TRADE PROJECT

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CHILD LABOUR IN KAKAMEGA COUNTY

PRESENTED BY: NANJALA JOAN

INDEX NO:5781021918

CENTRE NAME: THE ELDORET NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC

CENTRE CODE: 578102

COURSE CODE: 2428

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN SOCIAL WORK AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL IN PARTIAL

FULFILMENT FOR AWARD OF A DIPLOMA IN SOCIAL WORK

AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT.

SUPERVISOR: MRS. KOIN GLADYS

EXAM SERIES: JULY 2024

DECLARATION

I solemnly declare that this business plan is my own work out of my research and hard work and
therefore it reserves all the rights.

STUDENT: NANJALA JOAN

SIGN………………………………… DATE…………………………..

SUPERVISOR: MRS KOIN GLADYS

SIGN………………………………… DATE…………………………..

i
DEDICATION
I dedicate this wonderful work to my dear parents for giving me a way forward due to their
financial support they have invested on me throughout my studies.

I also feel obliged to thank my dear classmates for their moral support towards achieving my
obligations.

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
May I express my most heartfelt appreciation for the part played by my dear parents for their
financial support throughout my business plan work?

I also feel obliged to acknowledge my supervisor, Mrs Gladys Koin for the tireless efforts and
corrective measures she took during the preparation of my project hence I seek the Almighty
God to reward you abundantly.

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ABSTRACT
This study focuses on child labour-a typical issue of concern in Kenya as a country specifically
in Kakamega county. Child labour is still a common phenomenon, particularly in the developing
countries
The study will explore details on the main factors that contribute to child labour in the county. To
achieve the broad objective the study will be focused and directed by question like ; what's the
nature of child labour, what's the magnitude of child labour and what are determinants of child
labour together with its consequences
Child labour is common phenomenon as from (Haspel & Jankinish 2004). The study will have at
least 80 respondents who will be drawn through sampling. These respondents will majorly
include mother and female guardians. Part of the respondents will be selected from the Focus
Group Discussion (FGDs) . Where children will also be held to provide qualitative data on the
issues of child labour as a whole
The aforementioned child labour is inclusive in both rural and urban areas worldwide.it analyzes
the driving factors responsible for child labour and health hazards that they may face . The
various causes of child labour may include poverty, lack of educational resources, diseases, the
lure for cheap labour, family tradition ,discrimination between boys and girls and so many others
The issues affect children globally, it has been an issue of regional and national concern .these
are enormous problem as at (Kaushik and Zafris 2003) which has focuses on the hazardous of the
effects of it on young children based on each gender .it releases the theory of modern concern on
economic and econometrics. Additionally, the study will assist in the expansion of various
fundamentals and critical questions relating to child labour
Inferential statistics will be applied to measure the relationship among variables. More
specifically Chi-spuare tests of independence will be done to examine the association which
exists between variables
The national government should come up with a comprehensive child labour policy which will
enable the county government of Kakamega to make interventions to best deal with the problem
at large. Sensitization campaigns will be supported by civil organizations to improve the levels of
knowledge on child labour policies. At the community level the children should be engaged in
constructive recreational activities during school holidays. At the academic level a modification
in methodology needs to be done by shifting focus from the household to children themselves the
child labourers. This will ensure more accurate measurements of the dynamics of child labour .

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Table of Contents

Contents
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO CHILD LABOUR IN KAKAMEGA COUNTY PRESENTED
BY: NANJALA JOAN.................................................................................................................1
INDEX NO:5781021918.....................................................................................................................1
CENTRE NAME: THE ELDORET NATIONAL POLYTECHNIC.................................................1
COURSE CODE: 2428....................................................................................................................1
COURSE: DIPLOMA IN SOCIAL WORK AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT....................1
PRESENTED TO: THE KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL IN PARTIAL..........1
FULFILMENT FOR AWARD OF A DIPLOMA IN SOCIAL WORK............................................1
AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT...........................................................................................1
SUPERVISOR: MRS. KOIN GLADYS............................................................................................1
EXAM SERIES: JULY 2024.............................................................................................................1
DECLARATION................................................................................................................................1
DEDICATION........................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the study...............................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem statement.........................................................................................................................4
1.3 Study Objectives...........................................................................................................................4
1.4 Justification of the study...............................................................................................................4
1.5 Scope and limitations of the study................................................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................6
2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................6
2.2 Conceptualization of child labour.................................................................................................6
2.3 Global determinants of child labour..............................................................................................9
2.4 Consequences of child labour.......................................................................................................9
2.5 Summary of the literature discussions on child labour...............................................................10
2.6 Hypotheses of the study..............................................................................................................10
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY........................................................................12

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3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................12
3.2 Research sites for the study.........................................................................................................12
3.3 Sources of data............................................................................................................................12
3.4 Unit of analysis and unit of observation.....................................................................................12
3.5 Techniques of data collection......................................................................................................13
3.6 Data analysis...............................................................................................................................13
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION...................14
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................14
4.2 Basic social and demographic characteristics of the respondents...............................................14
4.6 Efforts to curb child labour.........................................................................................................21
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............................23
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................23
5.2 Summary of the study’s key findings.........................................................................................23
5.3 Conclusions.................................................................................................................................23
5.4 Recommendations.......................................................................................................................24
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................................25

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANPPCAN African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and
Neglect

FPE Free Primary Education

FGD Focus Group Discussion

ILO International Labour Organization

IPEC International Programmes on the Elimination of Child Labour

KIHBS Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey

KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

OVC Orphaned and Vulnerable Children

SPSS Statistical Packages for Social Sciences

UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

vii
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the project proposal will explain the background of the study, the main objectives,
the justification of the study, scope and also the limitations of the study

1.1 Background of the study

Child labour is a common phenomenon, particularly in the developing world (Haspels &
Jankanish, 2000:4). Child labour is “work that is unacceptable because the children involved are
too young, and should be in school, or because even though they have attained the minimum age
for admission to employment, the work that they do is unsuitable for a person below the age of
18” (Blume and Breyer, 2011:2). Individual children pay the highest price, but communities and
countries suffer as well. Ending child labour is a goal in itself; but it is also a powerful way of
promoting economic

“Not all work children do is child labor. Some forms of work teach children important skills and
responsibilities and contribute to healthy development…but many situations in which children
work are considered child labor because they are harmful, hazardous, or keep children from
attending school” (Sherer & Clark-Bennett, 2004:3). Hence, there exists a debate on what should
be considered as child labour or not. While no clear or universal definitions exists, in general the
term ‘child labour’ refers to work that impedes children’s access to education and is harmful to
their physical, mental, moral, developmental, and social well-being (Schmitz et al.., 2004). Thus,
a further exploration of the various definitions offered by scholars is necessary in order to shed
more light on the understanding of the phenomenon of child labour.

According to Arnal et al.., (2003), children can be involved in a variety of work-related activities
ranging from helping with domestic and household work, to working in home enterprises or
farms or working outside the home. Some activities are worse than others for the children’s
physical and moral development and integrity. More generally, there has been debate in the
literature on the differences between “child labour “and “child work” (Boyden and Myers, 1998;
Myers, 1999; and Anker, 2000). “Child work” is mainly described as that work which is not
particularly harmful for the child and does not constrain educational opportunities. On the
contrary, “child labour” is used

1
for work which is likely to damage children’s health, physical and psychological development as
well as their chances of fulfilling other rights, mainly the right to education. However, this study
by Arnal et al (2003) does not give a clear guideline on the activities that constitute child work
and child labour.

George (2010:15) defines work as “any process aimed at bridging the gap between needs
originating in an organism and resources in the organism’s environment satisfying those needs”.
This definition of work provides a perspective of child work. She further defines child labour as
the “employment of children and the extraction of their productivity for economic gain of
another, with debilitating ramifications on the psychological and physical development of the
child” (George, 2010: 23). Hence, the working child enters work arrangements that offer freedom
and independence. Thus, the aforementioned scholars (Arnal et al.., 2003; George, 2010) tend to
agree that “child work” has a positive impact on the development of a child and is non-
hazardous. On the other hand, “child labour” is hazardous and harmful since it jeopardizes the
health, safety and morals of children. However, both definitions have failed to capture clearly
what constitutes child labour and child work. Thus, the current study examined what constitutes
child labour in the rural and urban Kenyan settings.

It is generally evident that no nation is entirely free of child labour whether developed or
developing. According to Diallo et al (2013: 8), there were about 168 million child labourers in
the world in 2012, of whom more than two thirds (120 million) were in the age group 5 to 14
years old. Child labour is by no means only a problem among older children. In fact, about 4 in
10 child labourers were younger than 12 years (73 million) in 2012. The ILO report by Diallo et
al.., (2013: 11) captures the child labour statistics by region. In 2012, the largest child laborers
were in Asia and the pacific (77.7 million), followed by sub-Saharan Africa with 59.0 million,
Latin America and the Caribbean with 12.5 million and Middle East and North Africa (MENA)
with 9.2 million. In relative terms, sub-Saharan Africa ranks highest since 1 in 5 children was in
child labour in the region in 2012. The ILO report further indicates that more boys than girls
were engaged in child labour in 2012. Diallo et al.., (2013) states that globally, the difference by
sex is about 31.6 million (99.8 million boys compared to 68.2 million girls). From the recent
worldwide statistics, it is clear that child labour is increasingly becoming a major problem
among the younger children. The

2
current study sought to establish if these global trends are being reflected in Kenya both in rural
and urban areas.

The aforementioned child labour statistics are inclusive of both rural and urban areas worldwide.
Typically, child labour in Kenya largely thrives in the rural areas where agriculture is the major
economic activity. Children out of school are employed as casuals in tea, miraa, coffee, tobacco
and sisal farms (Njeru and Njoka, 2001; Muturi, 1994; Zani, 1993). Child labour is also a major
problem in the urban areas. Muthoga (1999) reported that children are employed in the informal
sector such as Jua kali1 where they do all kinds of work including collecting scrap metal, rolling
it into sheets and transporting the final products. Much research has been done on child labour in
the rural areas unlike the urban areas where few studies have been done. However, not many
comparative studies have been undertaken to help scholars and policy makers understand the
phenomenon of child labour in both rural and urban areas. Thus, the current study sought to
uncover the various sectors that demand the use of child labour in rural and urban areas.

1
Jua kali is a Swahili word for ‘hot sun’. Over the years, the term has been used to refer to informal or the non-formal
sector of the economy in Kenya.
International legislations that have been put in place in an attempt to end child labour include; the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), the ILO Minimum Age
Convention, 1973 (No.138), and the Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labour 1999 (No.
182). these legislations recognize the child’s right to be protected from economic exploitation,
from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or that may interfere with his or her
education (ILO/IPEC, 2012). Children’s Act 2001 remains the major legislation in Kenya that
protects children from economic exploitation which amounts to child labour. The act also seeks
touphold the rights of the child in compliance with the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
FPE is another policy that was implemented in Kenya in 2003 with the indirect latent intention to
deal with problem of child labour. The government’s adoption of the FPE policy aimed at the
provision of education and training for all Kenyan children as fundamental to the success of the
government overall development (Kenya, 2008: 8). Despite these international and national
legislations, child labour still persists in Kenya. Hence, the current study endeavored to examine
levels of awareness of the child labour policies among the people living in rural and urban
Kenyan settings.
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1.2 Problem statement

Child labour is a global problem for there is no region in the world, which is completely free of
the problem (Fallen and Tzannatos, 1998). Global statistics indicate that there were 168 child
laborers in the world in 2012 (Diallo et al, 2013). In Kenya, the most comprehensive and
consolidated nation-wide child labour survey done in 1999 estimated that there were 1.9 million
child labourers aged 5 to 17 years. A recent child labour analytical report drawing from the
KIHBS 2005/2006 provides the recent estimation of child labour in Kenya (KNBS, 2008). The
report shows a decrease in the number of child labourers from 1.9 million in 1999 to 1,012,184 in
2005/2006. This decrease can be partly attributed to the implementation of FPE in Kenya in 2003
which encouraged children in especially difficult circumstances such as child labourers to be
enrolled back to school.

various dynamics of the child labour in the country. This will in turn inform policy formulation
that will be guided by recent statistics.

Drawing from this background, the current study is guided by the following research questions;

1. What is the nature of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya?
2. What is the magnitude of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya?
3. What are the determinants of child labour in in rural and urban settings of Kenya?
4. What are the consequences of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya?

1.3 Study Objectives

The broad objective of the study was to understand the phenomenon of factors that contribute to
child labour in urban areas by taking the cases of Nzoia location, Murang’a County and Likuyani
slum, Kakamega County. The study has four specific objectives namely;
1. To establish the nature of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya
2. To determine the magnitude of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya
3. To study the determinants of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya
4. To examine the consequences of child labour in rural and urban settings of Kenya

1.4 Justification of the study

4
Child labour is a complex issue and remains a widespread phenomenon throughout the world.
Like other countries of Africa and other parts of the developing world, child labour and its worst
forms is a teething problem that negatively affects development in Kenya. There is an increasing
consensus that the phenomenon is detrimental to the rights and well-being of children, their
families and the nation at large (Alila and Njoka, 2009). Hence, the need for continuous research
on the phenomenon in order to generate knowledge that is locally relevant which will inform
appropriate policy formulation leading to the elimination of the vice in the long run.

The study is meant to strengthen the knowledge base on child labour which undoubtedly needs
expansion. According to Njoka et al., (2009: 34) data scarcity remains one of the major
hindrances to articulating and understanding the local conceptualizations, nature and extent of
child labour in Kenya. Child labour is considered as a “creation of a wide range of factors yet it
has not been adequately addressed” (Njeru and Njoka, 2001: 1). These determinants have an
influence on the incidence of child labour. Thus, they require constant research in order to
understand the dynamics of child labour in the modern society.

1.5 Scope and limitations of the study

Although, the study findings were limited to the study sites which include Nzoia location and
Likuyani, they can be generalized to give characteristics of other areas in the country. The study
was limited to 160 respondents who were drawn from households in both Nzoia location and
Likuyani. The respondents will be mothers and female guardians who were involved in bringing
up these children thus were better placed to respond to issues regarding child labour in their
households and the two areas covered at large.

The study sought to understand the phenomenon of child labour in both rural and urban areas. It
focused on the nature, magnitude, determinants and consequences of child labour. On the nature
of child labour, the study limited itself to explore the indicators of child labour and sectors that
demand the use of factors that contribute to child labour in urban areas.

The findings of this study can be generalized to explain the phenomenon of child labour in other
parts of the country and the world that share similar characteristics as those of the study sites
selected.

5
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter largely presents the relevant literature aimed at understanding the phenomenon of
child labour at global, regional and national levels. Available literature on child labour is
organized into a number of themes including; conceptualization of child labour, determinants of
child labour, the consequences of child labour and efforts made to curb the problem of child
labour. The theories that form the foundation of the study and their relevance to the study as well
as the conceptual framework and hypotheses of the study are also discussed systematically in this
chapter.

2.2 Conceptualization of child labour

Child labour is conceptualized differently by different societies, institutions and individuals.

Thus, it has proved difficult to come up with a universal definition of child labour. The various
definitions that have been advanced by different scholars are explored in the following section.
This helps to shed light on the conceptualization of child and provide a contrast between child
labour and child work.
2.2.1 Definition of child labour

Defining “child labour” is a challenging task. Children in the developing and developed world
alike often perform economic activities at a young age. Some perform these activities voluntarily
(for example, to increase the amount of available pocket money), while others are forced by the
necessity of income for survival. Some children work only a few hours a week or only during
peak seasons such as harvest times or festival; while others work full time every day, year-round
(Blume, & Breyer, 2011:1. Njoka (2007) outlines that it is possible to conceptualize child work,
child labour and worst forms of child labour or hazardous work in a continuum. In the African
set-up, this socialization is meant to instill a sense of autonomy and responsibility in the child.
When does child work qualify to be child labour? Thus, the current study sought to establish the
how people in both rural and urban areas of Kenya define child labour. Figure 2.1 shows the
6
 conceptualization of child work, child labour and hazardous labour in the form of a continuum.

Figure 2.1: Conceptualization of child work, child labour and hazardous labour

Child work e.g. Child labour e.g. Hazardous

cleaning utensils farm work and labour e.g.
in the household business activities prostitution
which does not mostly paid in which
prevent children cash and in kind. completely
from attending It constrains pushes children
school. It is educational out of school and
meant for opportunities. contributes to
socialization gross violation of
purposes. their rights.

According to Omosa et al.., (2006 cited by Mulili 2010:14), child labour in Kenya has been viewed as
“any situation where a child sells his or her labour directly or indirectly in exchange for payment and
in a situation that denies the child opportunity for development, prevents school attendance and is
exploitative”. The Kenya Children’s Act 2001 is a national legislation which captures the various
rights that children are entitled to such as compulsory education and protection from economic
exploitation
2.2.2 The nature of child labour
The nature and the extent of child labour, its forms and the severity of its exploitation, vary from
one country to another and from one region of the same country to another. According to Bhalotra
(2003), children in developed and developing countries engage in different kinds of child labour.
In African countries children engage more in agricultural activities while in the industrialized
countries, children engage in export sector factories. Hence, under this theme, literature will be
reviewed that will focus on nature of child labour in both rural and urban areas.

2.3.2.1 Rural child labour

Typically, child labour in Kenya thrives in the rural areas where agriculture is the major
economic activity. Children out of school are employed as casuals in tea, miraa, coffee, tobacco
and sisal farms (Njeru and Njoka, 2001; Muturi, 1994; Zani, 1993). This premise is further
supported by Basu (2004) who states that studies done in sub-Saharan Africa suggest that child
labour is most prevalent in rural areas. Rural child labour is manifested in a number of
sectors. According to

7
Njeru (2009:119), many children among the agricultural communities are involved in planting,
weeding, scaring of animals and birds, harvesting and sale of livestock produce.

These studies depicts that child labour is still prevalent in rural areas and thus the need for
continuous research to uncover the dynamics of the phenomenon. Moreover, the studies have
failed to capture the occurrence of unpaid child domestic work in most of the rural households.
For instance, children may occasionally miss school to take care of their younger siblings while
their parents are out working as casual labourers.

2.3.2.2 Urban child labour

According to Kayongo-Male and Walji (1984), in many urban centres or small towns, young
children are always very busy in informal sector. For example, children run from bus to bus
selling bananas, biscuits and other food as the buses pass through the town. This premise is
further supported by Njeru (2009: 120) who states that one of the major users of child labour in
Kenya’s urban centers is the vending of food items and assorted consumer goods. This depicts
those urban centres too as great consumers of child labour and so it is equally important for
urban child labour to be studied.

In addition, the relative complexity of the urban informal sector tends to attract older children
some of whom seek vocational training through apprenticeships. Thus, the current study
endeavored to establish whether similar trends can be observed in the urban areas where majority
of the children that work are older children.

2.2.3 Magnitude of child labour

Child labour remains one of the multi-faceted problems affecting children in the world and
consequently it is a major challenge to the development of any nation. It is generally evident that
no nation is entirely free of child labour whether developed or developing. According to Diallo et
al (2013: 8), there were about 168 million child labourers in the world in 2012, of whom more
than two thirds (120 million) were in the age group 5 to 14 years old. In relative terms, sub-
Saharan.The 1998/99 child labour survey in Kenya (later published in 2001) remains the most
comprehensive and consolidated data on nature and extent of child labour in Kenya. A recent
Child Labour Analytical Report (KNBS, 2008) drawing from the KIHBS 2005/2006 provides the

8
most recent estimation on child labour in Kenya. The report shows a decrease in the number of
children working from 1.9 million in 1999 to 1, 012, 184 in 2005/2006. This decrease can be
partly attributed to the implementation of the FPE policy by the government in 2003 which
increased enrolment by withdrawing children from work. The distribution by age shows a higher
age category of the working children (54% were between 1517 years and 32.1% between 10 and
14 years) compared with 1999 (43.6% in 10-14 age group and

2.3 Global determinants of child labour

Due to the complexity of child labour, studies have been undertaken to establish the major
determinants that perpetuate child labour. Poverty is cited as the primary determinant of child
labour. Indeed, many researchers worldwide observe that poverty is the main cause of child
labour (Admassie, 2002; Andvig et al., 2001; Manda et al., 2003.

According to a study done by Tharmmapornphilas3 on the “determinants of child labour in

Thailand”, there are a number of categories of characteristics that influence the incidence of child
labour. They include;

i. Child’s characteristics
ii. Parents’ characteristics
iii. Household characteristics
iv. School characteristics
It adds value to explore these determinants further for the case of child labour in Kenya.

2.4 Consequences of child labour

Child labour has both positive and negative consequences on the individual, the family and the
society at large. These negative consequences have both private and social costs which include
negative impact on the health and educational attainments of the child labourer as well as the
country’s economy at large.

a) Health and wellbeing: According to Herath and Sharma (2007) poor working
environments like closed, dark and ill ventilated rooms damage a child’s development.
The continuous hours of monotonous work can even result in death. It may lead to some

9
 bad habits like smoking and drinking. Aggression, anti-social behavior and delinquency can also
be observed among many child labourers (Karna, 2005). The study attempted to focus on the
consequences of child labour and especially the psychological effects which very few studies
have focused on.
b) Education; Child labour can have harmful effects on health, education, labour market of
adults and also on the psychology of the children (O’Donnel et al, 2002). For example,
some children especially in child headed households work in order to pay school fees for
their younger siblings. Thus, the study not only examined the negative consequences but
also positive consequences in an attempt to understand why child labour thrives despite
the implementation of policies that indirectly aim at fighting child labour such as the Free
Primary Education policy in Kenya.
c) Economy; on the macroeconomic level (societal level), child labour can have a negative
influence on human capital formation of agents who underlie the country’s economic
future (O’Donnel et al, 2002). Udry (2003) further argues that the primary cost of child
labour is the associated reduction in investment in the child’s human capital, which
occurs chiefly because child labour interferes with schooling.

2.5 Summary of the literature discussions on child labour

In concluding the discussion on the review of literature on child labour, we would like to offer a
brief summary of the same. Though there is no universal definition of child labour, most of the
scholars have pointed out to the fact that child labour is the engagement of a child in activities
that endanger the physical, mental, moral and social wellbeing of the child. On the other hand,
child work is the engagement of a child in activities that are meant for socialization. However, it
not quite clears on where to draw the line between child labour and child work since most of the
children engage in economic activities with the initial intention of child work but with time it
ends up becoming child labour.

2.6 Hypotheses of the study

A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables (Kerlinger
1986:17). A good hypothesis needs to be logical, use precise language and should be testable
with research or experimentation (Trochim, 2006). It is used to state the relationship between two
variables and may be stated as null hypothesis or alternative hypothesis (Buttolph et al.., 2012).
10
In null hypothesis, there is no relationship between two variables, while in alternative hypothesis,
the direction of the relationship between two variables is stated.

The current study hypothesized that;

i. Children whose mothers are educated are less likely to be involved in child labour as
compared to children whose mothers are uneducated. ii. Children whose mothers are employed
are less likely to be involved in child labour as compared to children whose mothers are
unemployed.

iii. Children from small households are less likely to be involved in child labour as compared
to children from large households.

iv. Children from households with lower monthly incomes are less likely to be involved in
child labour as compared to children from households with higher monthly incomes.

The operationalization of the independent and dependent variables used in the stated hypotheses
is shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Operationalization of variables of the stated hypotheses

Variable Categories Items Indicators
Independent Household Household Amount of monthly income from household
variable characteristics income members
Household size Number of children and adult members in
the household. Number of elderly household
members, number of girls/women and
boys/men in the household
Mother’s Level of Highest level of education of each of the
socioeconomic education of the mother
background mother
Type of Type of occupation of the mother; formal
occupation of employment, non-formal employment and
the mother unemployed
Dependent Child labour Rural child Children engaged in labour such as
variable labour agricultural and domestic sectors among
others, for four hours or more per day.

11
Urban child Children engaged in labour such as hawking
labour and domestic activities among others, for
four hours or more per day.

12
 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction

This chapter the project will outlines generally how the current study will be undertaken.
Research methodology is a scientific system of explicit rules and procedures upon which
research is based, and against which claims for knowledge are evaluated (Nachmias and
Nachmias, 1996:13). The chapter is organized into the following sub-sections; research design,
research sites for the study, target population, sources of data, unit of analysis and unit of
observation, sampling design, techniques of data collection, tools of data collection and data
analysis. In addition, the field experiences and the ethical considerations in social research have
been addressed at the end of this chapter.

3.2 Research sites for the study

The study will focus on a study on Kakamega as a country. Kakamega county has drawed into to
child labour due to so many causes this ha led to different sub counties falling into the hazardous
problem affecting the county and the country as well
The study will focus on the following sub counties in Kakamega county as at

3.3 Sources of data

The study utilized both primary and secondary sources of data. Hall (2008) states that primary
data is original data; data that has not been previously collected. Interviews and observations
yield primary data. Hall (2008) further states that secondary data is data that has been previously
collected, usually for another purpose. It includes administrative records, existing statistics and
previous research studies.

On the other hand, secondary data was obtained from the review of past studies that have been
done on child labour that helped the researcher understand the past trends of the phenomenon.

3.4 Unit of analysis and unit of observation

The unit of analysis is the entity around which the variables of interest to the researcher vary
(Singleton et al.., 1988:130). This is that which the study attempts to understand. For purposes of
the current study, unit of analysis was the child labour. Unit of observation is an element from
which information is collected (Singleton et al.., 1988:136). The units of observation include the

13
respondents who were interviewed such as mothers/female guardians, children and key
informants such as children officers, village elders, and community leaders such as chiefs.

3.5 Techniques of data collection

The current study will essentially quantitative augmented by qualitative data. The researcher
conducted face to face interviews with the mothers/female guardians using a household
questionnaire in order to obtain quantitative data. In addition, the researcher was assisted by one
adequately trained research assistant in administering the household questionnaires in each of the
study site. Hence, Interviewing was the main technique of data collection for the current study
while the household questionnaire was the main tool of data collection.

In order to obtain qualitative data, in-depth interviewing technique was adopted when conducting
the key informant interviews, case studies and FGDs which supplemented the data from the
household questionnaire. The principal researcher will conduct four FGDs with the children from
various schools in the study sites. More specifically, one FGD was conducted in the each of the
selected village in each of the study site. In Nzoia location, the fieldwork will be carried out
during the school holidays and so the FGDs could not be done in school. The village elder in
each of the villages will assist the researcher in organizing the FGDs in their household.

3.6 Data analysis

Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure and interpretation to the mass of
collected data (Bryman and Burgess, 1994: 66). Quantitative data analysis of the current study
involved the use of two types of statistics namely; descriptive and inferential statistics. Babbie
(2010: 467) states that descriptive statistics merely summarize a set of sample observations
whereas inferential statistics move beyond the description of specific observations to make
inferences about the larger population from which the sample observations were drawn. The
current study will employ both quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis considering
the wide range of data collected.

On the other hand, qualitative data from the key informants’, case studies and FGDs notes will
also be reviewed to ensure that relevant information was recorded. The field notes collected
using these unstructured interviews from the key informants and the FGDs were reorganized
schematically using word tables. Qualitative data from the case studies, FGDs and key

14
informants was used to expound on some of the quantitative components in the study where
necessary.

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND

INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction

This chapter outlines the results of the data that will be collected and existing relationships
among the key variables. The demographic characteristics of the respondents captured by this
study are presented at the beginning of this chapter. The rest of the chapter presents the findings
of the study as per the research objectives and interprets the findings that are drawn from the
quantitative and qualitative data collected. Moreover, Chi-square tests of independence have
been done to test the significance of relationships of interest to this study.

4.2 Basic social and demographic characteristics of the respondents.

This study specifically targeted the mothers/female guardians as the respondents. This is because
women are mostly involved in the reproductive roles of bringing up children and are better
placed to answer the questions on child labour. The basic demographic characteristics examined
in this section include; age, marital status, level of education, occupation and the level of income
of the respondents. This study covered 80 respondents in Nzoia location and 80 respondents in
Likuyani slum.

a) Age of the respondents

Age is an important variable in explaining the characteristics of any population set. The study
findings revealed variations of age in Nzoia and Likuyani respectively. The mean age of the
respondents in years in Nzoia Location was 38.1 years while in Likuyani slum it was 28.8 years.
Table 4.1 summarizes the findings of the age of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani.

Table 4.1: Age of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani

Age (years) Nzoia Likuyani Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
20-29 17 21.3 51 63.8 68 42.5
30-39 32 40.0 24 30.0 56 35.0
40-49 18 22.5 4 5.0 22 13.8
50-59 9 11.3 1 1.3 10 6.3
60 and above 4 5.0 0 0.0 4 2.5
15
 Total 80 100.0 80 100.0 160 100.0
Source: Survey data (2014)
The findings in Nzoia show that 30-39 years age bracket had the highest percentage (40%) of the
total respondents. On the other hand, the age bracket with the highest percentage in Likuyani
(63.8%) was 20-29 years. Overall, majority of the respondents in the two study sites (42.5%) fell
in the 2029 years age bracket. This age structure displayed by the findings in both Likuyani and
Nzoia is not surprising since Kenya’s population has a youthful structure (KNBS, 2009)

The current study sought to examine the level of education of the respondents who were
interviewed during the study. Table 4.3 gives a summary of the reported highest level of
education of the respondents in Nzoia location and Likuyani slum.

4.2 : Level of education of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani

Level of education Nzoia Likuyani Total
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
None 6 7.5 3 3.8 9 5.6
Primary 67 83.8 44 55.0 111 69.4
Secondary 7 8.8 28 35.0 35 21.9
Middle level 0 0.0 5 6.3 5 3.1
college
Total 80 100.0 80 100.0 160 100.0
Source: Survey data (2014)

*Middle level college includes vocational training centres and teacher training colleges

As expected, very few mothers had no formal education. They constituted 5.6% of the total
sample. The two study sites had a similar pattern in education achievements of the respondents.
Majority of the respondents (69.4%) in the two study sites had primary education. However,
Likuyani had a relatively higher percentage (35%) of women with secondary education as
compared to 8.8% in Nzoia. Generally, women in urban areas have relatively higher education
achievement. This is further confirmed by the national statistics that indicate that there are a
smaller number of people who have never attended school in urban areas (8%) as compared to
rural areas where the 22% have never attended school (KNBS, 2009). People are generally
attracted to the urban areas to find better way of life which includes making great education
achievements. It was therefore no accident that the study affirmed that the respondents in urban
areas were more educated than those in rural areas.
16
4.3 : Occupation of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani

Occupation of the Nzoia Likuyani Total

respondent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Unemployed 0 0.0 27 33.8 27 16.9
Formal employment 1 1.3 5 6.3 6 3.8
Non-formal 79 98.7 48 60.0 127 79.4
employment
Total 80 100.0 80 100.0 160 100.0
Source: Survey data (2014)

It was observed that the vast majority of the respondents in Nzoia (98.7%) worked in the
nonformal sector while only 1.3% worked in the formal sector. The non-formal employment
included three categories of occupations namely; informal employment, family business and
farming. A different trend was observed in Likuyani where majority of the respondents (60%)
were engaged in non- formal employment while 33.8% of the respondents were unemployedThis
finding is in agreement with the finding of a study done by Bangura (2010:54) which found out
that poverty rates for the working poor in Kenya tend to be higher in agricultural versus non-
agricultural employment and in non-formal versus formal employment.

b) Income of the respondents

The current study also endeavored to establish the household income of the respondents in the
two study sites. The maximum and the minimum monthly incomes in Nzoia was found to be
Ksh. 55,000 and Ksh. 3,000; the corresponding figures for Likuyani were Ksh. 4,500 and Ksh.
88,000. Table 4.5 gives a summary on the household income of the respondents in Nzoia and
Likuyani.

4.4 : Income of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani

Monthly income (In Nzoia Likuyani Total

Kshs)
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

1-9,999 49 61.3 22 27.5 71 44.4

10,000-19,999 26 32.5 39 48.8 65 40.6
20,000-29,999 3 3.8 12 15.0 15 9.4
30,000-39,999 2 2.5 5 6.3 7 4.4
40,000 and above 0 0.0 2 2.5 2 1.3
Total 80 100.0 80 100.0 160 100.0
17
Source (Survey data, 2014)

The findings in Nzoia revealed that more than half of the respondents (61.3%) have low monthly
incomes of less than Ksh. 10,000; the corresponding figures for Likuyani was 27.5%. The mean
monthly household income was found to be Ksh. 10,636 for Nzoia and Ksh. 15,494 for Likuyani
Consequently, the mean monthly incomes for the two study sites were Ksh. 13,065.
In conclusion, the findings revealed that the respondents had almost similar demographic
characteristics. Majority of the respondents in the Nzoia and Likuyani were in 20-29 age group.
Regarding marital status, majority of the respondents had a marriage encounter Consequences of
child labour. Child labour is detrimental to the development of a growing child. One of the
objectives of the current study was to examine the consequences of child labour. In Nzoia, 96%
of the respondents with children involved in labour agreed that child labour had some effects on
the working child; whether positive or negative. In Likuyani, all the respondents with children
engaged in labour agreed that child labour had effects on the child labourer.

a) Negative consequences of child labour

The reported positive effects of child labour notwithstanding, this study found quite a number of
negative consequences of child labour. These negative effects of child labour can be experienced
at three levels namely; child, household and community levels.

i) Consequences of child labour at the child’s level in Nzoia and Likuyani.

This section outlines the negative consequences of child labour that are experienced by the child
labourer himself/herself. In Nzoia, majority of the respondents (88%) observed that the
engagement of children in labour contributed to physical deterioration. This physical
deterioration could result from excessive fatigue due to long hours of labour and trekking in
search of casual jobs, retarded growth might result when the child start working at a tender age
and consequently these children might end up falling sick due to excessive fatigue. This was
further echoed by children who participated in a FGD in Lower Nzoia Village:

….when children engage in hard labour for long hours, they fall sick. They
experience chest problems and backache… (FGD Participant, Nzoia)
The findings of this study were similar to the findings of Herath and Sharma (2007) who argues
that the tasks given to children are simple and repetitive such as digging, harvesting among
others. By performing these tasks, children are not developing a skill so much as being subjected

18
to exhausting and monotonous work which is detrimental to the development of the child. More
than half of the respondents (57.5%) in Nzoia stated that child labourers experience low
educational performance. This was echoed by a female respondent in Nzoia

Other respondents (30%) in Nzoia stated that child labourers might experience some adverse
psychological consequences. These include; development of low self-esteem which results from
the children engaged in labour being despised by their peers who do not engage in labour.

Children in labour can become rebellious when they get used to earning their own money thus
can provide for themselves and so they refuse to help with any household chores at home. They
can also develop low self-esteem as a result of experiencing abuse (verbal, emotional and sexual)
at the workplace and also at the community level.

Economic retardation7: In Nzoia27.5% of the respondents cited economic retardation as one of

the negative consequences of child labour at the household level; the corresponding figure for
Likuyani was 21.2%. One of the respondents in Nzoia explained:
This in turn contributes to the lower future earnings of the child when she enters the adult labour
market with lower educational attainment.

Familial conflicts: Another 25% of the respondents in Nzoia cited familial conflicts as negative
consequence On the contrary, findings in Likuyani revealed that a majority of the respondents
(66.2%) had observed familial conflicts as a major negative of child labour at the household
level.

…when a child is engaged in labour, she is constantly in interaction with adults at

the workplace who may want to take advantage of her. Such a children can be
sexually abused resulting to teenage pregnancy. This can result into conflicts in
the family, between the parents as well as between the parents and the child...
(Female respondent in Likuyani)

Moreover, conflicts may arise over the use of the child’s income and in cases where the child
labourer is not willing to share his or her earning with the rest of the household members in order
to supplement the family income.

Social stigma: Only 10% of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani respectively, cited social

19
stigma as one of the negative consequences of child labour at the household level. The household
may be considered an outcast in the community since its young members are involved in labour
at a tender age. Thus, the household members may feel stigmatized and shun from interacting
with other households in the community. This in turn contributes to low self-esteem among the
members of such as household.

Bad role models: Nearly 4% of the respondents in Nzoia cited bad role models as another
consequence of child labour; the corresponding figure for Likuyani was 5%. Some respondents
stated that children in labour act as bad role models to their younger siblings in the household.
This was explained by one of the respondents:

…when children are engaged in labour in a household, their younger siblings

might admire them. This is because they can earn their own money and sometimes
support the household with the income….Such child labourers might end up
engaging in use and abuse of drugs and their siblings could imitate such
behaviors… (Female respondent in Nzoia)
There was variation in the levels of knowledge on the negative consequences of child labour at
the household level with quite a number stating in Likuyani (33.8%) that they are not aware of
such consequences. This in contrast with Likuyani findings where only 5% reported that they did
not know of any negative consequences at the household level. This variation can be attributed to
the possibility of the presence of more sensitization campaigns on child labour and its
consequences in the urban areas as compared to the rural areas.

ii) Consequences of child labour at the community level in Nzoia and Likuyani

The current study sought to examine the consequences of child labour at the community level.
The respondents were asked to list the negative effects that result from child labour and have an
impact on the entire community. Majority of the respondents in Nzoia (56.3%) did not mention
any consequences of child labour that they have observed at the community level; the
corresponding figure for Likuyani was 6.3%. The respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani who
reported that they were aware of negative consequences of child labour at the community level
cited the following consequences;

Negative peer influence: In Nzoia 26.3% of the respondents mentioned negative peer influence
as one of the consequences of child labour at the community level. The findings in Likuyani
contrasted sharply with those of Nzoia since majority of the respondents (92.5%) cited negative

20
peer influence as one of the consequences. One of the respondents from Likuyani stated that:

….Children who are not engaged in labour tend to be influenced negatively by the
child labourers in the area. This is because they will encourage them to join the
class of child labourers in order to own fashionable items…some child laborers
even own mobile phones purchased from the wages earned. I discourage my
children from keeping such company since they might even end up dropping out of
school… (Female respondent, Likuyani)
Moreover, other respondents lamented that child labour has resulted to the development of bad
habits such as lying, stealing and abuse of drugs among the child laborers which can result to
negative peer influence. This was confirmed by one of the key informants:

…I have come across children involved in labour who steal textbooks at school
and sell them to provide basic necessities…some have been neglected by their
parents. They have to keep lying so as to cover up for their actions… (Female Key
Informant, Likuyani )
Negative peer influence is a major consequence for the community since it had to deal with high
levels of delinquency and thus development is curtailed in the area. This implies that there might
be a relation between delinquency and child labour as was affirmed by a study by Clopper (1970)
that concluded that there was a direct relationship between child labour and delinquency. The
study

found out that besides factors such as poor home conditions and lack of schooling, child labour
was a major cause of delinquency.

Economic retardation: Only 13.8% and 10% of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani
respectively cited economic retardation as one of the adverse effects of child labour at the
community level. Respondents stated that it was difficult for any development to take place in
the area while children are engaging in labour activities and cannot devote their time to studying.
Hence, the place is characterized with poor living standards due to low educational attainments
among its community members.

Community conflicts: Only 5% of the respondents in Nzoia mentioned community conflicts as

another consequence of child labour; corresponding figure for Likuyani was 1.3%. Conflicts may
arise among households in the community especially when some child laborers engage in
stealing and destruction of property in the area. This was confirmed by one of the key informants
who stated that:

21
 …..child laborers are always suspected incase anything goes missing in any
household and those members of other households come after them…this results
into conflicts between households... (Female Key Informant, Nzoia )
It is clear from the findings that a number of negative consequences can result from children
engagement in labour in a particular community. However, there were variations in the levels of
knowledge on these consequences with majority of the respondents (56.3%) in Nzoia stating that
they did not know of any consequences of child labour at the community level while in Likuyani
only 6.3% reported not to be aware of any consequences.

4.5 Efforts to curb child labour

Manda et al.., (2003:14) asserts that legislation has been the single-most important response of
governments to the problem of child labour. Various legislations and policies both at the
international and national levels have been instituted aimed at removing children from the labour
market and eventually, promoting their wellbeing. In Nzoia majority of the respondents (97.5%)
were in agreement that child labour should be curbed in the area while only 2.5% felt that child
labour should not be curbed yet.

The respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani who agreed with the view that child labour should be
curbed were asked to list a number of measures that can be put in place to deal with child labour.
Table
4.19 summarizes the reported measures of curbing child labour in Nzoia and Likuyani.

Table 4.19: Reported measures of curbing child labour in Nzoia and Likuyani
Measures to Nzoia Likuyani Total
curb child
Yes No Yes No Yes No
labour
Access to 25 (31.3%) 55 (68.8%) 21 (26.3%) 59 (73.8%) 46 (28.8%) 114 (71.3%)
education
Economic 23 (28.8%) 57 (71.3%) 9 (11.2%) 71 (88.8%) 32 (20.0%) 128 (80.0%)
empowerment
of parents
Sensitization 7 (8.8%) 73 (91.3%) 21 (26.3%) 59 (73.8%) 28 (17.5%) 132 (82.5%)
Proper 14 (17.5%) 66 (82.5%) 44 (55.0%) 36 (45.0%) 58 (36.3%) 102 (63.8%)
enforcement
of law

22
 Provision of 19 (23.8%) 61 (71.3%) 14 (17.5%) 66 (82.5%) 33 (20.6%) 127 (79.4%)
basic
necessities
Source: Survey data (2014)

Economic empowerment of the parents/guardians: Further, 28.8% and 11.2% of the

respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani respectively, stated that economic empowerment of
parents/guardians could go a long way in ensuring children needs are fully catered for. Most of
the children are pushed into child labour due to poverty resulting from lack of employment of
their parents/guardians. This was echoed by one of the respondents in Likuyani who stated:

…the county government officials should make some effort and identify the child
laborers in this area. Most of their parents do not have a source of income….they
can initiate some income generating activities or provide employment
opportunities for them… (Female respondent, Likuyani)
The county government of Kakamega which is closer to the people should conduct some
assessments and assist the needy parents/guardians initiate income generating activities that are
meant to cater for the needs of these children so that they be withdrawn from labour.

Sensitization: Sensitization of children, parents and community members on child labour

legislations and the importance of education was another measure that was cited by 8.8% and
26.3% of the respondents in Nzoia and Likuyani respectively. The community needs to be
sensitized on the rights of children such as rights to education, good health and protection from
economic exploitation, in order to avoid violation of such rights. This can be done through
chief’s barazas where the community members are encouraged to report cases of child labour
whenever they arise. This was confirmed by one of the respondents:

….i would like the village elders to conduct a door-to-door campaign which will
enable identification of child laborers in the households. Such parents and
affected children can then go through a sensitization program spearheaded by the
children’s department at the county level. This will make them understand the
importance of education… (Female respondent in Likuyani)

23
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction

The current study basically endeavored to understand the phenomenon of child labour in the rural
and urban Kenyan settings by taking cases of Nzoia location, and Kakamega county The specific
objectives of the study were to establish the nature, magnitude, determinants and consequences
of child labour. This chapter provides a synopsis of the key findings obtained during the study
followed by the conclusions that lead to the recommendations for policy and further research.

5.2 Summary of the study’s key findings

The study focused on mothers/female guardians as the main respondents. The study thus
attempted to outline the basic demographic characteristics of these respondents. On the age of the
respondents, the mean age of the respondents in years in Nzoia Location was 38.1 years while in
Likuyani was 28.8 years. This implies that respondents in Likuyani had children at a tender age
as compared to respondents in Nzoia .

The fourth hypothesis sought to determines if any association exists between household income
and the child’s involvement in labour. The test revealed a Chi-square value of 9.460 with a
significance level of 0.009 and a degree of freedom of 2. Thus, the test indicated that there was a
relationship between the household income and the child’s involvement in labour since the
significance level of 0.009 was less than the selected alpha value of 0.05. It was thus resolved
that the two variables are dependent or associated. Hence, the null hypothesis of the study was
rejected and the alternative hypothesis upheld for the current study. This suggests that the
lower the

household income, the higher the likelihood of children in that particular household of getting
involved in child labour.

5.3 Conclusions

A number of conclusions can be drawn from the findings of this study. First, the main sector
demanding the use of child labour in the urban areas is commercial agriculture while domestic
work is a great consumer of child labour in the urban areas. The ‘invisibility’ of child labour in
the urban setting Likuyani was quite evident as compared to the visibility of child labour in the
rural setting (Nzoia)This was illustrated by the few cases of child labour reported by respondents
24
in Likuyani as compared to Nzoia, away from the common knowledge that child labour is
rampant

Lastly, it can be concluded that various aspects of the phenomenon of child labour in both rural
and urban areas were quite similar. This was confirmed by the almost similar trends that was
observed while examining the determinants and the consequences of child labour as well as the
levels of awareness of child labour policies. However, major differences were evident in the
nature of child labour in rural and urban areas. Commercial agriculture was cited as the major
sector that demanded the use of child labour while domestic work consumed child labour in the
urban areas.
5.4 Recommendations

The findings of this study have important implications in fight against child labour in Nzoia and
Likuyani as well as Kenya at large. Based on these findings, the following recommendations are
suggested that could ensure the reduction in the incidence of child labour in rural and urban
settings of Kenya. They also provide guidelines for further research

25
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