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10 views

Chapter 2 Part 1

Uploaded by

kumarijunior2000
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CHAPTER 2

Zainie Binti Aboo Bakkar

Hall, S. J. (2011) Basic Biomechanics, 6th


Edition. McGraw Hill
The Biomechanics of
Human Bone Growth and
Development
Composition and Structure of Bone
What is stiffness?
ratio of stress to strain in a loaded
material; stress divided by the
relative amount of change in shape
What is compressive strength?
ability to resist pressing force
What is tensile strength?
ability to resist pulling force
4-3
Composition and Structure of Bone

What contributes to stiffness and


compressive strength in bone?

• calcium carbonate
• calcium phosphate

4-4
Composition and Structure of Bone

What contributes to flexibility and tensile


strength (ability to resist tension) in bone?
collagen

What is the effect of aging on collagen in


bone?
collagen is progressively lost and bone
brittleness increases with aging

4-5
Composition and Structure of Bone

What else affects bone strength?


• water content of bone, which
comprises 25%-30% of bone
weight
• bone porosity, or the amount of bone
volume filled with pores or cavities

4-6
Bone Categories
Categories of bone based on porosity:
• cortical bone: compact mineralized bone with
low porosity; found in the shafts of long bones
•5-30% volume are nonmineralized tissue
• trabecular (or cancellous) bone: less compact
bone with high porosity; found in the ends of
long bones and the vertebrae
•30-90% volume are nonmineralized tissue
4-7
Structure of Bone
Endosteum
Proximal epiphysis Cortical bone
Epiphyseal plate Marrow
Trabecular bone

Periosteum

Diaphysis
Nutrient artery Trabecular bone
Medullary cavity Cortical bone

Distal epiphysis
Epiphyseal plate

Structures of cortical (compact) and trabecular


(spongy) bone. 4-8
Composition and Structure of Bone

What else does bone porosity affect?

• because cortical bone is stiffer than


trabecular bone, it can withstand greater
stress but less strain
• because trabecular bone is spongier than
cortical bone, it can undergo more strain
before fracturing
4-9
Composition and Structure of Bone

How does the structure of bone affect


its strength?

bone is anisotropic, it has different


strength and stiffness depending on the
direction of the load

4-11
Composition and Structure of Bone

Bone is strongest in resisting


compression and weakest in resisting
shear.
How does
Stress to Fracture

the structure
of bone
COMPRESSION

affect its
strength?
TENSION

SHEAR
4-12
Types of bones

• axial skeleton: skull, vertebrae,


sternum, ribs
• appendicular skeleton: bones
composing the body appendages

4-13
Types of bones

• short bones: approximately cubical;


include the carpals
and tarsals
• flat bones: protect organs &
provide surfaces for muscle
attachments; include the scapulae,
sternum, ribs, patellae, some bones of
the skull

4-14
Types of bones

• irregular bones: have different shapes


to serve different functions;
include vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx,
maxilla
• long bones: form the framework of
the appendicular skeleton; protect
by articular cartilage; include humerus,
radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula

4-15
Bone Growth and Development
How do bones grow in length?
Longitudinal growth
the epiphyses, or epiphyseal plates, are
growth centers where new bone cells
are produced until the epiphysis closes
during late adolescence or early
adulthood

4-18
Bone Growth and Development
How do bones grow in circumference?

• the inner layer of the periosteum, a


double- layered membrane covering
bone, builds concentric layers of new
bone on top of existing ones
• specialized cells called osteoblasts build
new bone tissue and osteoclasts resorb
bone tissue

4-19
Adult Bone Development
Effects of aging?

• Progressive loss of collagen • > in women


and increase bone brittleness • Decrease volume & density
• bone minerals – peak 25-28 cortical bone
in women; 30-35 in men • decrease density trabecular
• Reduce mechanical bone
properties, thoughness; • bone mass lost; 0.5-1%
increase loss of substance, after 28-50; menopause –
porosity 6.5% per year

4-20
Bone Response to Stress

How do bones respond to training?

• just like muscle, bones respond to


certain kinds of training by
hypertrophying
• according to Wolff’s law, the densities,
and to a lesser extent, the sizes and
shapes of bones are determined by the
magnitude and direction of the acting
forces
4-21
Bone Response to Stress
How does bone change shape and strength?

• bone remodeling
• involves resorption of fatigue-damaged
older bone and subsequent formation of new
bone
• magnitude of strain vs threshold – lazy
zone
• above threshold – new bone – increase
density and mass
• below threshold – bone remodeling occur
4-22
Bone Response to Stress

How is Wolff’s law carried out?

• Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are continually


building and resorbing bone, respectively.

• Increased or decreased mechanical stress


leads to a predominance of osteoblast or
osteoclast activity, respectively.

4-23
Bone Response to Stress
What kinds of activity tend to promote bone density?
weight bearing exercise, since the
larger the forces the skeletal system
sustains, the greater the osteoblast
response
Walking – sufficient to provoke bone
turnover and promoter bone formation
Hypertrophy vs atrophy
4-24
Bone Response to Stress

What tends to diminish bone density?

• lack of weight bearing exercise


• spending time in the water, (since the
buoyant force counteracts
gravitational force)
• bed rest
• traveling in space outside of the earth’s
gravitational field
4-25
Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disorder involving decreased


bone mass and strength with pain and one or
more fractures resulting from daily activity.
4-26
Osteoporosis

Who is affected by osteoporosis?

• Type I (postmenopausal) osteoporosis


affects about 40% of women after
age 50
• Type II (age-associated) osteoporosis
affects most women and men after
age 70
4-27
Osteoporosis

Are younger people ever affected by


osteoporosis?

• The female athlete triad includes:


• disordered eating
• amenorrhea, and
• osteoporosis

4-28
Female athlete triad
Osteoporosis

How can osteoporosis be prevented


and treated?
regular weight bearing exercise is the
key to prevention and treatment

4-30
Osteoporosis

How can osteoporosis be prevented and


treated?
• postmenopausal hormone replacement
• adequate dietary calcium and vitamin D
• avoiding smoking and excessive
consumption of protein, caffeine,
and alcohol

4-31
Common Bone Injury
Fracture
• a disruption in the continuity of a bone
• direction, magnitude, loading rate,
duration of the mechanical load
• health and maturity of bone

4-32

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