic society, relatives depend on each
other. They give each other practical
financial aid and guidance and they also
hold the keys to social esteem because the
family itself has high or low prestige. Thus,
interests of the family - wealth,honour,
and continuity cannot be separated from
those of the family's members. Modern
societies, by contrast, are individualistic
rather than familistic.

Society can be defined as a group of

people with shared values, beliefs,
symbols, patterns of behaviour and
territory. For example, Abagana is a

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 Social Group

We also have voluntary and involuntary

groups, in-groups and out-groups.

VOLUNTARY GROUPS

These are groups that have unique

characteristics values.Norms and
attitudes but itsmembership can be
withdrawn or discontinuedwithout any
sanction.It is voluntary because members
joined for certain interest or common goal
or with the hope of fostering their own
aspiration. Examples include social clubs
in the campus. Cocoa Farmers

Association,Nigeria Football Supporters

Club and Political Group. Memberships is
made on the member's volition, Members
has control over their membership.

INVOLUNTARY GROUPS

These are groups that one belongs to as a

result of one's position over which one has
little or no control. Here membership is not

solicited rather automatic.The family

it is

institution is a good example. One

automatically becomes a member as a

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 Social Group

INVOLUNTARY GROUPS

These are groups that one belongs to as a

result of one's position over which one has
little or no control. Here membership is not

solicited rather it The family

is automatic.
institution is a good example. One
automatically becomes a member as a
result of birth. Other examples include,
membership of Senior Staff Association of
Yaba College of Technology, membership
of Labour Union. No member is free to
withdraw his membership and if he does,
he ceases to enjoy the benefits and
protection couple with the individual
interest or aspirational promotion, which
the group stands to offe.

IN-GROUPS

This is a kind of reference group in which

membership solely lies on group feelings
of security,values, familiarity and
conviction. Members here, does things in
common and it is this common feelings
that holds the group together.

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 Social Group

OUT-GROUPS

These are groups with which one have

little familiarity, hence one's solidarity or

security do not lie with the group.

PRIMARY GROUPs

A primary group is a setting in which

intimate per on-centred interactions takes
place. Primary groups has four
characteristics:

(1) Members associatewith each other

directly and continually

(2) They have a "we-feeling" of belonging

to the group.

(3) Setting boundaries between

themselves and outsiders.

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 Social Group

(2) They have a "we-feeling" of belonging

to the group.

(3) Setting boundaries between

themselves and outsiders.

(4) They have a 'common spirit

which is concerned
for the good of the group.

However these characteristics given for a

primary group are necessary but not
sufficient,since they can be found in
groups, which are not primary, or in
categorieswhich are not really groups.

Primary groups are essentially small,so

that all the members know each other well.
There is an emotional attachment and
sense thatthe group is more important
than the individual members which it is

difficult to-develop in a larger group.

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 Social Group

Primary groups are small and

spontaneous. The members share
emotional bonds and identify their
interests with those of the group:
membership is an end in itself rather than
a means (onejoins a union for its benefits

but joinsfriends justforthe friendship)

and the members interact in many diffuse
contexts.(They may study or work in the
farm together, eat together, go to a dance
together, in a formal,secondary group one
does the business of the meeting and goes
away).

Primary groups are seen as typical of a

small-scalesociety, but they must exist in
all societies. Rules can be modified to suit

the need of individual members, whereas

in a formal organisation this would not be
possible. Members of primary group
understand each other's difficulties and are
willing to help when necessary.

SECONDARY GROUP

This is a non-primary group. It is

characterised by impersona-lisation of

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 Social Group

SECONDARY GROUP

This is a non-primary group. It is

characterised by impersona-lisation of
relationship that existed between
members in the group. It is a formal group.
People meeting for business transactions,
officers and men in the military, student
lecturer relationship in educational
institution and lawyer-client relationship in
legaloffices are good examples of
secondary groups. In fact, experience
suggests it is best to keep thingsformal.
For example, people are more likely to be
treated equally and fairly if they are dealt
with on an impersonal basis. In this group,
there is no close affinity. Once the subject
matter of their contact ceases, relationship
is terminated.

REFERENCE GROUPS

Reference group is an important source of

socialisation, 'reference group'is not
necessarily a group in the corporate sense.
It may be a category to

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 Social Group

which one compares (refers) oneself

rather than a set of people who interact
frequently and pursue common goals.

There are two basic types of reference

groups: normative and comparative.

NORMATIVE REFERENCE GROUP

This group sets standards forothers to

follow. Parents and community eldersare
normative referencegroups for children in
the village.

COMPARATIVE REFERENCE GROUP

This group supplies a modelagainstwhich

to assess one's own position, as when a
smalltrader compares his standard of
living to thatof his more successful

neighbour.

Individuals in roughly similar

circumstances may have an important
on their behaviour.For example a
effect
AIOman who oomnaroc harcalf with the

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 Social Group

groups: normative and comparative.

NORMATIVE REFERENCE GROUP

This group sets standards for others to

follow. Parents and community eldersare
normative referencegroups for children in
the village.

cOMPARATIVE REFERENCE GROUP

This group suppliesa model againstwhich

to assess one's own position, as when a
smalltrader compares his standard of
living to that of his more successful

neighbour.

Individuals in roughly similar

circumstances may have an important
effect on their behaviour. For example a
woman who compares herself with the
wives of senior government officers may
continually complain to her husband about
the things he should provide in the house,
whereas another who compares her
position to that of a sister who is less well
off than herself may be quite satisfied.

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 Social Institutions

Chapter 3
Social Institutions

An institution may be defined as an

enduring complex of norms, roles, values
and sanctionsembracing a distinct
segment of human life. The word
institution is sometimes used when

organisation or association would be

better, foraspecific group of individual by
pursuing a common goal: Parliament, the
Catholic Church, a University and so on.

BASIC SoCIAL INSTITUTIONs

There are three basic social institutions.T

hese are:

1 THE FAMILY

The family institutions (sex,marriages,par

enthood, kinship) are basic to
society because they provide and cherish
new members without

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 Social Institutions

BASIC SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

There are three basic social institutions.T

hese are:

1 THE FAMILY

The family institutions (sex,marriages,par

enthood, kinship) are basic to
society because they provide and cherish
new members without
such the society would disappear.

2. EDUCATION

By no means al1 education is

institutionalised or takes place in schools.

3. RELIGION

This may be seen in a narrow sense to

refer to a set of theological-beliefs held
and performed by members ofa
rituals

particular group. Anglicans or Ansarudeen

for instance.

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 Social Institutions

CHARACTERISTICsOF SOCIAL
INSTITUTIONS

1. THE FAMILY

(a) Membership is by birth and it's an

end in itself.

(b) The family is small and spontaneous.

(c) Members, share emotional bonds,

the) have we feeling of belonging to the
group.

(d) Members associatewith each other

directly and continually.

2. EDUCATION

(a) It may be formal or informal

(b) There is a bureaucratic regulation

(c) Generally there is no interpersonal

relationship

Chapter: 3 - Page: 20
 Social Institutions

directly and continually.

2.
EDUCATION

(a) It may be formal or informal

(b) There is a bureaucratic regulation

(c) Generally there is no interpersonal

relationship

3. RELIGION

(a) High degree of organisation

(b) There is integration with the society

and the economy.

(c) Recruitment of members on the basis

of family or place of residence.

(d) Imposing few demands

on members for religious expression or act
ive participation.

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 Social Institutions

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. THE FAMILY

(a) The family is responsiblefor

procreation - that is, for continuity the
family increasesthe membership size.

(b) Families are seen as agents of social

control over the nation's youth.

(c) Sexual access for the production of

new members of the society is controlled
through the family.

(d) The family socialises new members.

(e) The family provides economic

support and a basic division of labour for
the organisation of production, distribution
and consumption.

2. EDUCATION

(a) It is responsiblefor basic literacy.

(b) an importantagent of
It is

socialisation, shaping values and attitudes

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 Social Institutions

(D) ramiies are seen as agents or SOCiai

controlover the nation's youth.

(c) Sexual access for the production of

new members of the society is controlled
through the family.

(d) The family socialises new members.

(e) The family provides economic

support and a basic division of labour for
the organisation of production, distribution
and consumption.

2. EDUCATION

(a) It is responsiblefor basic literacy.

(b) an important agent of

It is

socialisation, shaping values and attitudes

to the needs of contemporary society.

(c) Itwidens the mental horizons of

pupils and teaches them new ways of
looking atthemselves and their society.

(d) It may be an agent for promoting a

better understanding of societal traditions
and forthe development of local culture in
the form of art music and literature.

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 Social Institutions

(D) ramiIes are seen as agents OT SOCiai

control over the nation's youth.

(c) Sexual access for the production of

new members of the society is controlled
through the family.

(d) The family socialises new members.

(e) The family provides economic

support and a basic division of labour for
the organisation of production,distribution
and consumption.

2. EDUCATION

(a) It is responsiblefor basic literacy.

(b) an importantagent of
It is

socialisation, shaping values and attitudes

to the needs of contemporary society.

(c) It widensthe mental horizons of

pupils and teaches them new ways of
looking atthemselves and their society.

(d) It may be an agent for promoting a

better understanding of societal traditions
and for the development of local culture in
the form of art music and literature.

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 Social Institutions

(e) has been used to politicise future

It

citizens and foster national integration

through the inculcation of common culture
and, by the missions to foster religious
conversion.

() It is a direct and indirect means of

training the future labour force and hence

is important in manpower planning and in
fostering social mobility.

(g) acts to maintain and strengthen its

It

position within the society; in this it is a

strong forcefor preserving the status quo
and resisting change.

3. RELIGION

(a) Religion fosters social integration by

upholding the values and norms of the
society.

(b) helps men to overcome their fear

It

and anxiety by providing a theological

explanationof success, failure and man's
place in the universe.

(c) It makes the world easier to

understand.

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 Social Institutions

(g) acts to maintain and strengthen its

It

position within the society; in this it is a

strong force for preserving the status quo
and resisting change.

3. RELIGION

(a) Religion fosters social integration by

upholding the values and norms of the
society.

(b) It helps men to overcome their fear

and anxiety by providing a theological
explanation of success, failure and man's
place in the universe.

(c) It makes the world easierto

understand.

TRANSFER OF FUNCTIONS

Due to the changes in the structure of the

institutions and the social change
generally in the society, most basic
functionsof the social institutions are
being transferred from one institution to
the other.

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 Social Institutions

cOMPETITION AND COOPERATIONS

AMONG INSTITUTIONS

The various
social institutions in the society
have been competing
in the environment for attention. Since

each
one of them has a single subjectmatter
the individuals in the society. Each one of t
hem has been attempting to have
domineering effect on
the people. The functionsthey perform
are interrelated.

Due to the enormous demand on the social

institutions to maintain social order, each
institution has come to realise the need to
cooperate so that these goals will become
attainable. The family has been teaching
new and somewhat different norms and
values to the children. Though these
norms and values are quite different from
the traditional or past society's conception,

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 Social Institutions

The political has yielded by

institution

cooperating with the family and appeal to

the mass media to do away with such
"unwanted entertainment".

INSTITUTIONAL UNIVERSALITY AND

VARIATION

The basic social institutions (family,

education and religion), are universal to all
societies. There is no society existing now
even in the past that does not have these
institutions.

The family function is universal -

procreationand continuity. Education
shapes values and attitudes to the needs
of contemporary society. Religion- for
molding the morality and link society to
God. These institutions and functionsare
basicto all societies.

These institutions though universal are

different in structure in most societies. In
most advanced societies, the family

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 Social Institutions

Educational structure or patterns also vary

inmost societies.Although in almost all
societies,education is seen as a means to
an end. For example, as a means to social
mobility.

In African societies,
Nigeria in particular,
education is seen as a meal But
ticket.

with painful experience, the society has

found out that though the ticket can be
obtained with a lot of dificulties, the meal
is neither here nor there. In other societies,
pupils are taught differentvocations; how
to use their hands and be useful to
themselves and the society at large.

Existence of religion is also universal.

There are societies that can be regarded
as having one single religion. Examples
include lslam in Arabic Nations and in
Northern Africa. Latin America and Asia
has severalreligions in their societies,
namely Christianity. Islam, Hare Krishna,
various traditional religions and so on.
There also exist different denominations
and sects.