WATER

Safe water is one that cannot harm the consumer, even when injected over prolonged periods.

Safe and wholesome water is defined as water that is:

1. Free from pathogenic agents

2. Free from harmful chemical substance
3. Pleasant to taste, and free from colour & odour
4. Usable for domestic purposes.

Water needs:

A daily supply of 150-200 liters per head is considered an adequate allowance

Uses: 1) Domestic purposes - drinking, cooking, washing, bathing, gardening,

2) Public purposes - cleaning streets, swimming pools, public functions,

fire protection, public parks.
3) Industrial purpose
4) Agricultural purpose
5) Power production from hydropower & steam power.

Sources of water supply:

Three main sources of water

1. Rain
2. Surface water: Impounding reservoirs, Rivers and streams, Tanks, ponds & lakes.
3. Ground water: Shallow wells, Deep wells, Springs.

Wells: Wells are the main source of water supply in Indian villages and towns

There are two types: Shallow well; Deep well.

Shallow well is one which taps the water from above the first impervious layer in the ground.

A deep well is one which penetrates the first impervious layer in the ground and taps the
water lying beneath the impervious layer.
Differences between Shallow Well & Deep Well:

Shallow Well Deep Well

Definition: Taps the water from Taps the water from below the
above the first impervious first impervious layer
layer.

Chemical quality: Moderately hard Much hard

Bacteriological Often grossly Taps purer water

quality: contaminated

Yield: Usually goes Provides a source

Dry in summer of constant supply.

Sanitary Well:

Public Health Importance: A sanitary well is one which is properly located, well constructed
and protected against contamination with a view to yield a supply of safe water.

The following points should be taken into consideration while constructing sanitary wells:

(1) LOCATION: Well should be located not less than 15 m (50 feet) from likely sources of
contamination. The well should be located at a higher elevation with respect to a possible
source of contamination.

(2) LINING: The lining of the well should be built of bricks or stones set in cement up to a
depth of at least 6 m (20 feet) so that water enters from the bottom and not from the sides of
the well. The lining should be carried 60-90 cm (2*3 feet) above the ground level.

(3) PARAPET WALL: There should be a parapet wall up to a height of at least 70-75 cms
(28 inches) above the ground.

(4) PLATFORM: There should be a cement-concrete platform round the well extending at
least 1 m (3 feet) in all directions. The platform should have gentle slope outwards towards a
drain built along its edges.

(5) DRAIN: There should be a pucca drain to carry off spilled water to a public drain or a
soakage pit constructed beyond the "cone of filtration" (area of drainage) of the well.

(6) COVERING: The top of the well should be closed by a cement concrete cover
(7) HAND-PUMP: The well should be equipped with a hand-pump for lifting the water in a
sanitary manner.

(8) CONSUMER RESPONSIBILITY: Strict cleanliness should be enforced in the vicinity of

the well; personal ablutions, washing of clothes and animals, and the dumping of refuse and
wastes should be prohibited. Ropes and buckets from individual homes should not be used
for drawing a supply from the well.

(9) QUALITY: The physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of water should conform
to the acceptable standards of quality of safe and wholesome water.

PURIFICATION OF WATER

Considered under two headings:

1. Purification of water on a large scale

2. Purification of water on a small scale.

Purification of Water on a Large Scale:

This is usually done for urban water supply and is purified in 3 main stages.

1. Storage
2. Filtration
3. Chlorination

I. Storage:

a) Physical: By more storage the quality of water improves. About 90% of the
suspended impurities settle down in 24 hours by gravity.

b) Chemical: Aerobic bacteria oxidize the organic matter present in the water with the
aid of dissolved oxygen.

c) Biological: A tremendous drop takes places in bacterial count during storage. The
pathogenic organisms gradually die out.

The optimal period of storage of river water is considered to be about 10-14 days.

II. Filtration:

This is second stage & important stage because 98-99% of bacteria are removed by filtration.

There are two types of filters:

1. Biological or “Slow sand filter”

2. Mechanical or “Rapid sand filter”
Slow Sand or Biological Filters :

Elements of slow sand filters:

1. Supernatant (raw) water

2. A bed of graded sand
3. An under drainage system and
4. A system of filter control valves.

Supernatant (Raw) Water:

Depth is about 1-15 mtrs.

It serves two purposes:

 It provides a constant head of water so as to overcome the resistance of filter bed, &
there by promote the downward flow of water thro sand bed.
 Provides waiting period of some hours (3-12 hrs) for water to undergo partial
purification by sedimentation, oxidation & particle agglomerate.

Sand Bed:

 Most important part of filter, the thickness of sand bed is about 1 mtr. The sand grain
have an effective diameter between 0.2 – 0.3 mm. the sand bed is supported by layer of
graded gravel.

 Water is subjected to a number of purification processes – Mechanical, Straining,

Sedimentation, Adsorption, Oxidation & bacterial action.

 Filtrations rate, lies between 0.1 to 0.4 m3/hr./sq mtr. Of sand bed surface

Vital Layer :

The surface of sand bed gets covered with a slimy growth known as “schmutzdecke” vital
layer, zoogleal layer, or biological layer.

- It consists of thread like algae, plankton, diatoms & bacteria.

- The formation of vital layer is known as ripening of the filter.

- It is the “heart” of slow sand filter. It removes organic matter, holds back bacteria
& yield bacteria free water.
Under drainage:

In the bottom of filter bed is the under drainage system. It consists of porous or perforated
pipes, which serves the dual purpose of providing an outlet for filtered water and supporting
the filter medium above.

Filter Control:

The purpose of these devices is to maintain a steady rate of filtration. The important
component of regulation system is the “Venturi meter” which measures the bed resistance or
loss of head.

Filter Cleaning:

When the bed resistance increases to such an extent that the regulating valve has to be kept
fully open, it is time to clean the filter bed.

This is done by “scraping” off the top portion of the sand bed to a depth of 1 or 2 cm.

Advantages of Slow Sand Filters:

1. Simple to construct & operate

2. Cost of construction is cheaper
3. The physical, chemical & bacteriological quality of filtered water is very high.

Rapid Sand or Mechanical Filters:

There are two types:

1. Gravity type (Paterson’s filter)

2. Pressure type (Candy’s filter)

Steps in Purification of Water:

1.Coagulation :

The raw water is first treated with the chemical coagulant such as slum the dose is 5-40 mg.
Per ltr.

2.Rapid Mixing:

This is done in “mixing chamber” for a few minutes; this allows quick and thorough
dissemination of alum.
3.Flocculation:

This involves slow sand gentle stirring of the treated water in a “Flocculation chamber” for
about 30 min.

4.Sedimentation:

The coagulated water is detained in sedimentation tank for periods varying from 2-6 hrs,
when the flocculent ppt together with impurities & bacteria settle down in the tank. The
flocculent ppt is removed before water is admitted into rapid sand filters.

5.Filteration:

The partly clarified water is now subjected to rapid sand filtration

Filter Beds:

Sand is the filtering medium. The effective size of the sand particles is between 0.4 – 0.7
mm.

Filtration:

“Alum floc” not removed by sedimentation is held aback on the sand bed. It forms a slimy
layer comparable to biological layer of slow sand filter. It adsorbs bacteria from the water &
effects purification.

Back Washing:

Rapid sand filters need frequent washing. It is accomplished by reversing the flow of water
through the sand bed, called as ‘back washing’. It dislodges the impurities.

Advantages:

1. Can deal with raw water directly

2. The filter beds occupy less space
3. Filtration is rapid; 40-50 times that of slow sand filter.
4. Washing of filter is easy.
5. More flexibility in operation.
Comparison

Rapid Sand Filter Slow Sand Filter

1. Space Occupies very little space Occupies large area.
2. Rate of filtration 5-15 m3/m2/hr. 0.1-0.4 m3/m2/hr.
200 mg. a.d. 2-3 m.g.a.d.
3. Effective size
of sand 0.4-0.7 mm 0.2-03 mm.

4. Preliminary Rx. Chemical coagulation Plain sedimentation

5. Washing By back washing By scraping the sand bed
6. Operation Highly skilled Loss skilled
7. Removal of Good Good
turbidity
8. Removal of Good Fair
colour
9. Removal of 98-99% 99.99-99.99%
bacteria

Disinfection of Wells/Tanks

Wells and tanks are major sources of drinking water in rural areas.

Disinfecting agent recommended and widely used in rural areas is “bleaching powder” as it is
most effective, easy to use and also cheap.

Regular disinfection of water sources is essential to provide safe drinking water to masses.
But, sometimes disinfection becomes very much essential during the epidemics of cholera
and gastro enteritis and other water borne diseases.

Steps of Disinfection of Water Sources

1.To find the volume of water :

Volume of cylindrical container = ∏ r2 h.

Volume of rectangular container = lbh.
Where - ∏ = 22/7 or 3.17 (approx)
r = radius
h = height of water column
l = length &
b = breadth.
 NOTE: 1 cubic meter = 1000 liter
1 cubic feet = 6.25 gallons
100 gallons = 455 liters

2.Calculate the amount of bleaching powder required for disinfection:

The chlorine demand of water is estimated by Horrock’s apparatus or test. Approximately

2.5 gms of bleaching powder is required for 1000 liters of water.

3. Dissolve bleaching water in water:

The bleaching powder required for disinfection is placed in a bucket (not more than100 gm.
in one bucket) and make it into a thin paste. Water is added till the bucket is 3/4th full and the
contents are stirred and allowed to sediment for 5 to 10 min.

4.Transfer the supernatant chlorine solution to another bucket and the lime is discarded.

5.Delivery of chlorine solution to container :

The bucket containing chlorine solution is lowered some distance below the water surface.
The water in the container is agitated by moving the bucket violently both vertically and
laterally for several times, for through mixing of chlorine solution with water inside the
container.

6. Ortho-Toludine Orsinate test (OTO test):

This is a test to measure residual chlorine at the end of one hour contact period. If the free
residual chlorine level is less than 0.5 mg/ltr, the chlorination procedure should be repeated
before any water is drawn for use.

Water in the wells is best disinfected at night after the days draw of water. During epidemic
of cholera it is disinfected daily.

Horrock’s Apparatus or Test

Use: It is used to find out the dose or amount of bleaching powder required for disinfection of
water.

Contents:

1. Six white cups

2. One black cup with a circular marks inside
3. Two metal spoons (Each spoon holds 2 gm of B.P.)
4. Seven glass stirring rods.
5. One special pipette
6. Two droppers
7. Starch iodine indicator solution
Procedure:

1. Take on level spoonful (2 gm) of bleaching powder in the black cup and make it
into a thin paste with little water. Add more water to the paste and make up the
volume up to the circular mark with vigorous stirring. Allow to settle. This is
called “stock solution”.

2. Fill in the six white cups with water to be tested up to a centimeter below the
brim.

3. With the special pipette add the stock solution as follows. 1 drop to 1st cup, 2
drops to 2nd cup, 3 drops to 3rd cup and so on.

4. Stir the water in each cup using separate rods

5. Wait for ½ hr. for then chlorine to act.

6. Add 3 drops of starch iodine indicator to each of white cup and stir again.
Development of blue colour indicates the presence of free residual chlorine.

7. Note the 1st cup which shows blue colour. Suppose the 3rd cup shows the colour
then 3 level spoonful (Each level=2 gm.) or 6 gm of bleaching powder would be
required to disinfect 455 liters or 100 gallons of water.
 Disinfectants

Bleaching Powder

Uses – Used as disinfectant of water in freshly prepared form with 33% available chlorine
- Disinfection of faeces and urine as 5% solution
- As deodorant in public toilets

Disadvantages - Highly unstable compound

- On exposure to air and sunlight, rapidly loses its chlorine content

Lime

Uses – Used as fresh quick lime or 20-70 per cent aqueous suspension known as "milk of
lime”
- Disinfection of faeces and urine
- As lime wash for treating walls
- As deodorant in cattle sheds, stables, public toilets

Stabilised bleach: Addition of excess lime to bleaching powder to make it stable is called
stabilised bleach.

Alum

Uses - Used as disinfectant of water

- Pre treatment of water in rapid sand filtration due to its coagulation property

Dose: 5-40mg / litre of water

WATER PROBLEMS:

1.Calculate the amount of bleaching powder required to chlorinate a well measuring 15 feet
in diameter and 20 feet in depth. Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour in 4th cup.

SOLUTION: Given : Diameter = 15 feet

Radius = 7.5 feet

Height = 20 feet

∏ = 3.14 (approx)

Vol.of water = ∏ r2 h

= 3.14 x (7.5)2 x 20 cu feet

= 3532.50 cu feet.

Now,

1 cu feet = 6.25 gallons

∴ 3532.50 cu feet = ?

i.e., 3532x6.25

= 22078.12 gallons.

Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour n the 4th cup it means 8 gm of bleaching powder is
required to disinfect 100 gallons of water.

So for 100 gallons of water – 8 gm of bleaching powder required.

Then for 22078.12 gallons it is = ?

i.e., 22078.12x8

100

= 1766.24 gm (1.76 kg) of bleaching powder is required to disinfect water.

2. Dimensions of well are diameter – 2 mtrs. Depth-6 mtrs. Calculate the quantity of
bleaching powder required for disinfection. Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour in 3rd, 4th
& 5th cup.

SOLUTION: Given = Diameter = 2 mtrs.

Radius = 1 mtr.

Height = 6 mtrs.

∏ = 3.14 (approx).

Volume of water = ∏ r2 h

= 3.14 x (1)2 x 6 cu mtrs.

= 18.84 cu mtrs.

Now,

1 cu mtr. = 1000 liters

∴ 18.84 cu meters = ?

i.e., 18.84 x 1000

= 18840 liters.

Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour in the 3rd cup i.e., 6 gm of bleaching powder is
required to disinfect 455 liters of water.

So, for 455 liters of water – 6 gm of bleaching powder required

Then for, 18840 liters - ?

i.e., 18840x6

455

= 248.43 gm. bleaching powder is required to disinfect water.

3.Calculate the amount of bleaching powder is required to chlorinate a swimming pool of
length 25 feet, breadth 10 feet, and depth 10 feet. Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour in
2nd cup.

SOLUTION: Given – length = 25 feet

Breadth = 10 feet

Height = 10 feet

∏ = 3.25 (approx)

Vol. of water = 1bh.

= 25x10x10 cu feet

= 2500 cu feet.

Now,

1 cu feet = 6.25 gallons

∴25,00 cu feet= ?

2500 x 6.25

= 15625 gallons

Horrock’s apparatus shows blue colour in the 2nd cup. i.e., 4 gm of bleaching powder is
required to disinfect 100 gallons of water.

So, for

100 gallons of water = 4 gm of bleaching powder required.

Then for 15625 gallons - ?

i.e., 15625x4

100

= 625 gm of bleaching powder required.

4.Calculate the amount of bleaching powder required to chlorinate a well having 5 lakh
gallons of water Horrock’s apparatus show blue colour in 6th cup.

SOLUTION: Given – volume of water = 5 lakh gallons. Now, Horrock’s apparatus shows
blue colour in the 6th cup i.e., 12 gm of Bleaching Powder is required to disinfect 100 gallons
of water.

So, for 100 gallons of water – 12 gm of bleaching powder required.

for, 5 lakh gallons - ?

= 5x105 x 12

100

= 60,000 gm (60 kgs) of Bleaching Powder is required to disinfect water.

5.Dimensions of wells are diameter 6 mtrs, depth 14 mtrs. Calculate the quantity of
bleaching powder with 20% available chlorine, so as to give a concentration of 1 ppm.

SOLUTION: Given – Diameter - 6 mtrs.

Radium - 3 mtrs.

Height - 14 mtrs.

Volume of water V = ∏ r2 h.

= 3.14 x (3)2 x 14

V = 395.64 cu mtrs.

Now,

1 cu mtrs -1000 liters

∴ 395.64 cu mtrs = ?

i.e., 395.64 x 1000

V = 395640 liters

For 20% available chlorine – 1 ppm of bleaching powder required

then for 100% available chlorine - ?

100 x 5 mg of bleaching powder per liter of water required.

20

Now,

For 1 liter of water 5 mg of bleaching powder is required then for 394640 liters how
much is required.

i.e., 395640 x 5

= 1978200 mg of bleaching powder required.

= 1978 gm (1.9 kg) is required.

6.Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required to disinfect a well 5 mtrs. In diameter
containing 10 mtrs. Depth of water, with available chlorine on 25% so as to give a
concentration of 1 ppm.

SOLUTION : Given- V = ∏ r2h

= 3.14 x (2.5)2 x 10

V= 196.25 cu mtrs.

Now,

1 cu mtrs = 1000 liters.

196.25 cu mtrs = ?

i.e., 196.25x1000

V = 196250 liters.

For 25% available chlorine 1 mg bleaching powder per liter of water is required.

then, for 100% available chlorine - ?

100 = 4 mg/liter of bleaching powder is required

25

Now,
 For 1 liter of water – 4 mg of bleaching powder is required

Then, for 196250 liters it is - ?

i.e., 196250 x 4

= 785000 mg.

= 785 gm. of bleaching powder is required.

7.Calculate the quantity of bleaching powder required to disinfect a well measuring 8 ft. in
diameter, 10 feet in depth, so as to give chlorine concentration of 2 ppm with available
chlorine of 33.33% bleaching powder.

SOLUTION: Given – Diameters = 8 ft.

Radium = 4 ft.

Height = 10 ft.

Volume of water, V = ∏ r2h

= 3.14 x (4)2 x 10

V= 502.40 cu ft..

So,

1 cu ft. = 6.25 gallons

502.40 cu ft = ?

502.40 x 6.25

= 3140 gallons

Now,

With 33.33% available chlorine 2 mg/liter of bleaching powder is required.

Then for 100% available chlorine - ?

∴100 x 2 = 6 mg/liter of bleaching powder is required.

33.33

Now,
 100 gallons = 455 liters

3140 gallons = ?

3140x455

100

= 14287 liters.

Now,

for 1 liter of water 6 mg of bleaching powder is required.

Then for 14287 liters - ?

14287 x 6

= 85222 mg of bleaching powder is required

= 85.22 gm of bleaching powder is required.

8.Calculate the amount of bleaching powder with 20% available chlorine required to disinfect
a swimming pool measuring 10x5x20 mtrs. to bring a chlorine concentration of 2 ppm.

SOLUTION : Given – length = 10 mtrs.

breadth = 5 mtrs.

height = 20 mtrs.

Vol. of water, V = lxbxh

= 10x5x20 cu mtrs.

V = 1000 cu mtrs.

So,

1 cu mtrs = 1000 liters

1000 cu mtrs = ?

= 1000 x 1000

V = 106 Liters

With 20% available chlorine = 2 mg/liter of bleaching powder required.

Then for 100% available chlorine - ?

100x2 = 10 mg/liter of bleaching powder is required.

20

Now,

For 1 liter of water 10 mg of bleaching powder is required.

Then for 106 liters - ?

= 106 x 10

= 107 mg of bleaching power required

= 10 kg. of bleaching powder required.

Water Quality Standards:

These standards are exposure for its bacteriological viral, chemical & physical agents. The
purpose of standards is to minimize all the health hazards. The WHO has published 2 sets of
standards for drinking water.

1. The International standards,

2. The European standards.

The recommended standards in India are those set out by the Indian Council of medical
research based on International standards.

The WHO International Standards for drinking water:

1. Acceptability aspects.

2. Microbiological aspects

3. Chemical aspects

4. Radiological aspects

ACCEPTABILITY:

Physical Qualities:

a) Turbidity: Drinking water should be free from turbidity & is measures by turbid meters
(Nephlometetric turbidity units) NTU & it should be < 5 NTU.

b) Color: Drinking water should be free from colour which in measures by colorimeter. It
should be crystalline white & <15 true colour units. (T.C.U.)

c) Taste & Odour: This may develop during storage & distribution. An unusual taste or
odour is an indication of harmful substances. There is no health based guideline value
proposed for taste & odour.

d) Temperature: Cool water is generally more palatable. High water temperature enhances
the growth of microorganisms, & also taste, colour & odour and also corrosion problem may
increase. There is no guideline value recommended.
MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS:

These are the standards relating to the presence of bacteria & viruses in drinking water.

1. Throughout any part of a year, 95% of sample should not contain any coliform organism
in 100 ml. of water.
2. No sample should contain E.Coil in 100 ml.
3. No sample should contain more than 3 coliform org./100 ml.
4. Coliforms organism should not be detectable in 100 ml. of any two consecutive sample.
5. Individual or small community supply – coliform count can be 10/100 ml.
6. It is recommended that the acceptable drinking water should be free from any virus
infectious to man.

Based on organism indicative of faecal solution Contamination:

a) Coliform Organism & E.coli: Presence in water sample, states the probable presence
of intestinal pathogens.

b) Fecal Streptococci – Presence in water is regarded as confirmatory evidence of

recants fecal pollution of water.

c) Clostridium Perfringes : Presence in natural water suggests that fecal contamination

occurred at some remote (old)time.

CHEMICAL ASPECTS:

Toxic chemical substance:

Substance Guideline value in drinking water :

Arsenic - 0.01 mg/ht.

Cadmium - 0.003 “ µg/lit.(mg.)

Cyanide - 0.07 “ µg/lit.(mg.)

Lead - 0.01 “ µg/lit.(mg.)

Mercury - 0.001b “ µg/lit.(mg.)

Selenium - 0.01 “ µg/lit.(mg.)

Inorganic Constituents (1 PPM = 1 mg/lt.):

a) Chlorides: 200 – 600 mg/lt.

b) Hardness: Total hardness should not exceed 100-300 mg/lt.

c) Ammonia: Natural level in ground & surface water is usually below 0.2 mg/lt.

An aerobic ground water may contain up to 3 mg/lt. Ammonia in water is an indication of

possible bacterial, sewage & animal waste pollution.

Albuminoid NH3 : should not be more than 1 mg/lt & its presence is a measure of
decomposable organic matter, yet to be oxidized.

d) PH: An acceptable Ph of drinking water is b/w 6.5 – 8.5.

e) Nitrite: Should not exceed 3 mg/lt & if it exceeds it indicates pollution of recent origin.

f) Nitrates: Their presence indicates old contamination provided nitrites are absent should not
exceed 50 mg/lt.

g) Dissolved 02: Decrease in dissolved 02 encourages microbial production of nitrate to

nitrites & sulphate to sulphide – giving rise to odour problems.

h) Fluorides : Level in raw water normally below 1.5 mg/lt. (High level is > 5 mg/lt.)

i) H2S: The taste & odour threshold of H2S in water is estimated to be between 0.05-0.1 mg/lt

RADIOLOGICAL ASPECTS

The activity of a radioactive material is the no of nuclear disintegration per unit time

The proposed guide line values are

Gross α activity < 0.1 βq/L (βq – Becquerel)

Gross β activity < 1.0 βq/Lt.

The unit of radio activity is a becquerel 1 βq= 1 disintegration/sec (earlier unit of activity was
curie (ci).
Problems on standards of water sample :

1.Following is the report of analysis of a sample of water comment :

Colour - Greenish blue

Free & Saline NH3 - 0.01 PPM

Albuminoid NH3 - 0.02 PPM

Nitrites - Nil

Nitrates - 60 PPM

Chlorides - 216 PPM

Total Hardness - 250 PPM.

COLOUR GIVEN STD REMARKS

Greenish blue Crystal White/ Abnormal

<5 units (T.C.U.)

Free & Saline NH3 0.01 ppm <0.2 ppm Within limits.

Albuminoid NH3 0.02 ppm <0.1 ppm Within limits.

Nitrites Nil < 3 ppm Within limits.

Nitrates 60 ppm <50 ppm Excess

Chlorides 216 ppm 250 ppm Within limits.

Total hardness 250 ppm < 300 ppm Within limits.

COMMENT: As the water contains more nitrates & the colour of water is not acceptable, so
the given sample of water is not recommended/fit for human consumption.

- As nitrates are in excess, it indicates an old contamination of water sample.

2. Water sample collected from an impound reservoir is as follows:

Report:-

Free NH3 - 0.15 ppm

Albuminoid NH3 - 0.001 ppm

Nitrites - 0.001 ppm

Nitrates - 0.35 ppm

Chlorides - 300 ppm

Colour - 30 TCU

Coliform organisms - 800 / 100 ml.

Given sample Standard value Remarks

Free NH3 0.15 ppm <0.2 ppm With in lt.

Albuminoid NH3 0.001 ppm <0.1 ppm With in lt.

Nitrites 0.001 ppm < 3 ppm With in lt.

Nitrates .35 ppm <50 ppm With in lt.

Chlorides 300 ppm 200 -600 ppm With in lt.

Colour 30 TCU < 15 units Excess

Coliform Org. 800 /100 ml. <10-100 ml. Excess

COMMENT:

- As the water sample contains excess of colour & coliform organisms-

The water is not acceptable & not fit for human use / consumption.

- Due to presence of excess coliform organisms -

Indicates the sewage contamination of recent origin & probable presence of intestinal

pathogen.