lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System - I Full Pdf

Syllabus 3rd Year (Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

1
UNIT
Power Generation

CONTENTS
Part-1: Introduction : Basic Strueture of .. 1-2B to 1-7B
Power System, Sources of Electric
and Non
Energy Conventional
Conventional, Layout of
Hydro Electric, Thermal andd
Nuclear Power Plants

B
iD to 1-9B
Part-2 Concept of Cogeneration, ******************
Combined Heat and Power,
and Captive Power Plants

Part-3 : Load Curve, Load Duration . 1-9B to 1-11B

Curve, Concept of Connected

Load, Maximum Demand, Average
Load, Demand Factor, Load Factor,
Diversity Factor, Utilization Factor,
Plant Use Factor, Installed Capacity,
Reserves

Role of Load Diversity in 1-12B to 1-133

Part-4 . .

Power System Bconomy, Load Sharing

Between Base Load and Peak Load

1-1B (EN-Sem-5)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

1-2B (EN-Sem-5) Power Generation

PART1
Introduction:Basic StructureofNon
PouwerSystem, Souroesof Electrie
Conventional,Layout of
Energy:Conventional and
Hydro Electric, Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants,

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 11 Draw the basie structure of power system.

Answer
An electrical power system is a network of electrical elements that are
used to transter the power from the power stations to the end consumers.
has three main
A powersystem stages:
1. Generation: The place where power is generated is known as 'power
plant' or 'power house.

Generation
Y

Transmission level
(132,220,400 kV)
Very large Tie lines to
consumers
other grids

Subtransmission
6 kV
level
Large Large
consumers
consumers

Medium
Medium
consumers Primary Distribution
(33,11 kV) consumers
Secondary Distribution
(400 V

Small consumers (400/230 V)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

1-3B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I
is the part of a power
2 Transmission: Transmission of electrical supply from one station to
supply is transmitted
system where the electric
another station.
is the part of power system
3. Distribution: Distribution of powersupply
is distributed among the consumers.
where the supply

conventional and non-conventional energy

Que 1.2.Explain the
sources.

Answer
A Conventional energy sources: The conventional sources
of energy
are generally non-renewable source of energy. These
are the sources of
if once they are
which are exhaustible i.e., cannot be replaced
energy natural gas, etc.
used, e g., coal, petroleum,
Non-conventional source of
sources:
B. Non-conventional energy
These are the sources

energy are generallyinexhaustible

renewable source
of energy. energy
of energy which are i.e., can be used to produce
etc.
again and again, e.g., solar, wind,

of essential elementof
Que 1.3. Give general layout and function
hydro-electrie power plant.

Answer
Fig.l.3.1 shows a hydro-electric plant in which an
general layout of a
1. dam has been shown.
artificial storage reservoir formed by constructing

Dam
Head Energy line
race

(V1/2 m
Net T
Penstock turbine
head H
(PW)

T
-Aalrace
B
Nozzle-

Datum

Pig181.Generallayoutofabydrö-electriepowerplant

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

1-4B (EN-Sem-5) Power Generation

2. The water surface in the storage reservoir is known as head race level
or simply head race.
3. Water from the storage reservoir is carried through penstocks or canals
to the power house.
of steei wood or
renstockS pipes of large diameter usually made
are
reinforced concrete which carry water under pressure from the storage
reservoir to the turbine.
5. Water after passing through the turbines is discharged to the tail race.
6 The tail race is the channel which carries water (known as tail water)
away from the power house after it has passed through the t:rbine.

Functions of different Components in storage reservoir pBlants

1. Reservoir:
It is a basic requirement of a hydro-electrie plant.
. Its purpose is to store water which may be utilised to run the prime

mover to produce electrical power.

. A reservoir stores water during the rainy season and supplies the same

during the dry season.

2
Dam
The function of dam is to provide a head of water to be utilised in the

water turbine
provide ihe
Though many times all high dams may be built soleiy to

necessary head to the plant.

ii. Adam also increases the reservoir capacity.

3 Forebay : The forebay serves as a reguiating reservoir storir water
temporarily when load on the plant is reduced and providing vsy.or for
initial increase on account of increasing load during which time wter in
the canal is being accelerated.
4. Surge Tank:
i This may be considered as an additional storage space near the turbine,
usually provided in high-head, medium head plants when there is a
considerable distance between the water source and turbine which
necessitates a long penstock.
i As the load on the turbine decrease or during ioad rejection by the
turbine the surge tank provides space for Iholding water.
5. Pen stock: It is a conduit system for taking water from the intake
Works and forebay to the turbines.

6 Spillway:
i This may be considered a sort of safety valve for a dam.
i. A spillway serves to discharge excess in the reservoir beyond the full
permissible level.

7. Power House:
It is generally located at the foot of the dam and near the storage reservoir.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 1-5B (EN-Sem-5)

. fthe power house is near the dam, the loss of head due to friction in the
penstock would be less.
& Prime Mover:
The purpose of prime mover is to convert kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy.

. Commonly used prime movers are Pelton wheel, Francis, Kaplan and
propeller turbines.

Que 14. Give the layout of a modern thermal power plant and
explain it briefly.

Answer
of a thermal power plant comprises of the
The layout modern
following four circuits:
Coal and
ash circuit:Coal arrives at
necessary handling, passes on to the furnaces through the fuel feeding
the storage yard and after
device. As resulting from combustion of coal, it collects at the back of the
boiler and is removed to the ash storage yard through ash handling
equpment.
2 Air and gas circuit: Air is taken in from atmosphere through the
action of a forced or induced draught fan and passes on the furnace
throughthe air it has been
pre-heater,where by the heat of fiue heated
gases which passes to the chimney via the pre-heater.

Coal
To chimne
Stornge

Flue gases
C Air pre Air
henter
bo a water

maer

Ash Ash handl-. Boiler Turbine

storage Pat Deater
Stenm

Condenser
honta

Cirrulatin
water purnp Cooling tower
uver or canal

FIg143Loyoutotathbetmalpowetjplant

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power Generation
1-6B (EN-Sem-5)

3. Feed water and steam flow circuit: Water and the condensed
steam leaving the condenser is first heated in a closed feed water heater
extraction of
the lowest point
through extracted steam from pressure
few more water
turbine. It then passes through the deaeratorand a
the
heaters before going into the boiler through economiser.

to the condenser
4 Cooling water circuit: The cooling water supplied
be taken trom
maintaining a low pressure in it. The water may
helps in
the same water may be
a natural source such as river, lake or sea or

cooled and circulated over again.

ue 1.5.Give general layout and operation of nuclear power

I int.

Answer
1 Anuclear power system consists of the following:
a A controlled fission heat source.
b. A coolant system to remove and transfer the heat produced.
hot coolant
thermal energy contained in the
C. quipment to convert the
to electric power.
used, the basic mechanism
Regardless of the type of fission heat
sources
2.
is fission of nuclear fuel to produce thermal energy

by contacting the
This thermal energy is removed from the heat source
3.
be used directly as the working fluid.
fuel with a coolant which can

heat-transfer loop is inserted between

In cases, an intermediate
4. some
increase isolation of the
the reactor coolant and the working fluid, to
radioactive reactor coolant from the conventional power-producing
fluid is then used to drive a turbo-generator
equipment. The working
set to produce electrical power
number of respects from fossil-fuel
differ in a
5. Nuclear power system nuclear.
consideration that differentiate
systems of more important
some
systems using the direct
6. The schematic representation of nuclearpower
are as shown in Fig. 1.5.1 and
transfer approaches
and indirect heat
Fig. 1.5.2.

Working luid

Turbine HGenerator

TCondenser
T) Pump
Cold reactorcoolant

fuid
M 183Directeyde,osctorcnolant ueedE thoworking

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
1-7B (EN-Sem-5)

Hot reactor coolant

Hot working
Fluid

Heat
exchanger Turbine IGenerator

Cold Condense
Cold reactor
Coolant Fluid J) Pump
Pump
Fig. 1.5.2, Indirect cycle reactor transfer heat of separate working tlu~ct,

PART-2
Concept of Cogeneration,CombinedHeat and Power
and Captive Power Plants.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer 1ype and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. Explain the concept of cogeneration (combined heat and

power).
Answer
1. Cogeneration means sequential conversion of energy contained in fuel
into two or more usable forms.
2. In one manifestation the energy of coal is converted into heat in the
boiler to produce steam. This steam is used to generate electrical energy
and in addition provides heat for manufacturing process.
3. In another manifestation gas is used in gas turbine to generate electrical
energy. The remaining heat is used to produce steam in a heat recovery
boiler. This steam is used for generating more electrical energy or is
used as process steam for manufacturing process.
4. Thus a conventional system uses energy of fuel to produce electrical
energy or thermal energy (for manufacturing process) whereas a
cogeneration system produces both from the same primary fuel.
5. A conventional sy'stem needs more fuel to give the same total energy
output than a cogeneration system.
6. A cogeneration system can be either an inplant power generation system
or a reject heat utilisation system.
7. The inplant power generation is used in industries and is shown in
Fig. 1.6.1. The industry needs both process steam and electricity.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power Generation
1-8 B (EN-Sem-5)

In conventional method steam is produced by a boiler and electricity is

either purchased from a utility or generated by a diesel generating set.
9. If cogeneration is used, the boiler is made to produce steam at a higher
temperature and pressure than needed for manufacturing purposes.
This steam is used in a turbine generator set to produce electricity. The

exhaust steam (from turbine) is used for manufacturing purpose

Electric power
Steam for
manufacturng -

process
Turbine
Generator
Steam

Boiler
Condensate

FuelL -Water

Fig. 1.6.1. Inplant power generation system (Cogeneration)

plant. Some steam is
10 The reject heat utilization system is used in power
extracted from the turbine (at a suitable temperature and pressure) and
purposes. This is
supplied to an adjacent industry for manufacturing
shown in Fig. 1.6.2.
Exhaust steam to adjacent industry Electric power

Turbine
Generator
Steam
Boiler
Condensate
Fuel Electric utility
Water
Fig 1.6.2. Reject heat utilization system

Que 1.7. Discuss the captive power plants.

Answer
1. A captive power plant is a facility that provides a localised source of

user.
power to an energy
2. These are typically industrial facilities, large offices or data centres.
3. The plants may operate in grid parallel mode with the ability to export
network. Alternatively
Surpluspower to the local electricity distribution
they may have the ability to operate in island mode, i.e., independently
of the local electricity distribution system.
4. Captive power plants are a form of distributed generation, generating
power close to the source of use. Distributed generation facilities the

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
1-9B (EN-Sem-5)

high fuel efficiency along with minimising losses associated with the
transmission of electricity from centralised power plants.
5. Gas engine can be combined with other
power generation or storage
technologies in microgrids.
6. Gas engines make ideal captive power plants where there is a localised

supply of gas.

PART3
Load Curve, Load Duration Curve, Concept of Connected
Load, MaximumDemand,AverageLoad, Demand Factor,
Load Factor, Diversity Factor, Utilization Factor,
Plant Use Factor, Installed Capacity, Reserves.

Questions-Answers
Long A nswer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.8. Define the terms:

i. Load curve ii. Load
ii. Concept of connected load iv. Maximum
duration curve
demand
V.Average demand vi. Demand factor
vii. Load factor vii. Diversity factor
ix. Utilization factor X. Plant use factor
ri. Installed capacity xii. Reserves.

Answer
i Load curve:
Load curve is a graphical representation between load and time where
the load in kW or (MW) and the time in hours. It shows the variation of
load on the power station.

A Average
Peak
load

load

Base load
Time(hours
Fi A81Losteuive.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power Generation
1-10B (EN-Sem-5)

ii. Load duration curve: A load duration curve represents re

of chronological load curve in
arrangements of all the load elements
from the
order of descending magnitude. This curve is derived
chronological load curve
load is the sum of continuous
iii. Concept of connected load: Connected
ratings of all loads connected to the system.
installation or system
iv. Maximum demand: The maximum demand of an
the specific
1s the of all demands which have occurred during
greatest
period of time.
demand: It is the ratio of energy consumed
in a
given period
V. Average
of the time in hours.

Average load Energy

=- consumedin a given period
Hours in that time period
of the actual
vi. Demand factor (DF) The demand factor is the ratio
:

connected load of the system.

maxamum demand of the sytem to the total

DF
Maximum demand
Total connected load
is the ratio of the average load
vii. Load factor: Load factor of a system
demand (peak load)
Over a given period
of the time to the maximum

occurring in that period.

Load factor
Average
=
* load
Peak load
is the ratio of the sum of the
vii. Diversity factor (F,): Diversity factor
various subdivisions of a system to
individual maximum demands of the
whole system.
the maximum demand of the
Diversity factor

Sumof individual maximumdemands

DCoincident maximum demand of the whole system
ratio of maximum demand of a system
ix. Utilization factor (F,): It is the
to the rated capacity of the system.

Maximum demand
Rated system capacity
factor is the ratio of generated to the kWh
x Plant use factor: Plant use
number of hours for which the plant
product of plant capacityand the
was in operation.
Plant use factor =
Actual energy produced/(plant capacity* plant
in hours)
operation time
system represents of a power
xi. Installed capacity: Installed capacity It is also
the system is designed to run at.
the maximum capacity that
known as peak installed capacity"
or
rated capac1ty. and
It is the difference between plant capacity
xii. Reserves capacity:
maximum demand.
Maximum demand
Plant capacity
-

Reserved capacity =

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-l 1-11B(EN-Sem-5)

load-duration for is shown in

Que1.9The curve a system
Fig. 1.9.1. Determine the load factor

0 8 16 24
Time in hours
Fig. 1.9.1.

Answer
1. From the load-duration curve, the actual energy consumed
= 15 x 8+ 10 x 8 +5 x 8 = 240MWh
240
2 Average load = =
10 MW
24
3. Maximum demand = 15 MW

4 Load factor =Average load 10 - 0.666

Maximum demand 15

load duration of plant is

Que 1.10. The yearly curve a power a

straight line. The maximum load is 500 MW and the minimum load
is 400 MW.The capacity of the plant is 750 MW. Find (a) plant capacity
factor, (b) load factor, (c) utilization factor, (d) reserve capacity.

Answer

Given: Maximum load = 500 MW, Minimum load = 400 MW, Capacity
of the plant = 750 MW

To Find: Plant capacity factor, load factor, utilization factor, reserve

capacity.

1 Average annual load = 500+ 400. 450 MW

2

2. Capacity factor
Average annualload45006
Capacity of the plant 750
Averageload 450
3. Load factor = :0.9
Maximumdemandb00
4Utilization factor =aKmum demand 500 - 0.661
Capacity of the plant 750
5. Reserve capacity = Plant capacity - Maximum demand
= 750 500 = 250 MW

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

1-12 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power Generation

PART-4
Role of Load Diversity in Power System Economy,
Load Sharing Between Base Load and Peak Load.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.11.Whatdo understand by load diversity

you ? Explain the
role of the load diversity in power
system economy.
Answer
A Load diversity: It is the difference between the sum of
two or more individual loads and the
the peaks of
peak of the combined load.

Loaddiversity 2
B. Role of load diversity :
1 Diversity between the loads of diferent consumers and different areas
leads to a reduction in generation,transmission and distribution
facilities.
2. The most significant time
periods for consideringdiversity are the day
and the year.
Daily diversity is caused by a marked and consistent difYerence between
the daily load cycles in two
or more adjoini:"g load areas which
results in
peaks at different times during the day. Daily load diversity results in
reduced operating expenses8.
The benefits of daily diversity can b attained
by economy energY
transaction or daily diversity exchange
greements.
5 Such transactions reduce fuel expense and unit start
up and shut down
costs but may not have any etfect on
capital requirements.
6. Annual diversity usually results from a marked and consistent
difference
in the annual weather and customer's load requirement patterns
between two or more load areas.
One system may have its annual
peak load during winter while another
may have its peak load during summer.
8. Similarly one system may have peak in the morning while another
may
have the evening peak.
9 Annual load diversity affords an
opportunity for capital savings by
reducing the installed generating capacity requirements.
10. This requires a prediction of future diversity and a commitment to a
decision many years in advance ot the new
capacity requirements.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 1-13 B (EN-Sem-5)

11. The factors which affect load diversity between systems are such that
about 10 years of historical data is required before any high degree of

12.
confidence can attributed to the future predietions.
These factors include temperature, weather, economic conditions, time
behaviour patterns of electric users, new electric devices etc.
13. The diversity analysis is an integral part of generation capacity planning
as a component since its identity
and as such should not separated
be

14.
does not result in fully
Therefore in coordinated reduced marginbetween
planning requirements.
systems, all types of
diversities can be fully accounted for by combining the system loads so
that adequate capacity and interconnection capability can be determined.
15. Any variation in diversity caused by statistical and historical analysis
can be incorporated in the load fore-casting error.
Que 1.12. Discuss the load sharing between base load and peak

load.

Answer
Base Load:
the demand falls and is
The base load is the load below which
never

supplied 100 % of the time. continuous operation of

2. The base load plants areheavily loaded because
1actor of these
base load plants at high load factor improves the capacity
economic
plants and this makes the operation
of costly plant an

preposition. costs can be maintained.

A cost is permissible if low operating
high capital
load supplied for a particular
B. Peak Load: Peak load is the maximum
the time.
day.The load ocrurs for about 15 % of
peaking
Daily load
Peak load
Load-duration curve
curve

Intermediate load Intermediate load

Basedload Basedload
Time
-Peak period

1131

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2 UNIT
Transmission
Distribution of
Electric Power-I
and

CONTENTS
Part-1 Single Line Diagram of Power.. 22B to 2-18
System, Choice of Transmission
Voltage, Different Kinds of
Supply System and Their Comparison

Part-2 : Configurations of Transmission..2-188 to 2-28B

Lines: Types of Conduetors,

Bundled Conductors,
Resistances of line, Skin Effect,
Kelvin's Law, Proxinmity Effect.

Part-3 Corona Effect, Factors.. ..2-283 to 2-39B

Affecting the Corona,

Corona Power Loss, Advantages
and Disadvantages

..2-39B to 2-49B
Part-4 : Performance of Lines:
Representation ot Lines,

Short Transmission Lines

Medium Length Lines, Nominal
T and representations

.249B to 2-55BB
Part-5. Long Transmission Lines, *******************

The Equivalent Circuit

ofa Long
Representation
Line, A, B, C, D
Constants, Ferranti Effect

2-1B (EN-Sem-5)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-2B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

LPART-1
Single Line Diagram of Power System, Choice of Transmission
Voltage, Different Kinds of Supply System and Their Comparison.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Draw and explain single line diagram of power system.

Answer
1. The single line diagram of a power system network shows the main
connections and arrangements of the system components along with
their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance etc.).

0-H
Generator 40 MVA, 11 kV, X" = 20 %

30 MVA, 11 kV, X" = 30 %

Motor
Transformer T 40 MVA, 11/220 kV, X" = 15 %

Transformer T2 40 MVA, 220/11 kV, X = 15 %

Fig 211. Singleline representationof a typiesl power sytem

2. In a single line diagram, the system components are usually drawn in
theform oftheirsymbols.
S. No. Components Symbol
Motor or generator

Two winding transforner

. Transmission line

Liquid (oil) circuit breaker

Air circuit breaker

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
2-3B (EN-Sem-5)

6. Delta connection
A
7. Y-connection, ungrounded

8. Y- connection, grounded

Que 2.2 Draw single line diagram of a three bus system having
generator G, connected to bus-1 through 7,
G, connected to bus-2 through transformer T, three synchronous transformer generator
motors
M, to Mg connected to bus-3 through transformer T3»
transmission lines TL1, TL2 and TL, connected between bus 1-2, 2-3
and 1-3 respectively.
AKTU 2019-20,Marks 07
Answer

TL3

T T2 3

TL
LMs)
Bus-1 Bus-2 Bus-3
Fig. 2.2.1. Single line diagram.

Procedure
1. Draw buses 1, 2, and 3.
2. Connect transmission lines TL, TLz, TL
3 Connect G, to bus 1 through T
4 Connect G, to bus 2 through T2
5. Connect M, M2, M, to bus 3 through T
Que 23.Discuss choice of transmission voltage in power system.

Answer
While selecting an optimum transmission voltage following two factors
are to beconsidered:
Power to be transmitted: If the power to be transmitted is large,
large generating and transforming units are required which reduces
the cost per kW of terminal station equipment.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

24B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2 Distance of transmission line: If power is transmitted over a long

the cost of terminal equipments is decreased which causes
distance then
reduction in overall cost of transmission.
3. Above two terms can be related in an empirical formula which is as
follows

PT
V 5.5 l1.6 100
where, V Line voitage in kV
L= Distance of line in km
P= Power to be transmitted in kW
A standard voltage nearest to this calculated value should be selected.
4 Following are voltages which are generally adopted :
Generation = 6.6 kV, 11kV

Primary transmission = 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV

Secondary transmission = 11 kv, 22 kV, 33 kV

Primary distribution = 11 kV, 22 kV, 33 kV

Secondary distribution =
440 V

Que 24 What are the different kinds of supply system?

OR
Find the ratio of volume of copper required to transmit a given
power over a given distance by overhead system using (i) DC two

wire system in 3-phase4-wiresystem.AKTU 2017-18,Martu 10

OR
Derive formula to calculate the ratio of copper volume used in two
phase four-wire system and a two-wire de system.

ARTU 2019-20,Marta07
OR
Compare the relative weight of copper required for a distribution
network on the DC-3 wire, and 3-phase 4-wire system. Assume in
both casee the same voltage at the consumer's terminals, the same
copper losses, the loads are balanced, and unity power factor in
3-phase case. Neglect the losses in neutral.

AKTU2O18 9, Mnrke07
Ainswer
1. In overhead system, maximum voltage between each conductor and
earth forms the basis of comparison.
2. Maximum voltage to earth is same.
a. DC 8ystems:

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-5 B (EN-Sem-5)

i. DC 2-Wire system with orne

conductorearthed:

1. Maximum voltage between conductors = Vm volts

Power to be transmitted = P watts

Load current,

2. Line losses, W =21,R, =

R
pP
3. Area of cross section of conductor, a
wV.2
4. Volume of conductor material required = 2a,= 4pP1 =A (5ay)
wV.
DC two-wire system
withmidpointearthed:

Zm

4
P
1. Load current,
2

P'pl
2. Line losses,
W-,4,)
3. P"pl
a2 2wVm'
4 Volume of conductor material required = 2ul= "pl
Wv =0.25 K
s0

5. Hence volume of conduetor material required is one-fourth of that

required in two-wire DC system with one conductor earthed.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-6B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

iii. DC three-wire system:

-----

Fig.43
P
1. Load current,
2V
Pp
2. Line losses, W=21R, =22 as 2aV
P*pl
d3 2wV
half of that of any of
Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire
as
3
the outers.

required
2.5P p =0.31 KK
Volume ofconductormaterial =
2.5a 2WV
b. Single-phase AC systems
i AC single-phase two-wire system with one conductor earthed:

1. Peak value of voltage between conductors =

Vm volts
RMS value of voltage between conductors = volts
V2
P 2P
Load current,
COs cos¢
where cos is the power factor of the load

2. Line losses, W= 2R,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
2-7B (EN-Sem-5)

22P
Vm
4P
COS a aV cos
4P p
a4 w. cos'
Volume of conductor material required
8P
ii. AC
n4wv. cos cos
Cos
single-phasetwo-wire system with midpointearthed:
1. Load current, P
v2V, cos

2. Line losses,
W=2,R,=2 2v.Pcos b as a,V.Polcos*
Pp
3.
asw. cos
Volume of conductor material required
2al= 2Pp 0.5 K
wV,,* cos* cos¢
ii. AC single-phasethree-wire system:

2m

g 48.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-8B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

1. Load current, - PI2

V 2Vm cos ¢

2. Line losses, W 2,R=2 2V. cos P'pl

a Vm* cos pas

3.
aWV required
Volume of conductor material required

2.006
2.5Pp 0.625K
wv. cos cos
Two-phase AC systems
AC two-phase four-wire system:
i
1

2V
2Vm

1. Load supplied by each phase =

2

22V cos
3. Line losses, W 41, R

2/2V. eos P
P
2V."a7 cos
P'ol
a 2W cos
4. Volume of conductor material required
2P"pl 0.5K
Aa=
V. cos 4W cos
ii. AC two-phase three-wire system:

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-9B (EN-Sem-5)

PI2 P
1 Current in each of outer conductors, sV./2 cos 2Vm cos
2. Current in neutral wire = yI.3+ I2) = v21I

Outer
m
Neutral

Outer

Fiz L48
3. Assuming current density constant, area of cross section of neutral wire

is v2 times of that of either of the outers.

So resistance of neutral wire
Rs
2 2as
4. Line losses, W-27 8,+ I,"

2z2Vm P'pcos pas

(2+/2)
Pol
2VWcos2+ 2)
5. Volume of conductor material required
= 2a+ 2aal = agl(2 + v2)

P'pl
2V, Wcos 2)
P'p +)'= L457 K
2V, Wcos cos
d 3-phaseAC systems:
i AC3phase 3-wire system:
v2P
Loadcurrentper phase, I,= 3m Cos o
Cos
2

2. Line losses, W=31,R9

=3 2P_p 2Ppl
3V, cos ¢) a 3V»° cos* ¢a,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-10B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2P pl
93Vm Wcos"

Fig240
3. Volume of conductor material required
2P p 0.5K
aaV.W cos cos
ii. AC 3-phase 4-wire system:
Outer

10
m
Neutral
O000m
m Outer
Outer

1. Assuming balanced load, there will be no current in neutral wire and

copper losses will be same as in 3-phase 3-wire system

Le., W= 2Pp
3V.* cos ¢a10
2P pl
10 3V cos 4W
2. Taking cross section of neutral wire as half of either outer
Volume of conductor material required

3.50 7pP 0.583 K

3cos 4V."W cos
Que2.5.Discuss comparison of cost of conduetors for
underground systems.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-11 B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
1. In the underground system, maximum voltage between conductors forms
the basis of comparison of volume conductor material required.
2. The maximum voltage between two conductors is same (say, V volts).
3. Remaining calculation is same as overhead system.
a. DC systems:
i. DC two-wire system

Volume of conductor material required

4P pl
2a wv. = K (say)

ii DC two-wire system with midpoint earthed:

Volume conductor material required

4Ppl -=K
w2

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-12 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

ii. DC three-wire system:

Fig 2.5.3.

Volume of conductor material required 2.5a = = 1.25 K

V W
b.
Single-phaseAC systems:
i AC single-phasetwo-wire system:

2.6.4
Volume of conduetor material required

2a 8P 2K
Vm Cos OW cos ¢
ii. AC single-phase two-wire system with midpoint earthed:
5

Fig. 2.5.6,
This system i8 the same as a2-wire
single-phase AC system.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-13 B (EN-Sem-5)

ii. AC single-phase three-wire system

Fig. 2.5.6.

Volume of conductor material required

10pP1
=
2.5a VCcosw
cos
c Two-phase AC systems:
i AC two-phase four-wire system: This system is equivalent to two-
wire AC system. In this case eross section area of each conductor is
taken half of that of single phase two-wire AC system but four wires are
required in place of two wires, so the same volume of conductor material

2
is required ie., times of that required in case of two-wire DC
cos
system.

T
LOO0

Fig. 2.6.7

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-14B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

ii. AC two-phase three-wire system

Outer

2
Neutral
21
2

Outer
8

rig. 2.5.8.

Volume of conductor material 2.914 K

required =

COS

d. 3-phase AC systems:
i.
AC three-phase three-wire system:

0OO0O

Fig 2.5.9
Volume of conductor material required
3a,/=6P*p2
1.5
V* cos ¢W cos K
ii. AC three-phase four-wire system
Outer

10

3
Neutral
0O000

Outer
I10
Outer

10
Fiz.2.6.10

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-15 B (EN-Sem-5)

Volume of conductor material required

7Pp2 1.75K
3.5a V cos ¢W cos
Table 2.5.1.
Volume of conductor materinl required
. No. System
Maximum voltage Maximum voltage
two
between conduetor
between any
and earth conductors
1. DC System
Two-wiree
Two-wire with mid pointearthed 0.25
.3126 1.25
111. I'hree-wiree

2. AC single phase system:

2

Two-vwire 2
cO8 cos
0.5
Two-wire with mid point earthed
1.
cos cos
2.5
0.625
Three wire cos
cos
. AC two-phase system:
0.5
Two-phase four-wire
cos cOS

50 km long transmission line supplies a load of

Que 2.6.A
5 MVA, 33 kV at 0.8 power factor lagging. The efficiency of
transmission is 0 %. Calculate the volume of aluminium conductor
for the line when
required
is used.
19, 2-wire system
ii. 30, 3-wire systemofisaluminium
used.
Take the resistivity as 2.85 x 10-8 N-m.

AKTU 2015-16,Marks05
Anawer
Given :l= 50 km; Apparent power =5 MVA; V=33 kV;
cos=0.8lagging), n= 90 %, p= 2.85 x 10-82-m
To Find: Volume of aluminium conductor required.

1, 2-wire system:
1. Power transmitted = MVA x cos ¢ =5 x 0.8 = 4 MW = 4x 106 .v

2. Line loss, W (100 %-n) of power transmitted.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-18B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

10% of power transv.ittcd = (10/100) x 4x 10

= 4 x 10 W

3. For single phase, 2-wire systern :

Apparent power = V,

Apparentpower 5x 10" 151.5 A

33x 10
4 Suppose a, is the area of cross-section of aluminium conductor.

Line loss, W 21 R, -2/,

G 2 W 2:(151.5x 2.85x10*)«5010
4x110
1.635 x 10-4 m2
5. Volume of condueior required = 20,! = 2 x (i 635x 10-4) x 50x 103

= 16.35 m

ii. 30, 3-wire system:

MVA= 3 VL x 10-6
5= v3 x 33 x 10 x I x 10-6

5x 105
Line current, = 87.5 A
L333x 10
2. Let the area of each phase conductor be
Ag
Total line
loss,P =31,*R,=3,P A
p3x(87.5) > 2.86 x 10* x 50 x10
PL 4x10
= 0.818 x
10*m
3. Volume of aluminium required,
=
3UA, =3 x 50 x 10" x 0.818 x 10-i = 12.27 m
Que 27What is the diffcrence between isolator and circuit
breaker? A single phase AC syatem supplies load of 200 kW and if
this system is converted to -phase, 3-wire ac system by running a
third similar conductor, calculate the 3-phase load that can now be
supplied if the voltage between tho conductors is the same. Assume
power factor ard transmission effieiency to be same in both cases.

AKTU 2016-17,Marks10

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-17B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
A Difference between isolator and circuit breaker:
Circuit breaker
8. No. Isolator
1. Isolator is an off-load device. | Circuit breaker is an on-load device.

2. It is a switch, operated Circuit breaker operated

manually. automatically.

B. Numerical:
Given:Load,Pi=200bekW
To Find:3 loadcan supplied.

2 (b)

Fig27 Power
Suppose Vis the voltage between conductors for the two cases.

factor is unity. Let R be resistance per conductor in each case.

Single phase ac system:

200 k\W
1 Powersupplied, P= VI^ =

2. Power loss, W 27, R

3. Percentage of power loss

= 24 x 100 .2.7.1)

ii 3-phase, 3 wire AC system:

1. Power supplied, P2= v3 VI,

2. Power loss, W, 31,R

100 ..(2.7.2)
Percentage power loss
= x
3.
3 VI,
4. The transmission efficiency is same in both cases. Hence, percentage of
power loss will become

31R, 10
2100 JaVI,
Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-18 B (EN-Sem-6) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

27, 1,

5. Now,
V V
2
P2 = 2P, 2 x 200 = 400 kW

|PART-2
ConfigurationsofTransmissionLines:TypesofConductors
Resistanées of line, Skin Effect, Kelvin's Lau, Proximity Bfeet:

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8 Explain different types of conductors in power system.

Answer
Conductors which are generally used for transmission lines are:
A Hard-Drawa Copper Conductor :
1. It is mostly used for short lines for voltages up to 33 kV. It has high
electrical conductivity and long life.
It is most suitable for distribution work where tappings are more. Also
hard drawm copper has high tensile strength.
B. Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) :
1. ACSRis used for high voltage lines having large span and heavy weight
is to be supported.
2. Aluminium alone cannot be used for construction of long span
transmission line due to low mechanical strength. So to make it strong
we use steel wire in the core aluminium conductors.
C. Cadmium Copper Conductor:
1. By adding cadmium to copper, the strength can be increased to 50
percent but the conductivity decreases by 15 percent.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
2-19 B (EN-Sem-5)
2. Due to high tensile
strength the longer spans of transmission line can
be erected with same
sag.
3. This conductor is widely used in hilly areas.
D. Steel Cored
Copper Conductor (SCC):
1. In SCC a steel wire is surrounded
by layers of copper strands. Steel
core increases the tensile strength of conductor. So the overall strength
of conductor increases.
Bituminized cotton tape is used between the steel core and copper
strands to protect conductor from the
galvanic action.
E Hard-Drawn Aluminium Conductor:
1. Due to increase in the cost of copper, the aluminium is replacingcopper
for transmission work. For a given resistance the cross-section ot
aluminium is greater while weight is lesser.

So handling. transportation and erection of aluminium conduetor lines

is economical. For conductor use, aluminium is electrolytically refined
and is rolled and hard drawn.
3. These conductors are used in urban areas having short transmission
lines with lower voltages. Corona effect is also reduced due to higher
conductor diameter.
F. Phosphor-Bronze Conductor
1 Phosphor-Bronze Conductor is stronger than copper conductor, but
has a low conductivity. Its conduetivity can be improved by using
cadmium copper core.
2. It is generally used as a conductor material where very long spans are
required such as river crossings.
G. Galvanized Steel Conductor:
1. This conductor is used for very long spans particularly in rural areas
where load is small. These conductors have high tensile strength.
2. Galvanized steel conductor is a magnetic material having large
resistance, inductance and voltage drop. It has comparatively short
ife.

Que 2.8 What is a bundle conductor and how does the use of
bundled conductor reduce corona loss in EHV line?

AKTU 201616,Mask O5
Answer
1.
2
A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more conductors
called the sub-conductors, per phase in close proximity compared with
the spacing between phases P'ig. 2.9.1.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-20 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2. A bundled conductor is the sub-conductors of a bundled conductor

separated from each other by a constant distance varying from
0.2 m to 0.6 m
depending upon designed voltage and surrounding
conditions throughout the
length of the line with the help of spacers.
3. The bundled conductors have filter
material or air space inside so that
the overall diameter is increased.

Phase A
PhaseB Phase C
O

4. The use
of bundledconductors per phase reduces the voltage gradient
in the vicinity of the line and thus, reduces the possibilities of the
corona discharge.
5. Hence the bundled conductors are used on EHV transmission lines to
reduce corona loss and radio interference.

Que 2.10. What are ACSR conductors? Explain the advantagesof

ACSR conductors.
AKTU 2016-16,Marks063
Anawer
A Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR) : Refer Q. 2.8,
Page 2-18B, Unit-2.
B. Advantages:
1 High mechanical strength.
2. Low corona los.
3. Less skin effect.
4. Less expensive than copper conductor.
5. Longer span possible.
6. Breakdown possibility is low.

Quo 211 Explain resistance of transmission line. Also discuss

effeet of skin effect on effective resistance of conductor.
OR
What is Skin effeet ?

A. Resistance of transmission line

1. Every electric conductor offers opposition to the flow of current and
this oppositionis called the resistance.
2. The resistance of a solid conductor (wire) is given by

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-21 B (EN-Sem-5)

R=

where, Pl = Resistivity of conductor

Length of conductor
a= Cross-sectional area of conductor
B. Skin effect:
1. When a direct current flows through a conductor, it is uniformly
distributed in a conductor.
2. But when an alternating current passes through a conductor, it is non-

uniformly distributed in cross section of the conductor.

3. Due to which current density at the surface of conductor is higher
This effect is
than the current density at the centre of the conductor.
known as skin effect.

No current flow

Current flow over the

surface

Pg 2.11.1
(. Skin effect on resistance of conductor:
i. Due to skin effect, the effective cross-section of conductor, through
which the current flows, is reduced.

2. Since, resistance - Hence, skin effect increases

Area of cross-section

effective resistance of conductor.

Economy Law and derive the condition

Que 2.12.ExplainKelvin's
cross-sectional area of the conductor.
for most economical
OR
Kelvin's size of conductor. Discuss
law for economic
Explain of
limitations. Show how skin effect increases effective resistance

the conductor. AKTU 2017-18,Marks10

Answer is that for
The most economical area of conductor
A Kelvin's law :
line is minimum. This is known as
which the total cost of transmission
Kelvin's law.
B. Derivation :

1. Total annual cOst consists of two parts

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2-22 B (EN-Sem-5)

The fixed standing charges: 'The fixed charges consist of the interest
on the capital cost of the conductor, the allowance for depreciation,
and the maintenance cost.
ii. The running charges: The running charges consist of cost of
electrical energy wasted due to losses during operation.
But, the capital cost (the interest and depreciation on it) and cost of
electrical energy wasted in the line are governed by the size of the
conductor.
3. The interest and depreciation on the initial investment will be directly

proportional to the area of cross-section of the conduetor.

The cost of energy loss will be inversely proport ional to the conductor
cross-section.

5. Mathematically,
i Annual interest and depreciation cost

Ca or C=K,a
and annual cost of energy dissipated in the line

C VaorC-
where K, and K, are constants, and a represents the area of eross
section of conductor. The total annual cost may be given by'

CC,+C=Kja+ * a

i For an economical design there will be one size of conductor :L which

the total cost is minimum.
i. For the most economical cross-section, the total annual cost is
differentiated with respect to the cross-section and the result is equated
to zero.

dC_= 0
da

dK, aa) =o
da a

K,- 0; K, a =
K
C, C anda= VK, .2.12.1)
iv. Hence the most economical cross-sectional area of the conductor is
that which makes the annual cost of energy loss equal to the annual
interest and depreciation on the capital eost of the conductor material.
This is known as Kelvin's law,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-23 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

The cOst

>
C
-Cost of energy
loss

Annual
ductor
Cost

Conductor area

Fg14.1.rspselcepreentation
C. Limitations:
accurately due to
amount of energy losses cannot be estimated
LTotal
difference in load, load factors and future load conditions, which are

dificut to predict accurately.

i Cost of energy loss is difficult to calculate because prices of conductor
material and the rates of interest are continuously changing.
i Two systems having same energy demard can have different cost due

to different energy costs.

limits in cases if
iv. Voltage drop may be beyond the perraissihie some

economical conductor size is selected.

v. Most economical size of conductor may not be suitable to carry the
required amount of current due to its thermal rating and temperature
rise linit8.
vi Economical section may not have adequate mechanical strength.
vi. Proilems of corona, leakage currents, skin effect ete. oppose the use
of economical section at extra high voltage.
D. Skin effect on resistance of conductor: Refer Q. 2.11, Page 2-20B,
Unit-2.

9ue 213 Briefly explain Proximity effect.

OR
Explain hriefly skin effect and proximity effect in reference to

overhead lines.

A Skin effect: Retfer Q 2.11, Pago 2-20B, Unit-2.

B. Proximity effect
1. When two or more conductors are near to each other, their magnetie
field interacts and it rerults in circulating currents inside the conductor.
This effect i8 known us proximity effect,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2-24 B (EN-Sem-5)
redistributed
effect, the current in each conductor is
2. Due to proximity from the
which is farthest
that part of conductor
flows through
and it conductors. This effect results in apparent increase in resistance
other
of conductor.
factors:
3. Proximity effect can be
influenced by following
i Size of conductor
i Frequency of supply

ii. Resistivity of material

iv. Distance between conductors.
33 kV, 10 km
cycle of a three-phase,
The daily-load
Q214 2000 kVA for
line is as follows : 2500 kVA for 8 hours,
trunsmission most economical
9 heurs and 1500 kVA for 7 hours. Determine the erection is
the cost of line including
cross section if
area of each conductor in
8000a) per km where a is the
Rs. (7500) rate of interest and depreciation is 8 percent and cost of
+

sq. cm.The
days
15 unit. The line is in use for 250 working
paise
energy is per
is 0.173 ohm.
cnm.
a year. The resistance per km and per sq.
AKTC 2011-16,Marke10

Given:Cost ofline = Rs. (7500+6000a10: V 33 kV

110 km; *VA = 2500 kVA for 8 hour, 2000 kVA for 9 hour,
rate of interest aud depreciation 8 %;
1600 kVA for 7 15
hour;
year-250,
paiso
Cost of energy km and per unit, working days in a

per sq. cm. 0,13 ohin

Resistance per
ToFind: Most economical cross section.
L Cost of line = Rs. (7500 + 6000a) x 10
2. Annual interest and depreciation capital cost on
Rs. (7500+ 6000m) x 10 x 8/100
Rs. (6000 + 4800a)

3. Kesistance of each conductor,

R 0.173x10-1.73
a

3V
1000
kVA
4. The load current at various loads are calculated by the above formula

as follows
At 2500 kVA, load current
2500x1000 = 43.8BA
3 x33 1000
At 2000 kVA, load current

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-25 B (EN-Sem-5)

2000x 1000
35 A
'23x 33 x1000
At 1500 kVA, load current

1500x 1000 = 26.2 A

3x 33x 1000
5. Daily energy loss

3/, Rx +31,Rx 00031, Rx 6

3R
1000 (87,2 97+71,)
3x x10-3 [843.8)+9(35+7(26.2)1
79,8,57.2, 24.9 161.9 kWh
a a a a
161.9
6. Annual energy loss = x 250 kWh

7. Cost of energy loss per annum

-Rs 6071
== Rs.
Rs. x 250
X Z00 100 a
x

8. By Kelvin's law,
6071
4800a
a

a
6071
1.124
V4800
9. The most economical cross-section

1.124 cm'= 112.4 mm-

the limitations of Kelvin law. A 2-wire feeder

Que 2.15.Explain
carries a constant current of 250 A throughout the year. The portion
to the area of section is
of capital cost which is proportional croS8
and depreciation of
5 per kg of copper conductor. The interest
Rs. is paisa per kWh. Find
total 10 o per annum and the cost of energy 5
Given
the most economical area of cross Bection of the conductor.
and its specifie resistance
that the density of copper is 8.93 gm/cm*
is 1.73 x 108 N-m. AKTU 2016-17,Marks10
Answer
Refer Q. 2.12, Page 2-21B, Unit-2.
A Limitations of Kelvin law:

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-26 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-l

B. Numerical:

Given:I 250 A; Capital cost Rs.5 per kg

Cost of energy =5 paise per kWh
To Find : Most economical area of cross section.

Let l= Length of each conductor in m

a=Area of cross section in sq m
Volume of conductor = lam'
3. Mass of conductor = la x 8.93 x 10 kg
4. Capital cost of conductor
Rs. 5 x 8.93 x 10x la
= Rs. 446.5 la

5. Interest and depreciation cost

Rs. 446.5xla
100
= Rs. 44.65la

6. CopPper loss per conductor = PRx 10-3kW

(2502 1.73 10xx103
a

1.08 x10-6 a
kW

7. Cost of energy loss per year

Rs. 1.08 x 10 x365 x 24 x

100
=
Rs. 4.73x 10-6
8. According to Kelvin's law, interest and depreciation cost and cost of
of erosS-section of
energy loss must be equal for most economical
area

conductor.

44.65la = 4.73 x 10-6

a = 0.00325 m* = 3.25 cm*

for
Que 2.18 Determine the best current density in amperes/mm
a three phase overhead line. The line is in use for 3600 hours per
resistance
year and ifthe conductor c0sts Rs. 3.0/kg. It has a specific is
of 1.73 x 10-5 9-m and weights 6200 kg/m° cost of energy
12 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 10 % of conductor cost.
AKTU2017-18,Marke 10

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-l
2-27 B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
Given: Line in
use 3600
Conductor costs =Rs. 3 per hours
=
per year;
kg;p 1.73 10-5N-m x

Weights= kg/m'; Cost of energy=12 paise/unit.

To Find:
5200
Currentdensity in amperes/mm
I =
Length of each conductor
a Area of
2 Volume of
cross section
conductor =
lax 6200 kg
6200 =
x la kg
3. Capital cost of the conductor

Rs. 3 la
x x 6200
Rs. 18600 x la
4 Interest ani
depreciation
Rs. 186 x la x 10
Rs. 1860 x la
5. Cupper loss per conductor

IPR 10 kW =Px 10-3

-1.7310 10
Px 1.73x10

1.73 x 10xPkW
6 According to Kelvin's law, the two costs should be equal for the best
current density.

1860la = 1.73 x 10-x

a

x 10
a 1.73
1.03 x10 A/mm2
Que 2.11 State Kelvin's law. Determine the best current density
in amp/mm for a three phase overhead line. The line is in use for
2800 hours per year and conductor costs Ra. 3.0/
kg. It has a specific
resistance of 1.73 x 10 N-m and weights 6200 kgm'. Cost of energy
is 10 paise/unit. Interest and depreciation is 12% of conductor costs.

ATU2019-2D Markao

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-28 B (EN-Sem-6) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

Answer
i Kelvin'slaw: ReferQ.2.12,Page 2-218, Unit-2.
i Numerical : The procedure is same as Q 2.16, Page 2-26B, Unit-2.
Ans.

The best current density:

-=0.705A/mm2

PART-3
CorotaEft RactoreAyfecdingThe Corona,Corne
Foeer iaes, Aduanages ani Disudrantages

Qaestions Anewers
LongAnswer Type aud Medium Answer ype Questions

gue24 Discuss phenomenon of corona and how it is formed.

Anwer
A Corona : The phenomenon ofviolet glow, hissing noise and production
of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
B. Phenomenon of corona:
1.
When aternatingpotentialdifferenceisappliedacrosstwo conductors,
an
whose spacing is large in comparison with their diameters, then the
atmospheric air surrounding the conductors is subjected to electrostatic
stresses.
At low voltage there is no change in the conditiun of atmuspheric air
around the conductors.

However, when the potential difference is gradually increased, a stage

arrives when a luminous glow of violet colour appears tugether with a
hissing noise and production of ozone gas.
If the potential differene is raised still further, the glow and the noise
will increase until a spark-over owing to breakdown of air insulation
will take place.
B. Theory of corona formation:
1.The air around the conductor contains a number of free electrons.
When the potential is applied between the two conductors a potential
gradient is established and under ite infiuence the electrons acquire a
uniformly increasing arceleration.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-29 B (EN-Sem-5)

2. Thus, the free electrons attain speed and these free electrons collide
with the other slow moving or neutral molecules and in the process

dislodgeelectron from it

Air with a
dielectricstrength

Conductor
surface

Fi 38.1.Coroma formation
3. When the potential gradient reaches about 30 kV (max. value), per em,
acquiredby the free electrons dislodgeone or more electrons
the velocity
from it

4. These dislodged eleetrons and the previous free electrons strike other
neutral molecules producing more number of electrons. When the
saturation point is reached the insulating property of air is destroyed
and the air becomes conducting and corona forms.
5. Corona occurs if

where, Electric
ir
potentialat conductorsurface
= Dielectricstrength
wherer is a radial vector, perpendicular to conductor surface.
If potential gradient (dVJdr) exceeds the dielectric strength (dV/dr)
the corona occurs.

Que 210. Deduce expressions for critical disruptive voltage and

visual critical voltage.

Answer
1. Let ua consider the two-wireline shown in Pig. 2.19.1,
r= Radius of line conductor
d Distance between theircentres
+q Charge on conductor A

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-30 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

-q =
Charge on conductor B

+a/ P
X

2.
Fig1181
Consider point P at a distance ofr metres from conductor A.

3. Electric field intensity at point P due to charge on conductor A =

2T&,
acting towards B.
4. Electric field intensity at point P due to induced charge on conductor

B
-acting towardsB.
5. Resultant electric field intensity at point P,

91,1
B2" 2me,(d-3)2ne,d-
6. Potential diiference between conductors A and B,

2log,-log, d- "--log, d-
7. Now, since r is very small as compared to d, d -r=d and, therefore,

Vlo, .(2.19.1)

8. Now gradient at any point x from the centre of the conductor A is given
by
E + d .(2.19.2)
2E*d-x2ne,
in
rd-x)
have
9 Suhstitutingfor q from eq. (2.19.1) eq. (2.19.2), we

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-1 2-31 B (EN-Sem-5)

E,= d d
xd-x)
log,Znto X\d - x) 2log

and d ..(2.19.3)
d xld-)
log
where V is the line to neutral voltage of the system.
10. In case of 3-phase systern,

V
Line-to-Linevoltage Y
V
11. The potentiai gradient is naximum when x = r, and this value is given by

V'd V ..(2.19.4)
max, mos-rld-r)log, rlox,
where, r= Radius
12. When the disruptive gradient of air is reached at the conduetor surtace

r lo8.
Critical disruptive voltage,

V =Brlog,. (2.19.5)
The complete formula becomes

.(2.19.6)
where 8 Air density factor
m= Conductor surface condition factor
13. The value of V is known as critical disruptive voltage, And is defined as
the minimum phase to neutral voltage at which coronA occurs.
Visual critical voltage
Visual critical voltage is defined as the minimum phase to neut ral voltage
at which giow appears all along the line conductors.
2. Thus the visual eritical voltageis

V, 8,omr1 o8. kV (ris) to neutral ..(2.19.7)

where m,= Roughness factor, which is unity for smooth conductors

ae 2.20 Explain corona losa. How is eritical disruptive voitayge

estimated ? Give advantages and disadvantages of corona loss.

AKTU 2016-17,Marks1
Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-32 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

Answer
A Corona loss:
1. Power wasted due to corona in lines is known as corona power loss.

2. F.W. Peek's formula for the corona loss for the single phase and
equilaterally spaced 30 lines under fair weather conditions is given by,

Peek's formula:
24
10* kW/km/phase
P 25 -,*
where, Pe = Corona power loss
Í- Frequencyof supply
8= Air density factor
E Rms phase voltage (line to neutral)
E Disruptiveeriticalvoltageper phase
r= Radius of conductor
D = Spacing or equivalent spacing between conductors
For single phase,

E,xline voltage
For three phase,

B xlinevoltage
3. Peek's formula is not accurate when losses are low and E,Eo is less
than 1.8. In that condition, we use Peterson's formula.
Peterson's Formula :

P. =2.1fF 10 *kW/km/conductor
log
where, P= Corona power loss
f= Supply frequency in hertz
E =
Voltage per phase (line to neutral) voltagein kV (rms)
r= Radius of conductor in metres
F= Corona loss function

E =Bomas m, r3In V/phase(rms)

D = Spacing
B. Estimation of eritical disruptive voltage: Refer . 2.19,
Page 2-29B, Unit-2.

C. Advantages of corona:
1 Due to corona, the air surrounding the conductor is ionised and becomes
conducting. This increases the virtual diameter of the conductor.
2. Corona reduces the ef ct produced by the surges and conductor is
saved from possibility of lighting. It acts asa safety device.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
2-33 B (EN-Sem-5)

D. Disadvantagesof corona:
1. It reduces the transmission efficiency.
2. The third harmonic
components produced due to corona makes the
current non-sinusoidal. This increases the corona loss.
3. The ozone gas formed due to corona
and can cause corrosion.
chemicallyreacts with the conductor

9ue 2.81. Explain the phenomenon of corona formation and

factors affecting corona. What is visual critical voltage ?

OR
AKTU 201.18,Marks1o
Explain the situation under which corona phenomenon starts in
high voltage power transmission lines. Identify the factors with
reason that affect corona. AKTU 2019-20,Marks 07
Answer
A Phenomena of Corona : Refer Q. 2.18, Page 2-28B, Unit-2.
B. Factors
1.
affecting corona:
Effect of frequency: Corona loss depends on the supply frequency.
Higher the supply frequency, higher is the corona loss.
2 Line voltage : The line voltage directly affects the corona and the
corona losSs. For lower line voltage corona may be absent. But for voitages
higher than disruptive voltage, corona starts. Higher the line voltage,
higher is the corona loss.

3 Atmospheric conditions: The pressure and temperature together

decide the value of ð which affects the disruptive voltage and the corona
loss. Lower the value of 8, higher is the corona and vice-versa.
Size of the conductor: The corona loss is directly proportional to square
root of radius of conductor. Hence, loss is more if size of conductor is more.
5. Surface conditions: The corona depends on the surface conditions.
For rough and uneven surfaces, the value of disruptive voltage is less
and corona effect is dominant. Similarly corona loss is also more for
surtaces.
rough and dirty
Number of conductors per phase : For higher voltages a single
conductor per phase produces large corona loss. Hence bundled
conductors are used due to which self GMD of the conductor 8 increases,
which increases the disruptive voltage, reducing corona loss.

7. Spacing between conductors: If the spacing is made very large,

corona can be absent.
8. Clearance from ground: The height of the conductors from the
the The smaller the clearance of the
ground also affects corona loss.
conductors from the ground, higher is the corona loss.
C. Visual eritical voltage: Refer Q. 2.19, Page 2-29B, Unit-2.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-34 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

Que 2.22What are the methods of reducing corona loss ?

OR
Explain the phenomenon of corona. What are the various factors
affecting it ? How can it be reduced?AKTU 2018 19, Marks 07

Answer
A Phenomenon of corona: Refer Q. 2.18, Page 2-28B, Unit-2.
B. Factors affecting corona : Refer Q. 2.21, Page 2-33B, Unit-2.
C. Methods of reduced
1.
corona
Voltage of the line: There is negligible corona loss below disruptive
critical voltage. So ifvoltage is below disruptive critical voltage, there is
no corona loss and as the line voitage goes beyond it, corona losses
become large.
Spacing between conductors: Spacing between the conductors
increases disruptive critical voltage. But this method increases overal!
cost of line as cross arm length got increased. Also there is an increase
in voltage drop due to increase in the inductive reactance.
3 Increasing diameter of conductor: Increasing diameter of conductor
1s widely used to reduce corona loss. Diameter of conductor can bee
increased either by using Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
conductor (ACSR) or by using hollow conductor.

Bundled conductors:
i Presently bundled conductors are used more often to reduce corona loss.
i It consists of two or more parallel conductors grouped together having
spaces between them. Bundle acts as conductor having diameter much
larger than component conductors.
It reduces the voltage gradient thus reducing corona loss.

Que 2.23 Determine the corona characteristics of a three phase

160 km long line having conductor diameter 1.036 cm, 2.44 m delta
spacing, air temperature 26.67 degree having an appropriate
barometrie pressure of 73.15em, operating voltage 110kV at 50 Hz.
Surfaceirregularityfactor is 0.86.Assume a value of m, -0.72,
dielectricstrength of air = 21.1 kV/cm (rms). Disruptivevoltage
under foul weather = 0.8 times fair weather value.

AKTU2015-10,Marks10
Answer

Given: Diameter=1.036 em, d

m0.72, b = 73.16 cm,f= 50 Hz
2.44 m, t= 26.67",

To FindiCorona characteristics.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-35 B (EN-Sem-5)

1. Radius of conductor= 1.0360.518cm

2

The ratiop 2.44100 471

0.518

70.046075
.926
273+t
3.92x73.15
273+26.67
_0.957
3. Assuming a surface irregularity factor 0.86, the critical disruptive voltage

Va21.1x0.858rIn r

21.1 x 0.85 x 0.957 x 0.518 In 471

54.72 kV line to neutral

1 0.3 In
4 Visual eritical voltage V, =

21.1m,ör Vrö )

0.3 =In 471 = 66 kV

V. 21.1x0.72x 0.957 x
0.518|*o.518x0.957J
5. Power loss = 244 x105 (V-V* kW/phase/km

=244x10sxax0.046075(63.5--54.72
0.957

0.679 kW/phase/km
= 108.64 kW/phase = 325.92 kW for three phase
6. Corona loss under foul weather condition will be when the disruptive
voltage is taken as 0.8 x fair weather value, i.e.,
V= 0.8 x 54.72 43.77 kV
7. Loss per phase/km will be

244 x 10 07 0.046075(63.5- 43.77 = 3.3664 kW/km/phase

537.6 kW/phase
Total loss = 1612.8 kW for all the three phases.

ue 2.24.1An110kV,50 Hz, 175 k long, 3-phase transnmission line

consists of 1.2 em diameter stranded copper conductor spaced in 2 m
delta arrangement. Ass ume that temperature is 25 °C and barometric
pressure is 74 em. Assume surface irregularity factor m = 0.86, m, for
local corona = 0.72 and m, for general corona = 0.82. FindH:

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-96 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

iii. Disruptive eritical voltage.

Visual corona voltage for local corona.
i. Visual corona voltage for general corona.
iv. Power loss due to corona using peek's formula under fair weather
and wet weather conditions. AKTU 201810,Marks07
Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 2.23, Page 2-34B, Unit-2.
(Ans. i. 61.15 kV
72.13 kV
i. 82.14 kV
iv. 115.25 kW)

Que 225. Discuss electromagnetie interference with

communication lines.

Answer
1 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is caused when a power conductor
with a strong magnetic field is placed near other conductors
(communication lines). The flux lines of the strong magnetic field cut
the nearby conductors (communication lines) and induce voltags on
them. Presence of EMl can interfere with the communication signal.
2. Consider a three-phase overhead transmission system co1sisting o
three conductors R, Y and B spaced at the corners of a triangie a1d two
telephone conductors P and Q below the power line conductors running
on the same supports as shown in Fig. 2.25.1

DRQ
DpP
Dre
DgP Dya

3.
F 2261.hrue-phnsebéxwerliegndconmnunicatlonnec
Let us assune that the radius of each conductor is r and consider the
loop formed by the conductors R and P. Now the distances between R
and P, andk and Q are Dpp and lnq. Tespectively.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-37 B (EN-Sem-5)

4. Flux linkages of conductor P due to currents in all conduetors of power

line given by ;

v,=210| In , ln+In
Dyr
5. Flux linkages of conductor Q due to currents in all conductors of power
line,

2x10 , In , n , In Dj

6. Total flux linkages of communication lines,

1
= 210
, In1,
RP Dyp nD

2x 107 , In +I, In +1, In

RP Dy aP
Therefore, the induced voltage in the communication line,

V=2RfYV/m of communication line

7. Here, the voltage induced and flux linkages
depends upon the values ot p, dy» and g

and are balanced and power lines are

Case-I: If the currents y communication lines are zero.
transposed, then tlux inkages with the
Therefore, voltage induced is also zero.

Ig are balanced and powerlines are

are
and
Case-II: If the currents Ip,ly, lines
untransposed, thenflux linkages with the comimunication
small. Therefore, induced is also small.
voltage
then there is flux
are unbalanced,
Case-II :1fthe currents »ly, and lg
induced.
linkage with the communicationlines
and
therefore,voltage is between
be reduced the distance by increasing
8. The induced voltage can

communication lines or even by transposing

the power lines and the
them.
interference with communication
electrostatic
9ue 226 Explain
lines.
OR
Derive expressions induced due to (i) electromagnetic
for voltages
and (ii) electrostatic effects of interference between power and
show how these results can be used for
telephone lines and
and electrostatically induced emfs
calculating electromagneticaly
and there are two
on telephone line when the power line is 3-phase
telephone conductor. ARTU 2010-20,Marks 07

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2-38 B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
A Electrostatic interference
In electrostatic interference the electric potential of the communication

lines is raised which may be dangerous.

Consider a three-phase system consisting of three conductorsR, Y, and
B, which are placed at the corners of a triangle and two
telecommunication lines P, Q connected parallel to the three-phase

system as shown in Fig. 2.26.1.

3. The potential distribution between the three-phase system and plane
distribution between the image of
the same the potential
as
(earth) is

the three-phase system and the plane.

height of
4.
Consider conductor
a R of a three-phase system. Let Hp be the
conductorR from the ground. q is the charge per metre length of

conductorR and - q is the charge on image of conductor R.

HB Hy
777t mTm

Fig.2.26.1.Three-phasepowerlinecommunication
line and image of powerline.
5. The electric-field intensity at a distance x from the centre of conductor R,

2me (2H, x)
2me x
-

The potential of conductor R with respect to earth,

2-
VR - In+ In - ln
InA (: 2Hp >>r)

where,r is the radius of conductor

6. Suppose P is placed at a distance LDPR from the conductor R, then the

potential of conductor P with respect to earth,

(1

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-39 B (EN-Sem-5)

In 2H-D
2TE D.=V
In
Similarly, the potential at P due to the charge on conductors Yand B ie.,
VPY and Vpg Can be calculated.
7. In addition, the resultant potential of P with respect to earth due to
charge on conductors R, Yand B is V, = VPR+ Vpr+ Vpa (vector addition).
In a similar way, the resultant potential of conductor Qwith respect to
the earth due to charge on conductors, R, Y, and B can be calculated.
B. Electromagnetic interference: Refer Q. 2.25, Page, 2-36B, Unit-2.

PART-4
Performane of Lines: Representation of Lines, Shor Transmission Lines
Medium LengthLines, NominalT and t representations

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

ue 2.27. Derive the expression for the regulation and efficiency

of a short transmission line. Draw the required circuit and phasor

diagram.
Anwwer
1. From the equivalent circuit ofFig. 2.27.1,
V, = V,-1Z (since I=1, = 1) ..(2.27.1)

where, 12= Voltage drop along the line.

Fi 2.97,1Short tranamiaion-line model

write
2. From Pig. 2.27.2, we can

V, = OC OE* +(ECY

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-40 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

vOD+ DEY + (EB + BC

= JV, cos4,+ IR+(V, sin, +1X*
X*)
VV+2V,IR cos,+2V,IXcos,+1(R+
2IX
=V1cos,+sin , +R+ X*)

V.ukcos +Xsin

because is very small when compared with the other terms

V, =
V1+2 cos9,+LX sin, +Higherorderterms)
2
(2.27.2)
V

IRB
Fig 2.7.2 Phasordiagram
3. canpractice,
In of eq. (2.27.2) are small and
the value of higher order terms
be neglected, and therefore we get the approximate formula for V,

for
.(2.27.3)
LX sin ,
V,a V,+ IR cos ,factor +

4. From Fig. (2.27.2), the power at sending end is given by

OB V, cos,+IR
cos OC .
Regulation
%Regulation =
x 100
V,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-41 B (EN-Sem-5)

V+IRcos , +IX sino,- 100

IRcos, +1A Sin 9 x 100 ...2.27.4)
Efficiency:
1. Power delivered, P, = VJ cos,

Line losses per phase = 1IR

Power supplied per phase, P, = VJ cos , + IR
2. The efficiencyof a short transmission line,

Powerdelivered 100
Power supplied

x 100 ..(2.27.5)
A, B, C, D constants for short transmission lines:
The steady-state voltage at the sendingand receivingends are expressed
in terms
of voltage and current at the receiving end.
V. = AV, + B,
.(2.27.6
, CV, + DI, .(2.27.7)
1. For the network shown in
Fig. 2.27.1, we may write
V, = V, +Zl,
.(2.27.8)
and 1, = 1,
(2.27.9)
2. For generalizedtransmission circuit constants, comparingeq. (2.27.8)
and (2.27.9) with the eq. (2.27.6.) and (2.27.7), we get
A =1, B =Z
C 0,D 1

The transfer matrix for the network is

Que 2.28. Deduce an expression for transmission efficiency and

regulation for medium transmission line using nominal r-method.
OR
Derive A, B, C and D parameters for nominal x model of a medium
transmission line and draw its phasor diagram.

OR
AKU 2017-18,Marke 10
Derive A, B, C and D parameterw for nominal n model of a medium
line and draw its phasor diagram. AKTU 2016-1,Marke 10
Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-42 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

SWer
1. The steady-statevoltage at the sending and receivingends are expressed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end.
V, AV, + BI, .(.2.28.1)

CV, +DI, ..(2.28.2)

ww 000

Fig 2.38.1. -eguivalent cireuit of medium transmission tine.

Fig 2.28.2-Phaoordiay a
2. From Fig. 2.28.1,
VV,
Va v,
2
I=l,+e
(2.28.3)
=I,
VVe12

Va1 V, +Z,

V2 8 als0 equal to V.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 243 B (EN.Sem-5)

V,-1V,+z1, .(2.28.4)

3. The charging current,

The sending-endcurrent,
laV.2
, =I+le2
=I

..(2.28.5)
4. For general network constants, comparing the eq.(2.28.4) and eq. (2.28.5)
with general transmission circuit constants of eq. (2.28.1) and eq. (2.28.2)

=D= 1+;
2
B=Z

C-Y
5. The transfer matrix for the network is
12 Z

Regulation:
1 To calculate regulation, it is required to caleulate the no load receiving
end voltage (V) keeping V, as constant. The voltage at the receiving
end at load V, is equivalent to
no
Vel
2. From Fig. 2.28.1, the voltage at the receiving end under no load is

C_
2
R+ jX-

%Regulation= V,-Vx 100

Emiciency:
Powerdeliveredat the receivingend (P,)
Power delivered at the receiving end (P,)+ 3/"R

Que 2.29 Deduce an expreusion for transmission efficiency and

regulation for medium transmission line using (i) Nominal T-method
(ii) Nominal r-method. Also caleulate A, B, C and D parametor.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

244B (ENSem-6) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

OR
Draw a phasor diagram of a nominal-T transmiosion line and find

its A, B, C, D constants. AKTU2010-20.Marks07

nswer
The steady-state voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expressed
in terms of voltage and currentat the receiving end
V, = AV, + B, .(2.29.1)
, CV, +DI, (2.29.2)
i Nominal T method:

W 0000 ww DW1
2 /2
Y =j»C

Fig 2.29.1.Teguivalentcircuitof mediumransmiasionline

B
F
Fig. 2.29.2. Phasor diagram

1. From Fig. 2.29.1,

V, = V, ...(2.29.3)

2. The current through the shunt admittance is

Now the sending-end current i8

3

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-45 B (EN-Sem-5)

I,=I,
I, +YV,

,- -{1) .(2.29.4)

and the sending-end voltage is

-15V, 6+64J
V.-1, +z{1.1, .2.29.5

For generai transmission circuit constants, comparing the eq. (2.29.4)

and eq. (2.29.5) with eq. (2.29.1) and eq. (2.29.2) respectively, we get

A =1 = D; B= z1). c-Y
2

5. The transfer matrix for the network

1z
1s .(2.2 .6)
Y 1,2

Regulation:
of Fig. 2.29.1 is shown in
1. Under no load condition, the equivalent circuit
Fig. 2.29.3.

2
w00000
= jøC V

Pig. 2.29.3.

of the trunsmission line

2. At load, the voltage at the recejving
no end (V,) which is located at
across the admiltance,
is same as the voltage (V,)
transmission line.
mdpoint of the

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-46 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

3. From Fig. 2.29.3, the voltage across the capacitor by using voltage divider
rule i

V.RXJ
2 2 oC
When the receiving end is on no load, the no-load voltage, V, =V

%Regulation = V- x 100

Efficiency:
Power delivered at the receivingendtP,)
Power delivered at the receiving end (P,) +3, +1;)

ii. Nominal n method: Refer Q. 2.28, Page 2-41B, Unit-2.

Que 2.30. The A, B, C, D constants of a 34 transmission line are

A =
D=0.936+j0.016,
B 33.5 +j1382
+j901.223) 10-mho
and
The load at receiving
C=(-0.9280
end is 40 MW, 200 kV at
x

power factor of 0.86

lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending end voltage, current,
power and voltage regulation. Assume that the magnitude of
sending end voltageremainsconstant.AKTU 2015-16,Marks 7.5
Answer

Given:Phase voltage at receiving end, Load= 40 MW.

V-200 kV,Ppf=0.86(lag)
To Find: V,1,P,V
1. Receiving end voltage to neutral,

V, = 200x10 =115.47 kN
3
2. Receiving end current,

40000x100
v3 x200x 10
115.47 L- cos- 0.86 A

115.47 L-30.68 A
(99.3-j68.9) A
Sending end voltage to neutral:
3

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-47 B (EN-Sem-5)

V, - AV, + BI,

=(0.936+j0.016) x 115.47 x 103 + (33.5 j138)

x 115.47 2-30.68
= 120306.07 26.480° V

120.30607 L6.480° kV
4Line voltage at sendingend

IVl= 3 IV,| = 3 x 120.306= 208.376 kV

5. Sending end current
, = CV, + DI,

= -0.9280 +J901.223) x 104 x 116.47 20. 10

+(0.936 +j0.016) x 115.47 4-30.68

106.52 L28.30A
6. Power factor at sending end = cos , = cos (6.48°- 28.30)
: 0.92

Power at sendingend
7.
=D, = 3 V,l, cos ,
3 x 120306.07 x 106.52 x 0.92
35369407.11 W 35.36 MW.
& Voltage regulation
V,A Vni
120306.07
So. VA 0.936 128532.12 V

VR = |V.-aL% 100
IV
VR = 128532.12-115.47x
115.47x 10
10 100
= 11.31 %.

with 132 kV at the

Que231. In a 3-phase line receiving end the
following are the transmission constants:
A =D=0.98 2 30°, B = 110 2 750° N,

Ifload
C 0.0005 4 880° S
at the receiving end is 50 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging, determine the
value of the sending end voltage.
AKTU2018-19,Marks 07
Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 2.30, Page 2-46B, Unit-2.
(Ans. V, = 95.03 2 38.73° kV)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

248 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

Que 2.32A 50 Hz, three-phase transmission line has total series

impedance per phase of (40+j125) ohms and shunt admittance of
10-8 mho. The load is 50 MW at 220 kV, 0.8
Using nominal r method, calculate the sending end voltage current
pf lagging
and power factor.
AKTU 2016-18,Marke07
Answer
Given: Z 40+ j125 131.24 272.20 2, Y 103 mh0,
V 220 kV, cos o, =0.8 lag.
To Find: V,, and cos

1 220
V, = x10 = 127.01 kV/ph

2, 50x 10 164.02 A (lagging)

Vcos 3 x220x10'x 0.8
V,Y_(127.01 x 10° 20°) x (10 L90) (: V = V,
3. a2
Z

63.5 90° A

wwwOOO (40+j125) 50 MW
0.8 lag

10

63.5 290°
4. I=1, +le = 164.02 2- cos0.8+
164.02 2-36.86 +63.5 90°

= 136.79 -14.8 °A

5. V, = Va= Vea+ 1Z= V, +1Z

= 127.01 x 10 20°+ (135.79 2-14.8) x (131.24 472.2°)

137.45 6.26° kV/ph

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-49 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

(10 L90°)
137.45 x10"26.26°)
x

6. ,= _

137.452 96.26° = 154.65 2 41.23° A

135.79 2- 14.8° +
7.,=+12=
(96.26°-41.23°) = 0.57
8. cos
, cos =

PART-5
at Long
TransmissionLines, The Equivalent Ferranti Representation
Circuit
Long
2ffect.
Line4, B, GDConstants

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

end voltage and

for sending
Que 2.33.Deduce the expression
current in terms of receiving end voltage and current for long

transmission lines.

Answer
1.steady-state
The voltage at the sending and receiving ends are expreSsed
in terms of voltage and current at the receiving end
V, = AV, + BI, ..(2.33.1)

, = CV, + DI, ..(2.33.2)

z = Series impedance per unit length

2. Let
y= Shunt ad1nittance per unit length
l= Length of the line

Then, Z= zl = Total series impedance of the line

Y=yl = Total shunt admittance of the line
element of length Ar at a distance ofr from the
3. Consider a very small
line.
receiving-end of the
current at distance from the receiving-end are V, I
The voltage and x

and at distance x + Ar are V +AV and I+ Al, respectively.

So,the change of voltage, AV lzAr =

of the element considered.

where, zAr is the impedance

Ax
.(2.33.3)
Ar dx

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-50 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

V+AV

ax
Fig. 2.33.1 Equivalentaingle-phase
representation of a longtransmissionline
5. Similarly, the change of current, Al = Vyar
where, y Ar is the admittance of element considered

V y

Lt
Ar-0 Ax
= Vy ..(2.33.4)
dx
6. Differentiating the eq. (2.33.3) with respect to x, we get

dV .(2.33.5)

7. Substituting the value offrom eq. (2.33.4) in eq. (2.33.5), we get

...(2.33.6)
dr
8. Eq. (2.33.6) is a second order differential equation. The solution of this
equation is

V Ae +Be ..(2.33.7)
9. Differentiating eq. (2.33.7) with respect to x, we get

=dr Ay -Byz e ..(2.33.8)

10. From eq. (2.33.3) and eq. (2.33.8)

l= Ayz e- B/yz e

.33.9)

11. From eq. (2.33.7),

V Ae" + Be-" .(2.33.10)
12. From eq. (2.33.9),

.(2.33.11)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 2-51 B (EN-Sem-5)

where, Z known characteristics impedance or surge

is as

impedance and y = Vyz is known as propagation constant.

A, B,C and Dparameter:

the conditions at the
1. The constants A and B can be evaluated by using
receiving end of the line. The conditions are

atr = 0, V= V, and I =1,

Substitute the above conditions in eq. (2.33.10) and eq. (2.33.11, we get
.(2.33.12)
V, =A + B

..(2.33.13)
and , A-B)
2. Solving eq. (2.33.12) and eq. (2.33.13), we get

A- and B- 2
2
B in eq. (2.33.10) and (2.33.11),
3. Now substituting the values of A and
:
V can be expressed as

V= V, cosh yx +7,2, sinh * 2.33.14)

Y-8,-]|

V, .(2.33.15)
=coshr+7, sinh yx
Z
currents at any distance x from the
where, Vand I are the voltages and
receiving end.

and I =I
Atx =1, V=V, in eq. (2.33.14) and eq. (2.33.15), V, and 7, is
these values
Putting
expressed as
2.33.16)
sinh y
V, =
V, cosh y +I, 2.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-52 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

.(2.33.17)
sinh y +1,cosh
5. By comparison of eq. (2.33.16) and eq. (2.33.17) with general transmission
circuit constant of eq. (2.33.1) and eq. (2.33.2), we get
A = D = cosh y,

B Z, sinh y and

C-sinh .
Que 2.34. Explain Ferranti effect.

Answer
1. When medium or long transmission lines are operated at no-load or
light-load, the receiving-end voltage becomes more than the sending
end voltage. The phenomenon of rise in voltage at the receiving-end of
a transmission line during no load or light load condition is called the
Ferranti effect.
2. The charging current produces a voltage drop in the series reactance of
the line. This voltage drop is in phase opposition to the receiving-end
voltage, and hence the sending-end voltage becomes smaller than th
receiving-endvoltage.
3. In order to determine the magnitude of voltage rise, one-half of the total
line capacitance will be assumed to be concentrated at the receiving-end
as shown in Fig. 2.34.1(a). The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 2.34.116).
I, = 0

CIZ
R
A

(a) Circuit diagram. (6) Phasor diagram

P 2.341
4. Taking receiving-end voltage as reference phasor, we have
V, =
V, 20°
and is represented by phasor OA.

5. Charging current
= YV
This is represented by phasor OD.
6. The sending-end voltage

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

2-54 B (EN-Sem-5)

4 MVAr used by transmission line ='X

where, is in kA.

5. Transmission line SIL is the MW loading (at

a unity power factor) at
to the line MVAr production Hence,
which the line MVAr usage is equal
SIL occurs when:

(kV¥
P X

XX = (2.35.1
And the eq. (2.35.1). can be rewTitten as

V2L (Since for lossless line. R

- 0)

27T
L Surge impedance
. vc =

SIL is equal to tbe ratio of voitage squared

The surge impedance loading
6 (in ohins).
(in V) to surge impedance

SIL (MW= Surge impedance

be nesded for
For loading much higher than SIL, shunt capacitor may
load Ta, i.e..
improving the voltage along life and tor light be needed u educe
profile cond:t
inductors may
load much less than the SIL, shunt
current.
the line charging

Determine ABCD
Explain surge impedance loading.
Que 2.36. km line
constants for a 3-phase 50 Hz
transmission 200
distributed parameters l=1.3x i0Hkm,
long having the following
c 9x 10- F/km, r =
0.20 /km, g= 0. AKTU2016-17,Marka 15
Answer
Refer Q. 2.35, Page 2-53B, Unit-2.
A Surge impedance loading:
B. Numerical:
Given:f=50 Hz, 1=1.3x 10-3 H/kn,c =9x
10- F/kn
0
r=0,20 5km, g
=

To Pind:A, B, C and D constants.

z = r +jo

50x 1.3 103

=
0.2+j x
2 x x

= 0.2 j0.408407

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

2-55 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

= 0.454748 2 63.9° ohm/km.

y = joe
Jx 2n x 50 x 9 x 10

= 2827.4334 x 10 90° S/km

0.454748263.9°

V2827.4334 x 103 290°

= 401.04L-13.04567° ohm

= 1.1339 x 10 76.95
y =
0.22678 L76.95°
= 0.051189 +j0.2208

cosh y = cosh (0.051189 +j0.2208)

= cosh 0.051189. cos 0.2208

tj sinh 0.51189 sin 0.2208

= 1.001310x 0.9757+j0.0512113 x 0.2190

= 0.97698+j0.0112158

= 0.97704 20.65770°

sinh y= sinh (0.97698 +j0.00112158)

1
= sin h 0.97698 cos 0.0112158

+j cosh 0.97698 sin 0.112158

= 0.05112113 x 09757 +j1.001310 x 0.219

= 0.04995+j0.21928 = 0.22489 277.167

A = D =cosh y
= 0.97704 20.65770°

9. B =2, sinh y!
401.04 L-13.04657° x 0.22489 277.167

= 90.18989 264.12133°

0.22489277.167
10. Csinh 401.042-13.04567
= 0.000561 290.21267

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3 UNIT
Transmission and
Distribution of
Electric Power-l

CONTENTS
Part-1 Mechanical Design of Over.. i-ZB tO 3-7B
Headlines: Catenary Curve,
Calculation of Sag and Tension

Part-2 Bfects of Wind and ice.. .3-7B to 3-15B

Loading, Sag Template,
Vibration Dampers

Part-3: . 3-15B to 3-16B

Overhead Line Insulators .
of Insulators and their
**

Types
Applications
Part-4 : Potential Distribution.. . 3-18B to 3-273
Over a String of Insulators,

Methods of Equalizing the Potential,

String Eficiency

3-1B (EN-Sem-5)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-2B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

PART 1
Mechanical Design of Over Headlines: Catenary Curve,
Calculation ofSag and Tension

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1 Explain sag. Also derive expression for sag of a conductor
in overhead transmission line when supported at equal levels and
at two different levels.
OR
Deduce an expression for sag in overhead transmission lines when
Supports at equal levels
i are

ii. Supports are at unequal levels.

AKTU 2018-19,Marks07
Answer
A Sag: The difference in levels between point of support and the lowest
point on
the conductoris called sag.
The sag is denoted by S as shown in Fig. 3.1.1.

Wwww Conductor
Fig. 8.1.1
B. Supports at equal levels:
A WZ-

************************************************************

x/2

Fi.3.1.3. Supports nt equal level.

1. Let l = Span length

w
T=
=
Weight per length of conductor
Tension in the conduetor
unit
S= Sag

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-3B (EN-Sem-5)

2. Consider a point P on the conductor. Its coordinates are x and y, taking

O as the origin.
3. If the curvature is considered so small that curved length is equal to its
horizontal projection,i.e., OP =x, then the forces
OP are actingon the portion
i The weight wx of the conductor acting at a distance x/2 from O.
is. The tension T acting at O.
4. Taking moments of these forces about point P, we get
Txy = uwx x x/2

y=
wx
2T
The maximum
sag (dip) is represented by the value of y at either of the
supportsA and B.
5. At support A (or B),
x= /2 and y = S

wl2
Sag, S= 2)
2T 8T
C. Supports at
Let
unequal
l
level:
=
Span length
h =Difference in levels between two
supports
= Distance of support A from 0
2 Distance of support B from O
w =
Weight per unit length of conductor
T Tension

*****************7*****************.

Fig. 31.3.Supportsat uneguallevels

Now, wX VX
S 2T andS, =
Also,
3.1.1)

S-S,272797-

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

3-4B (EN-Sem-5)

27+,Xz, -z,)

Sa-S -»)
. But, S-Sh
. h

2Th .3.1.2)
-,)=
wl
5. Adding eq. (3.1.1) and (3.1.2), we get

1+ ZTh
Zr, =

wl
Th
X 2 wl
6. And, z 2
After finding z, and z2, the values of S, and S, can be calculated. wl23 can be calculated.
method for the calculation of sag and
Que Explain catenary
tension in transmission line.

A conductor takes the form of

1. When sag is comparable with the span then
catenary A and B with O as the
2. Consider a conductor, supported at the points
lowest point on the conductor, as shcwn in the Fig. 3.2.1.

dy
P dx
Tangent at
point P

3. Let w
=
Weight per unit length
T TensionatpointP c. The point O is
4. Let P be the point onthe conductor such that OP =

P are (x, y). The tension 7 is acting

origin and the co-ordinates of point
tangentially at point P.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-5B (EN-Sem-5)

5. The various forces acting on the curve portion OP of the wire are
i Horizontal tension, H acting at O.
Weight of the portion OPwhich is ue acting verticallydownward through
centre of gravity.
i
Horizontal and
verticalcomponents oftensionT in the conductor
and T, acting at P.
ie., T,
6. n the equilibrium condition, horizontal and vertical components will
balance each other.
T, = H
and T, = wc

Now tan 0 =

7. tan 8 can also be written as,

tan 6: ..(3.2.1)
8. Now (de
dr
= (d«) + (dy)2

dx -1
9 Substituting from equation (3.2.1) we get,

dx = de
H2
10. Integrating both sides

a -sinh A
w
where A = Constant of integration
11. Now at x = 0 ie., at point O0, c =0
hence we get A = 0

x=sinh'| ..3.2.2)
12. Taking hyperbolie sine of both sides,

iah
in (3.2.3)
13. From eq. (3.2.1),
dy
d H

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-6 B (EN-Sem-6) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-1I

y sinhd
H
14. Integrating both sides,

y cosh +B 3.2.4)

B Constant ofintegration
where y = 0, x = 0 at point O
15. when

H
B
w

y cosh uH

y WL
cosh ...(3.2.5)

This is the required equation of the catenary form of conductor

Calculation of tension T and conductor half span length :
1. The tension T'at any point Pis,
T - T +T =H+ wve2

H+ sinh
H1sinh
7= HP cosh
H.

wx
T=Hcosh
l Half span length
and the supports A andB are at same level then,
H
csinh
w H
This is length of curved conductor in half span.
3. While the sag S can be obtained by putting y = S in eq. (3.2.5).

s DL
-
4.
con-1
2H
The eq. (3.2.3) giving the arc length c can be expanded as,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-7B (EN-Sem-5)

C 8inh

H wx w'r
X+6H
6. In such approximation
tolH 3!H
we can assume HT.

CX+
w'r
6T
6. So half span length can be obtained by substituting x = 1,

c= l+ =1w
czl 6T2"L6T*J
Que 3.3.Explain catenary method for the ealeulation of sag and
tension in transmissionline.
An overhead line has a span of 200 metres, the line conductor weights
0.7 kg per meter. Calculate the marimum sag if allowable tension in
the line is 1,400 kg. Prove formuls used.AKTU2017-18,Marike10
Answer
A Catenary method for calculation of sag and tension :
Refer Q 3.2, Page 3-4B, Unit-3.
B. Numerical
Given:I 200 m, w = 0.7 kg per meter, T 1400 kg
To Find: Maximum sag,S.
Maximum sag, sS w 0.7x 200x 200
8x 1400
87
2.5 m

Proof of S- Refer
Q 3.1, Page 3-28, Unit-3.

PART-2
EfectsofWind and Ise Loading,Sag Template
ibrationDampers.

Question8-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Question

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-8B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

Que3.4 Discuss the effect of atmospheric condition on

transmission line.
OR
Derive expression for sag and tension in power conductor string
between two supports at equal heights taking into account wind

and ice loading.

AKTU 2015-16,Marka10
AKTU 2019-20,Marks 07
Answer
A Expression for sag and tension for supports at equal heights :
Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3-2B, Unit-3.
B. Effect of atmospheric condition on transmission line:
a. Effect of Ice coating:
When the transmission line is coated with ice, the thickness and size of
the conductor increases. This thickness depends on the weather
conditions.

2 This causes increase in weight of the conductor; increase in weight

increases the vertical sag.
3. The weight of ice acts vertically downwards, in the same direction as
that of the conductor.

4 Consider a conductor with diameter d. It is coated with ice thickness t as

shown in Fig. 3.4.1. Hence the overall diameter of the coated conductor
is D.

Fig. 3.4.1, ice coated conductor

D =d+ 2t
and the area of the coated conductor is

5 Area of the ice covering

A1D-d'l 4

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-9 B (EN-Sem-5)

6. The density of ice is 915 kg/m". Hence the total weight of ice can be
obtained as,

w, = 915 xD -d'] kg/m

=
Weight of ice per unit length

915xKd +2-d1
915x ld' + 4dt +4t -d#]
4
915 x ldt + t2]
w, = 9l5t (d + t) kg/m

B. Effect of wind pressure:

1The wind flows horizontallyand hence the wind pressure on the
conductor is considered to be acting perpendicular to the conductor.
2. Thus force due to wind act at right angles to the projected surface of the
conductor as shown in Fig. 3.4.2.

Conductor

Wind
force

F342.Dretion of wind foree

be obtained as,
3 The wind force w can

w = Wind force per unit length in kg/m

= Wind pressure per uit area x Projected surface
area per unit length
= Wind pressure x (d + 22) x 1

Pld +24)
where, P Wind pressure in kg/m*
d = Diameter of conductor
t Thickness of ice coating if exists
C. Effect ofice and wind:
w = Weight of conductor itself acting vertically
1. Let
down ward

w= Weight of ice acting verticallydownward

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

3-10 B (EN-Sem-5)

w =
Wind force acting horizontally
the conductor is vector sum of the
2. Hence the total force acting on

horizontal and vertical forces as shown in Fig. 3.4.3.

w.

W Wi
Fig. 34.3.

= Total weight acting on conductor

w,

ylw+w,+(w

0 measured with respect to vertical.

3. The sag direction is at an angle
Hence the sag is called slant sag. This is calculated by the expression

considering the total weight w",

Slant sag, S= w"

8T
The conductor adjusts itself in a plane which is at an angle & with respect
4.
to vertical; the angle is given by,

tan 6
(w+w,)
with respect to vertical, the angle 8
5. As slant sag S is the direction of an

vertical sag is cosine component of slant sag

S,
Vertical sag = S cos 6

its
sag template and
use.
Que 35, Explain

Apswer
1. Sag template isconvenient device used in the design
a of a transmission
determine the location and height of
tower.
line to

for normal spans and for standard

2. For locating the tower positions,
of conductor curve are calculated under
towers, the sag and the nature
on a thin stiff plastic sheet such a
expected load condition and plotted
graph is called sag template.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-11 B (EN-Sem-5)

Hot curve
Ground clearancei
Iine
Support foot Profile
Curve Tower -
Tower

Fig. 3.5.1. Sag template.

3. The curves which are marked on it are:

Location of support (tower) or Hot curve: These curves are obtained

by plotting sags at maximum temperature against span lengths. It gives
us the location of supports to maintain proper ground clearance,

ii. Ground clearance curve: This curve is below hot curve. It is drawn
parallel to the hot curve and at a vertical distance equal to ground
clearance as prescribed by the regulations for the given line.
ii. Support foot curve or tower curve: It is drawn to locate the position
of support for tower lines. It shows height from the base of standard
support to the point of attachment of the lowest conductor.
iv. Uplift curve or cold curve: Theseare obtained by plotting the sags at
minimum temperature without ice or wind loading against span length.
These are drawn to check whether uplift of conductors occurs at any
support.
Use of sag template:
For correct design and
econom
ii It is used to allocate the position and height of the support correctly on
the profile.

Que 3.6. Why do the vibrations get generated in conductors ?

How are they damped ? Explain effect of wind and ice loading on the

mechanical design of a line. AKTU 2017-18,Marks 10

Answer
A. Vibrations :
1 The conductors are supported on the string insulators at each tower

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-12 B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission& Distribution of Electric Power-I

2. Under widely varying at mospheric conditions like strong wind velocities,

the conductor can start vibrating mechanically in the vertical plane.
Such vibrations can have different frequencies amplitudes & modes.
Types of vibrations in the vertical plane:
a. Aeoline vibrations:
1. The Aeoline vibrations have the frequency range of 5 to 50 Hz with
amplitudes varying between 2 and 5 em.
Thus these vibrations are high frequeney low anplitude vibrations.
of about 2 to 40
3.
The wind velocities
vibrations.
kmph can generate such type of

Minimization of aeoline vibration: The effect of aeoline vibration

can be minimized by,
Use of bundle conductor
2 Proper design and location of spacers
3. Use of damper
4 Use of clamps.
b. Galloping of conductor/dancing of conductor:
The galloping means dancing of conductors at the low frequency and
high amplitude.
These are the oscillations of complete span of conductors.

3 The frequenciesofgallopingare
about 6 m.
about 0.5 to 2 Hz with the amplitude of

Minimization of galloping of conductor:

There are no method by which galloping can be restricted but in icing
conditions height of the conductors can be designed properly considering
the amplitude of possible of possible galloping.
B. Vibration dampers: Vibration damper are the devices used to minimize
the vibrations in the conductors. The following two devices are used to
prevent vibration in conduetors:
a. Armour rods:

Lenympm

Pig. 8.6.1.Armour rud.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-13 B (EN-Sem-5)

Armour rods are spiral layers of small round rods and are tapered at

each end
They are much larger in diameter than the actual conductor, so they
provide resistance to bending at suspension point thus reducing
amplitude of vibration by distributing stresses at support point.
3. They also provide excellent protection against flashover.
b. Stockbridge damper:
1. Itis a device which absorbs vibrational energy. It consists of two hollow
weights joined by a flexible steel wire and a clamp in the midle point to
attach it to conductors.
2. Two dampers are required at each point of suspension of conductors,
one on either side. Each span of conductor contains two dampers but for
longer span the number of dampers may increase.

Fig 3.62.Stockbridgedamper
c. Effect of wind and ice loading : Refer Q. 3.4, Page 3-8B, Unit-3.

between level
Que 3.1. A transmission line has span of 150
supports. The line conductor has a cross sectional
a m

area of 1.25 cm
and it weights 120 kg per 100 m. If the breaking stress of the copper
conductor is 4220 kg/lem, caleulate the maximum sag for a safety
factor of 4. Assume maximum wind pressure of 90 kg/m* of projected

surface. ARTU 2018-19,Marks07

Answer
Given: L = 150 m, a = 1.25 cm, k = 4, Weight = 120 kg/100 m

1.2 kg/m, Breakingstress= 4220 kg/em

To Find: Maximum sag
T BreaKing stress x a 4220 x 1.25 - 1319 kg
1. Tension, k

2. Diameter, d =1.26 cm

3. Ww = Wind pressure x d = 90 x 1.26 x 10-2 = 1.134 kg/m

4. W,= V1.2 +1.134* = 1.66 kg/m

w, 1.66 x 1b0 = 3.52 m

5. MaximumsaE 8T 8x1319

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

3-14 B (EN-Sem-5)

conductor has an effective diameter

Que 3.8.A transmission line
and weights 1.0 kg/m. If the maximum permissibleandsag
of 19.5 mm
horizontal wind pressure of 39 kg/m*
of projected area
with a
12.7 mm radial ice coating is 6.3 m. Calculate the permissible span
a safety factor of
2.
two supports at the same level allowing
between conductor is 8,000 kg and weight of ice is
of the
Ultimate strength
910 kg/m'.

Answer

19.5 cm, Weight of

Given: Diameter of the conductor is, d =

conductor, w, = 1.0 kg/m, Wind pressure, P= 39 kg/m, Radial ice

Maximum permissible sag, D= 6.3 m, Safety
coating,t=
factor= 12.7 mm,strength =8000 kg, Weight ofice, u, =910 kg/m
2, Ultimate
at the same level (L)
To Find: Permissible span between
two supports

Maximum allowable tension, *Safety strength8000A

factor 4000 kg
2

Are of ice-section
= tld + t)
2.
= Tx 12.7(19.5 + 12.7)

= 1284.723 mm
= 1284 x 10° m

910 x 1284 x 10-5

3. Weight of ice, w,
=

= 1.1691 kg/m
3Nd + 22))
4. Wind pressure, 12.7) x 10-3
= 3%19.5+2 x

= 1.751 kg/m

yw (w. uw* 1.751'

+ + = +(1.0 +
1.1691
5. Resultantweight, w,

2.7876 kg/m
D= w,L
6. Sag, 8T

6.3=
2.7876L
8x 4000

L'=
6.3 x8 x 4000
2.7876
269
ofspan,L
= m
7. Length

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-15 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

in conductors ?
Why do the vibrations get generated
Que 3.9.
How are they damped ?
A 132 kV transmission line has the following data:
260 m
680 kg/km; Length of span
=

Weight of conductor =

3100 kg; Safety factor 2 =

Ultimate strength =

should
above ground at which the conductor
Calculate the height is 10 m.
be supported. Ground clearance required
AKTU2016-17,Marks10
Answer
Unit-3.
Generation of vibration: Refer Q. 3.6, Page 3-11B,
Numerical:

Given:1= 260 m, to = 680 kg/km, Ultimate strength =3100 kg,

Ground clearance 10 mn
Sp= 2,
=

To Find: Height of conductor above ground.

1. Maximum working tension,
3100
Hltimate tensilestrength_
Safety factor
= 1550 kg

S= w
680 x(260
2. Sag. 8x 1550O
8H
3.70 m
=S+ Ground clearance
3. Height above ground 3.70+10 13.70m

PART3
OverheadLine Insulators: Types of Insulators
and their Applications

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Discuss the different types of Insulator.

Que3.10.
OR
Describe pin type, sumpension type and strain type insulators with

net sketch. AKTU2017-18,Marks10

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-16B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-T

Answer
A Pin type insulator:
Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electrie
power at voltage upto 33 kV.

rOove for conductor

Metal pin

Fig. 3.10.1. Pin type insulators

2. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV the pin type insulator become bulky
and hence uneconomical.
3. On the upper end, there is a groove for housing the conductor. The pin
insulators are very firmly secured to the cross arm on the transmission

pole with the help of steel bolts.

4. The conductor passes through the groove on the upper end and is bound
ot soft or soft aluminum i.e., of the same
by the binding wire copper
material as that of conductor.
Advantage: It is cheaper for upto operating voltage of 33 kV.
Disadvantage: This type of insulator becomes very bulky and cost also
increase rapidly tor higher operating voltage.
B. Suspension insulator:
1 These insulator used for high transmission lines. These insulators have
number of porcelain disc units. These units are connected to one another
in series with the help of metal links.
2. This forms a string of porcelain disCs. The topmost insulators unit is
connected to the cross arm of the tower while the lowest insulator is
made to hold the conductor along the conductor shoe.
3. Each unjt is designed for the low voltage for say 11 kV but a string of
such units give us the proper insulation against high level voltage.
4. The overall string of suspension type insulator is shown in the
Fig. 3. 10.2.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-17 B (EN-Sem-5)

Tower
JCross arm
Disc

-Last unit
(line unit)

Line conductor

Fig.3.10.2.Stringsuspensioninsulator with 3
units
Advantages:
L In case of failure any of the unit, the replacement work can be done
very easily and entire string need not be replaced.
This type of insulator provides greater flexibility to the line.
Disadventage : Suspension type insulators require large spacing
between the conductors of string.
C. Strain insulators:
These insulators are used when there is dead end of the line is at a sharp
curve or the line is crossing the river etc.
2. These insulators reduce the excessive tension on the line under such
abnormal condition. For high voltage strain insulators are used.
3. The discs of the strain insulators are in a vertical plane.
4. In case of condition like crossing of river, there is excessive tension on
the line. In such a case two or more strings of the insulators are used in
parallel.
Advantage: It is economical for high operating voltage.
Strain insulator Guy Strain
insulator
wire
HH"*" YPole -A*
Guy wire Line
conductor
Jumper
Pole Jumper
Line
conductor

(b)
Fig 3.10.8, Uoe of ntraín inwulator

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-I

3-18 B (EN.Sem-5)

D. Shackle insulator:
1. This is also called spool insulators. These are primarily used for low

voltage distribution lines.

These insulators can be used in horizontal position or in vertical position.
These are used at the dead end of the aerial wire of service connection
to a house or a factory where there is excessive mechanical stress on

the line.

I-Bolt
Pole

--oH= Shackle
I nsulator

D shaped iron plate

Fig3104.Sbackleinnulator.
E Stay insulators :
L The stay insulators are also called egg insulators. In case of low voltage
to be insulated at a
height of not
lines,it is necessary that the
stays are

less than 3 meters from ground.

2. The stay insulators are used on stay wire to create insulation between
pole and stay clamp.
3. It is usually made of porcelain. It has two holes for the stay wires and the
is such that in case the insulator breaks then the stay wires will
design
not fall on the ground.

11.2 cm 16 em
ULDUGULUDU=

(a)
P s10.58tay fnedlator

PART-4
Potential Distribution Over a String of Insulators,
Methods of Equalizing the Potential, String Efficienecy.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-19 B (EN-Sem-5)

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.11. Explain how the potential is distributed over a string of

suspension insulators ? Also write about string efficiency.

Answer

A
1.
Voltagedistributed
Let
overastring:
C Self capacitance
V= Voltage across string
1 V2 3., Voltage drop acrossstring from 1, 2, ... n

v,vV.v,= Voltage between conductors

Capacitanceto earth
Self capacitance
Capacitance to earth=kx self capacitance = kC

c Cross arm

Support
3

kC

V= V

kC C

Line conductor

Fig 3.11.1,Voltagedistribution aeross the units of a

atring
2. Applying KCL at node P,

,.jos) = i,jio)+ V, (jokC)

"p + RV, 3.11.1)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-20 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

* V .(3.11.2)
We can find voltage across any string using eq. (3.11.) and (3.11.2).
Let us find voltage across each insulator of each string i.e., to calculate
3.
terms of
2 34
in
v
4. Top most insulator or first insulator:
Voltage across insulator = U1

5. Second insulator :
Using eq. (3.11.1),
U+kV,
But V,= U
v, = (1 +k) U .(3.11.3)
6. Third insulator:
2 +kV2
But V = U+U2
U = U2 + R{V, + U2
.(3.11.4)

7. Fourth insulator:
D3+ RV3
But
V3 U+U2+U3
4Ua+ R\U, + U2+ Ug)

U k{v+U2)+(1 + kU3
.. (3.11.5)
Similarly, we can calculate for all insulators.
8. It is clear that

2a 4*******
Since mutual capacity of each disc is same and the current through the
top most unit is minimum, the voltage drop across that unit will be
minimum. Going towards power conductor the current goes on
increasing, and will be maximum in the lowest unit. So the voltage drop
is maximum there.
B. String Efficiency: String efficiency is neasure of the utilization of
material in the string and is defined as :

Voltage across t 1e string

n Voltage across the insulator nearest to ine conductor
where n is number of dise or insulator,

Que 3.12.| Explain the methods of equalizing the potential across

the string insulator. And define string efficiency.

AKTU 2017-18,Marks10
Answer
A. Methods of equulizing potentinl :

a By using longer eross-arms

1. The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of R is ratio

of
shunt capacitance to mutual capacitance

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-21 B (EN-Sem-5)

2. The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more
uniform is the voltage distribution. The value of K can be decreased by

reducing the shunt capacitance.

the distance of conductor from
3. In order to reduce shunt capacitance,
tower must be increased i.e., longer cross-arms should be used.
do not allow the use
4.
However, limitations
of cost and strength of tower
of very long crosS-arm.

Tower

Cross arm

Shunt

capacitor Line

F3.13.1
b. By using a
guardring: is electrically connected to the
1. Aguard ring is simply a metal ring which
conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
2. The potential across unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard
connected to the conductor and
ring which is metal ring electrically
surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in the Fig. 3.13.2.

ULLLILILLLIL
. CT
Ca
C

guard

ring

P.3.12.2
3. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the
line conductor. The guard ring is contoured in such a way that shunt

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-22 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

capacitance currentsS i, i2 etc., are equal to metal fittings line capacitance

currents i',i'2 etc.
4. The result is that same charging current I flows through each unit of
string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across
the unit.
c. By grading the insulators
1. In this method, insulators of different dimensions are so chosen that
each has a different capacitance.
2. The insulators are capacitance graded i.e., they are assembled in the
string in such a way that the top unit has the minimum capacitance,
increasing progressively as the bottom unit is reached.
3. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance. This method tends
to equalise the potential distribution across the units in the string.
B. String efficiency: Refer Q. 3.11, Page 3-19B, Unit-3.

Que3.13.Explainwhy the voltage does not divide equally across

the
units of a string insulator.
Find the voltage distribution and string efficieney of a three unit
suspension insulator string if the capacitance of the link pins to
earth and to the line are respectively 20 % and 10 % of the self
capacitance of each unit. If a guard ring increases the capacitance
to the line of lower link pin to 35 % of the self capacitance of each
unit, find the redistribution of voltage and string efficiency.

AKETU 201S-19,Marka07
Answer
A Reason: The voltage does not divide equally across the various units of
a string insulator. The capacitance between the metal parts of the
insulators and the tower structure is the main reason for this.
B. Numerical:

0.2C 0.1C
i

Na
0.2C 0.1C
i
C

Pig8,13.1

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
3-23 B (EN-Sem-5)
1.
Applying KCL at node P,

I+i'=Iti
V0C(V, V,) 0.1 oC =V, »C
+
+0.2
V, »C
1.2
V-1.1 V2-0.1 Vs =0 .(3.13.1)
2 Similarlyat Q,

VgoC+0.1 VgoC V2 oC+0.2 (V, +V,) »C

=

0.2 V, -1.2 V2- 1.1 V = 0

.3.13.2)
3. From eq. (3.13.1) and
(3. 13.2), we get
V2 = 0.78 V, and V, =0.80 V

V= V1 +V2+ V3
0.80 V
=
+0.78 Vg+ V, =
2.58 V3
Va 38.76%V
V2 = 30.23%V

V, =31 %V
Stringefficiency=
V
x 100 =
2.58 V
x 100 86 %

With guard ring: Pin to line capacitance is increased from 0.1C to

0.35C.
1. 1.2 V-1.1 V2-0.1 V, =0 .(3.113.3)

0.2V,+1.2V,-1.35Vg =0 3.113.4)

2. From eq. (3.13.3) and (3.13.4),

V2 = 0.96 V, and V, = 0.97 V3
V=
3. V1+ V,+ V3
=
V, 0.96 V+ V
0.97 + =
2.93 V
V 34.13%V
232.76 % V
V, = 33.1 % V

V
2.93 V 97.,67% -

4. Stringetticieney3 Vv, 3 V
Que 3.14. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of
The shunt
3 identical insulat ors of self-capucitunce C farud.
metal insulator is 0.2C to
work of each
capacitance of connecting
the string efficiency of the system
earth and 0.1 C to line. Caleulate
the line of mets work of
increases the capacitance to
if a guard ring
the lowest insulator to 0.3 C. AKTU 2015-16,Marks 7.5

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

3-24 B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission& Distribution of Electric Power-II

Answer
Given: Conductor to earth capacitance 0.20C
Conductor to line capacitancen 0.01C
To Find: String eficiency if the guard ring increases the capacitance
to the line of metal work of the lowest insulator to 0.3C

1. Let E, E, and E, be the voltage drops across the discs as shown in

ig. 3.14.l. Applying Kirchhoff's current law at node A, we have

IIILLLLILLILL

A2.
0.2C C-o
0,1C
c

B,oC + (E2+Eg)o0.1C -E,oC-0.26, oC= 0

B +B+ B 0.1-B-0.28, = 0
1.1,+0. 18,-1.2E,= 0
1.2E,- 1.1E, -0.12, 0 (3.14.1)
2. Again writing equation at node B

E,Co +E0. loC-E,oC-,+E,)0.2-0

E+0.1F- 1.28, -0.28, =0
3. 0.28,+1.28,-1.1E,=0
There are three unknowns with two equations. We divide
.3.14.2)
both of
them by E, and rewrite them as
12x- 11y =l ..(3.14.3)
2x+ 12y = 11 3..14.4)
where, x = andy = 2
,
0.2,+1.2E, - 1.3E =0
2x + 12y = 13
12x - 11y = l
12x + 72y = 78

12x-11y zl
83y 77

Now, y 0.9277

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 3-25 B (EN-Sem-5)

2x 13-12 x 0.9277
r = 0.9337

. . 0.9337 and 0.9277

B =0.9337E, and E, =0.9277
E= B, +Eg + E = 0.9337E, + 0.9277E, +E

E = 0.3494E or 34.94 %
E, = 0.9277 x 34.94 % = 32.42%
0.9337 34.94 32.62 %
E = x =

5.
%Stringefticiency 3x0.3494 x100 95.4 %

ofn suspension insulators is to be fitted with a

Que 3.15. A string
guard ring. If the pin to earth capacitance are all equal to C, derive
the general expression for the line to pin capacitor in ternms of n, C
and p (number of pins), so as to give uniform voltage distributions

over the string. AKU20167 Marka10

Answer
1 Since voltage across each unit is same, current flowing in each unit, i.e.
, etc., ill be qual.
2 Applying KCL atjunction P,

But
A
EC (n - 1)EA

A n-
-
3. Similarly, by applying KCL at ,

But 2

28C = (n -2) EB

B=
n-4

4. Similarly, C3 D =
n-3 n-5

F= and 7C
G = n-7
5. In general the capacitance from the shield to the ph link from the top is

given by C, = pC
n-P

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

S-26 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission & Distribution of Electric Power-II

m
B
B n2)E
Q
C
mc.

n-39
nC.
D

D n- 4)E

mC
(n-6)E
mC
n 7)E

ConductorI
location
P415.
Que 3.16.|Explainthe methods of equalizingthe potentialacross
the string insulator. A string of 8
fitted with a
suspension insulators is to be
grading ring.
If the pinto earth capacitance is
equal to
C, find the values of line of
pin capacitances that would give a uniform
voltage distribution over the string.
AKTU 2019-20,Marka 07
ADswer
i. Methods of equalizing the potential : Refer Q. 3.12,
Page 3-20B, Unit-3.
ii. Numerical:
1 The capacitanceof the pth link from the top is given by,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I
3-27B (EN-Sem-5)
2. Heren 8, C. Hence the line to pin
=
C, =

capacitancefrom the top are

given by,

e-1 3-23
3c
5c 6c 3
-5

VERY IMPORTANTQUESTIONS
Following questions are very important These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSiTYEXAMINATIONN

Q.1. Explain sag. Also derive expression for sag of a conductor

in overhead transmission line when supported at equal
levels and at two different levels.
Refer Q.3.1, Unit-3.
Q2. Explain catenary method for the calculation of sag and
tension in transmission line.
An overhead line has a span of 200metres, the line conductor
weights 0.7 kg per meter. Calculate the maximum sag if
allowable tension in the line is 1,400 kg. Prove formula used.
Refer Q3.3, Unit-3.
3. Diacuss the effect of atmoupheric condition on tranamission
line.
Refer Q 3.4, Unit-3.
4. Explain sag template and its use.

Refer Q. 3.5, Unit-3.

Q6. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level

supports. The line conductorhas a cross sectionalarea of

1.25 cm and it weights 120 kg per 100 m. If the breaking
stress of the copper conductor is 4220 kg/cm*, calculate the
maximum sag fora safety factor of 4. Assume maximum
wind pressure of 9O kg/m* of projected surface.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission Line
UNITT
Parameters

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Inductance and Capacitance . 4-2B to 4-27B
Calculations of Transmission
Lines: Line Conductors,
Inductance and Capacitance
of Single Phase and three Phase
Lines with Symmetrical and
Unsymmetrical spacing

Part-2:Composite *** *. **** 4-28B to 4-32B

Conductors-Transposition,
Bundled Conductors, and
Effect of Barth on
Capacitance

4-1B(EN-Sem-5)
Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-2B (EN-Sem-5) Transinission Line Parameters

LPART-1
Inductance and Capacitence Calculations of Transmission
Lines: Line Conductors, Inductance and Cupacitance of
Single Phase and three Phase Lines with Syamelrical and
UnsymmeiricalSpocug
Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Mcdium Answer Fvpe uestiona

Que 4.1 What do you understand by line conductor ? Also explain

the different types of line conductors in power system.

Answer
A Line conductors: It is a material or element which allows free
and therefore allows easy flow of electricity.
movement of electrons
B. Types : Refer Q. 2.8, Page 2-183, Unit-2.

the factors, which considered during

Que 4.2.Explain are

line. Also how ground wire

designing a transmission explain
selection is done ? AKTU 201817Me ls0
Answer
1. Choice for transmission voltage: The line voltage affects the
performance of line and its cost. For getting the optimum operation
transmiss1on voltage, we may use 1O1lowing empirical tormula

P
V-5.56'100
Here V= Operating line voltage in kV
D Distance of transmission in km
P Power handled in kW
A standard voltage nearer to that obtained with above formula is selected
for the given line. The formula gives the basic estimate. By considering
various technical and economic aspects, it is posaible to obtain the most
economical voltage.
Conductor size selection: The size of conductors should be properly
selected during the design as about 30 to 45 % of total cost of line is
involved in cost of conductor, The size of conductor decides cost of towers

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-3B (EN-Sem-5)

and foundations. The losses in line are also dependent on size of conductor
selected. Normally ACSR conductors are used which are available in
variety of sizes.
3 Choice of span and conductor configuration: If line span is long
then less number of towers will be required but the towers will be taller
and expensive. The longer line span is used for higher operating voltage
so that high cost of insulators is reduced.
4
Number of circuits:Atransmissionline mayconsistofsingle circuit
or double circuit. With double circuit line high power can be transferred
and reliability is more than that of single circuit line.
5 Ground wire selection : The phase conductors are protected
from
lightning strokes using ground wire. The ground wire is placed above
the phase conductors. It is grounded at every or alternate tower due to
which lightning current are diverted to ground.
The ground wire should be designed to carry the maximum
lightning current without heating. It must have enough mechanica
expected
strength so as to avoid excessive heating of ground wire due to maximum
ightning current. The size ot ground wire is based on the mechanical
strength and normally material used for ground wire is galvanized steel
6 Insulation design: The performance of
insulation design.
line is greatly affected by
It should take care of switching temporary and
atmospheric overvoltage.

Que 43.Describe the various conductor configurations and

choice of number of circuits for EHV transmission lines.

OR
AETU2016-17,Marke 15
Describe the various conductor
configurationsand choice of voltage,
number of circuits for EHV transmission lines. Make economic
comparison of EHV-AC & BHVDC system.

AKTU 2017-18,Marka 10
Answer
A Conductor configurationfor EHV transmission
voltagelines above 400 kV, bundled conductors are used.
line : For high
Bundled oconductor: Refer Q. 2.9, Page 2-19B,
Unit-2.
B. Number of circuit of lines
1. Single cireuit: In
this configurationthree conductors
each other carrying three phase of current.
run parallel to

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

44B (ENSem-5) Transmission Line Parameters

aO bO

Fig 431Single cireuit

2 Single cireuit transposed line: In this configuration 3 parallel
conductors are so placed that after particular span each conductor takes
the position of other conductor.

Bi821ranspositionofconductora
3. Double circuit: In this configuration two sets of three conductors run
parallel to each other.

aO Ob
bO Oe
O Or
Fis 433.Double circuis
4 Double circuit transposed: In this configuration two set of three

parallel conductors are so placed such that each conductor takes the
position of other conductor after a fixed span of length.

cO Ob bO

Ox cO Oc

cO bO Oe Ob

FA84/Trabaposaddoublocíieuftlbi
C. Choice of Voltage:Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4-28, Unit-4.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-5 B (EN-Sem-5)

D. Comparison :

S. No. HVDC EHV-AC

1.Line constructionis simpler. LAne construction 1s compleX.

2. No skin effect. Skin effect is prominent.

and radio
Less corona Morecoronaand radio
interference. interference.
4. Expensive converters are Converters required are
le Ss
required. expensive.

Voltage level transformation Voltage level transformation can

is not easier be easily done using
transformers.

Que 44. Derive the expression for inductance of a conduetor due

to:
i. Internal flux.
ii. External flux.

Answer
i. Inductance due to internal flux:
1 Consider a long, cylindricalconductor.
2. Let us assume that I is the current flowing through it and conductor
through which current is returning is so far away that magnetic field
due to returning conductor is not affecting the flux lines due to conductor
under consideration. Lines of flux are concentric with conductor.

Flux
Piz 41. Coction of a ylindriealconducto
3. By Ampere's Law, ¢H,ds = 1, ..(4.4.1)
where, H, = Magnetie field intensity at distance x from centre

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission Line Parameters

4-6B (EN-Sem-6)

s = Distance along path

=Current enclosed
circular path 2rx, eq. (4.4.1) becomes
of ds along closed
=

4. Integration
...(4.4.2
2rxH, conductor.
5. Assuming uniform current density inside

.(4.4.3)

6. Solving eq. (4.4.2) and (4.4.3), we get

H, 2
27 AT/m .4.4.4)

7.
If =H, P, permeability of conductor
Flux density at distance x from centre of conductor,

Wb/m'
B = uH, .4.5)

8. Flux enclosed in element of thickness dx per metre axial length of

conductor,

do= dx .(4.4.6)
T
This flux links with current
,
9. Flux linkage per metre length of conductor is given by,

dy xdo = I dr Wb-T ..(4.4.7)

10. Integrating eq. (4.4.7) from centre to surface for total flux linkage inside
conductor.

da-wb-T/m ...(4.4.8)

11. For relative permeability,H,=1

4T x
10- H/m P 4n x 10-" H/m)

Vintx 10-7Wb-T/m ..(4.4.9)

Inductance per unit length

L 10 Hm (4.4.10)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-7B (EN-Sem-5)

ii. Inductance due to external flux:

1 Flux linkage of an isolated conductor due to only that portion of the
external fux lies between two points P, and P2 at distance D, and Da
respectively from the centre of conducto
2. Conductor carriesIampere current. Flux lines are concentric circles.

Da

Fig 442.AcondutoratexternalpointsP aad P

3. Taking ele ment d: at distance x from centre of conduetor, field intensity
is H.
mmt around element

Hd =, =I
H2rx= I

H AT/m 4.4.11)

4. Flux densityin element, B, uH, = =

Wb/m2
21cx
.4.4.12)

5. Flux in the element da, do= dx Wb/m .4.4.13)

ZTUC

6. Flux linkages dy per meter are equal to the flux do since external flux
links all the current in the conductor.

dy d Wo-T/m .(4.4.14)
2rx
7. Total flux linkages between point P, and Pa are obtained by integrating
dy from x =D, to x = D2

Va2dn
2
8. For relative permeability4, 1, and
=
u= Hp,

V 2x10'1InWb-T/m

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-8B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission Line Parameters
Inductance due to flux between and
P, P2

Lg 2x10"In
Que 45. Deduce an
expression for the total inductance of a single
phase line.

Answer
1. First conductor carries current. Second conductor is return
circuit of
other. Both conductors are solid round conductor
having radii r, iind r2

Conductor 1 Conductor2

*******************************

F45L 8inglephasowo wireline

2 For internal fux: Lnt) =x10

For 2x10""
externalflux Llet
:
In
3.
Total Induetance, L2x10|1
D
=
2x10 Ine" +ln
2x 10n-
= 2x10 In D le 0.778)
0.7788
= 2x
10 InH/m
where,'= Geometric mean radius (GMR) of conductor
4. Similarly, inductance due to current in second conductor

Lg= 2x10 In H/m

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-9B (EN-Sem-6)

5. If
Total inductance of single-phase circuit is given by

L= 4x 10 InH/m
gue 46.Derive the expression for the inductance of three phase
line with conductorsuntransposed(unsymmetricalspacing).What
is the significance of imaginary term in the epression for
inductance?

Answer

Consider a single circuit 30 system as shown in Fig. 4.6.1. The three

conductors are unsymmetrically placed ie., Di2 * D2s* D31 and each
conductor has radius of
a r
meters
2 The fux linkage of conductor a due to I, I, and I.

Ds D
D23
Pig 461
-210-7L n1,,n .4.6.1)

3. Similarly, ...(4.6.2)

v.- 2w 10-1, , , n 6.3

4 Now taking I, as a reference phasor of unbalanced three phase system
PI, a and I, = k.
where, k -0.5 +j0.866
k= - 0.5-j0.866
5. Substituting the values of I, and I, in the eq. (4.6.1), we get

v 2x 10-7 , InI-0.5-j0.866)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission Line Parameters

4-10 B (EN-Sem-5)

In+-0.5+ j0.866)In

L-2 10o|nDD,-
6. Similarly

L,2x10 n- n
term in expression of inductance
7. Significance of imaginary
Individual phase inductance of an untransposed line with
number. The imaginary part of
unsymmetrical spacing is a complex
of energy between
flux-linkage or inductance represents exchange
phases.
inductance
For transposed line, average value of

3.

=2x 10-7 In,D,D

= 2x 10-7 In H/m

expression for induetance of

a three phase
Que 4.7.Deduce en

transmission line.
OR
Derive the inductance per phase for a three phase transposed
calculate the inductance for horizontal
and
transmission line. Also
equilateraltriangularconfiguration. AKTU 2015-16,Marks10
Answer
Three phase line: Three phase linecan be of two types:
with unsynmmetrical
i. Inductance of a three phase transmission
Uni-4.
spacing: Refer Q. 4.6, Page 4-9B,
ii. Symmetrical three phase line:
such arrangoment conductors are situated at
1. As shown in Pig. 4.7.1, in
the corners of an equilateral triangle.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-11 B (EN-Sem-5)

D D
co
Mg471 8ymmetrical3 ibe
D = Spacing between conductors.
r Radius of each conductor.
2. Flux inkage of conductor a

V 2x 10|1, In
.D, "
. 210|, n1,n
3. For three wire system algebraic sum of current in conductor is zero
+=0

2.10 ,n-,la210la-
2x10xI, InWb-T/m
4 Inductance of conductors a is

2x10 InHm
5. The inductance of conductorsb and e will also be the same as that ofa,
because of symmetry

L= L, =2x 10- In H/m

ii Unsymmetrical spacing but transposed

D Position 1 o-
Position 2 o

Position 3 o
D2a
Pis 4.73.Transpositioncycle of unequolly
pacedthree
piaselineeonductora

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-12 B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission Line Parameters
1. Flux linkage of conductor a; when a is in the position 1, b in position 2
and c in position 3

2. When conductor
210 In,l,
is in
a
position 2, b in position 3 and c in position 1

3. When conductor a is in position3, b in position 1 and in

c
position 2

4.
Va 2101,ta
Average value of flux linkages of a is

-10 3,4-1,)laD,0,D
5. For balanced condition, + +l,=0

2x107 xI, In ,D,

6. Average inductance of phase a

2x10 InaDD,ya HWr

'

7 Similarly, LL 2x10" InDaDy/m

=

Que 48.Discuss the concept of self GMD and mutual GMD with
the help of suitable exomple.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-13 B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
A Self-GMD (D,):
1. It is also called geometrical mean radius (GMR).
2. Inductance per conductor per meter length is given by,

L-2x10 In

L-210-{a-10*n)
L 2x10-7In
where, D, = Self-GMD or GMR = 0.7788r
Sometimes GMR is denoted by r'.
3.
Self-GMD of a conductordependsupon the size and shape of the
conductor and is independent of the spacing between the conductors.
B. Mutual-GMD (D,)
L The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distance from one
conductor to the other. It simply represents the equivalent geometrical
spacing.
Example :
LThe conductor arrangement of the double circuit is shown in Fig. 4.8.1.
Let the radius of each conductor be r.

**

Pig 4.8..
2. Self-GMD of conductor = 0.7788r
3. Self-GMD of combination an',

4. Self-GMDof combinationbb',
Dau Daa D
D,= P x

D = DsDstDDe

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-14 B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission Line Parameters
5. Self-GMD of combinationc,
D,s =
(D« D Dee De
6. Equivalent self-GMD of one phase,
D,=(D,x D,a xD,)n
7. Since each conductor has the same radius, therefore the value of
D, is
same for the all phases.
Mutual-GMD between phases A and B,
DAB Db x
Dab x
Dab x
Da
Mutual-GMD Between phases B and C,
DacPx Dx De x
D,
DCA = x
De x
Dea x
Dea
9.
Equivalent mutual-GMD,D",m (DAB DBc DcA
= x x

10. Mutual-GMD is independentof exact size, shape and orientation of the

conductor and depends only upon the spacing.
Que 49. Find the inductance per phase of symmetricallyspaced
double circuit 3-phase line.
AKTIU20192n,Marks07
Answer
Double circuit three phase lines with transposition:

Dab

Dse Dab

Fg4.0.1

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-16 B (EN-Sem-5)

1. Formula for inductance ofa 30 unsymmetrical line

L= 2x10 InMutual GMD ...(4.9.1)

Self GMD

2. For double circuit line

Mutual GMD between phaseA& Bie., between
DAR
a, a' and b, b

ab Dab Das Da)4 B and C i.e.,

DBC Mutual GMD between phases
between b, b' and c, c'

D De D. D
DcA Mutual GMD between phases C and A i.e.,
between c, c' and a, a'
=

(ae Dea Pea

3. Mutual GMD of line
Dn AB Dpc Dca
Dab Dae D Da Dae D. Dab Dye Dea Dab
Dbe Dea12
DsA = Self GMD of phase A i.e., G, a'

= (r'rD =(rD_)"

Dsa =
Self GMD of phase B ie., b, b'

- (rr*D" =(*D_"

Dsc Self GMD of phase C ie., c,c'

(D Dee Dee De
=

(r'r D)" =(*D)"

4. Equivalent self GMD,
D. = Dsa DsB Ps

(rDaat r Dbsr.rD.
= (r* Da Dph D
5. Inductance of double circuit line per phase

L= 2x10"1In

= 2-10 In,,D,D,D,D, D,,D,,D,D,,D, D

r D DD

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-16B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission Line Parameters
Case I
Inductance of 30 double circuit line with hexagonal spacing as shown in
ig. 4.9.2.

3D D

D-

Fg 4.9.2.Double cireuitthree phaseline with

hexagonalepacing
Dab DaeD = Dea = Da =Dpe = D
DeDabDae = Dab = Dye = Dea 3D
DaDDe = 2D
2. Inductance per phase

L= 2x10"nV3Dr2
12r (2D "a
2x10 nn V3D
2x10 2D2 y

10 Inj/m
2r
Case I:

-¢

bO

Oa'
FigA83.Doubledircuit threo phane line with at vertieulapaciog
1. Conductors are placed flat and verticaly spaced.
DabDheDa=Dye =D
Dae De = 2s

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-17B (EN-Sem-6)

DaDa D=p
DabDa= Dae= Deb=

(4.9.1)
2 Inductance per phase using eq.

Z8.9.9.p.9.9.p.8.8.2s)12
L= 2x10- In.
(r".r.p.r.)""

2x10 In 2
inductance phase per km of double circuit
Find the per
Qde 4.10 The conductors are
3-phase line system shown in Fig. 4.10.1. is
each. The phase sequence
and are of radius 0.75 cm
transposed
abc.

.55m

0.75 m b
b0.75 m m

4 m

AKTU 01617/M 10

Given :Radius= 0.75 cm

To Find: Inductance per phase per km.

1. GMR of conductor
r 0.7788 x 0.75 x 102
= 0.5841 x 102 m
= 5,841 mm

DaDy=De = Dav y3*+0.76 = 3.09 m

DabDe= Dge
=
Dab y(6.5+0.75)+3*

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-18 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission Line Parameters

= 6.93 m

DDae = 3+3 =6 m

DaaD V6.5+6 =8.14 m

DaaDa=Dbh=Dob = De Dee = =

r'=5.841 mm
5. From symmetry, the self GMD of conductors of phase A and phase C

must be equal.

DsA =Dsc D Da Da'a D'a

5.841x 10x8.14 x 5.841 x 10x8.14
= 0.2180 m

Dsc Dab Dos Dss Dg»

0.2022
r*7xrx 7 vr7
= m

6. Now, net self GMD of the circuit

Dg =
Dsa Dss Dsc
= 0.2180x0.2020x0.2180
= 0.2126 m
A and B mi st
7. Again from symmetry, the mutual
GMD between phase
be equal to the GMD between
B and C.

PAB Dpc {Das Da Da's Dav

=$3.09x6.93x6.93 x3.09
= 4.6274 mm

Mutual GMD between phase A and C

6x4x4x6
= 4.8990 m

8. Net mutual GMD, D,

DA Dpc DeA
4.6274 x 4.8990 x 4.6274

= 4.7162 m

9. Inductance per phase per km

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-19 B (EN-Sem-5)

D.
= 2x 10 In Ds Hkm/phase
2x 104In 4.7162
= 2x 10 In
0.2126
0.6199 mH/km/phase
Que 4.11.|A three phase 50 Hz transmission line consists of three
equal conductors of radii n, placed in a horizontal plane, with a
spacing of 6 m between the middle and each outer conductor.
Determine the inductive reactance per phase per km of the
transposed line if the radius of each conductor is 12.5 mm.

Answer
Given:f=50 Hz, r=12.5 mm
To Find: Inductive reactance per phase per km.

-6 m 6 m I
Fis 4.111.
Deq (D.D.2D)3
=
(6 x 6x 12)13=7.558
2. Inductance/phase/m

L-0.5+2n 10
= 0.5+2In 55810l
12.5
10
107
= 13.31 x 10- H/m
= 13.31 x 10x 1000 H/km

13.31x 10 Hkm

Que 412 Asingle circuit 3-phase line operated at 50 Hz is arranged

as follows. The conductor diameter is 0.6 cm. Determine the
inductance per km.
1.5 m 04L0 u
m
FMe 412.1
AKTTU 2018-19,Marks 07

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-20 B (EN-Sem-5)
Transmission Line Parameters

Answer
The procedure is same as Q. 4.11, Page 4-19B, Unit-4.
(Ans. L 13.39 x =
104H/km)
Que 413.Derivean expression for the capacitance of a
single
phase overhead transmission line. What do you mean by self G.M.D.
and mutual G.M.D.
AKTU 2017-18,Marke10
Answer
A Expression for potential difference:
1. From Gauss's law, electric field
density (D) at a point distance x metres
from a conductor having charge q is,

D= C/m2 (4.13.1)
2rul
(Taking length of conductor = 1 m)
2. Electric field intensity at distance x,

E== V/m
27Ex
3. Voltage between P, and Pa
dx
2nEx

In v .4.13.2)
2mE D

Path of integration

+9
D

Equipotential
surfaces

Fig. 4.13.1. Cylindrical conductor having uniformiy

disributed positivecharge
B. Capacitance of single phase line:
1. Potential due to ga using eq. (4.13.2)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-21 B (EN-Sem-5)

D ...4.13.3)
Vab' -In
2rte

e 418.4.Snglephaseline
2. Potential due to q, using eq. (4.13.2)

Vab" ZTE
n 4.13.4)

3. Net potential from a to b,

..(4.13.5)
Vab=Vab+ Vab" 9.
2re
In+9!
4. Since b is return conductor,

eq. (4.13.5) becomes

5. On
putting4. -96,

...(4.13.6)
,In
6. Now capacitance of line,

.(4.13.7)
F/m
CV n (D/,)
7. f then eq. (4.13.7) becomes
r
...4.13.8)
P/mn
bIn(DIr)
neutral is half the
8. The
potentialdifference between each conductor and
potential difference between the two conductors. This means capacitance
of one of the conductor with respect to the neutral point will be two

times the capacitance of single phase line.

CnCn2 Ca Pm n

Can Capacitance of conductorwith respect to neutral

point N.

ab bn

Pi 4133
Q. 4.8, Page 4-12B, Unit-4.
C. Self GMD and mutual GMD: Refer

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-22 B (EN.Sem-5) Transmission Line Parameters

Que 4.14 Derive expression for capacitance of three phase line.

OR
Derive the expression for capacitance of unsymmetrically and
symmetrically spaced three phase lines. Compare the results.
OR
Give the concept of self GMD. Starting from first principles, derive
the expression for capacitance of a 3-phase symmetrical spaced
transmission line. AIKTU 2018-10,Marka07
AnSrr
A 3¢line symmetrically spaced or equilateral spacing:

1 Takingconductor a

Voltage between conductor a and b

.4.14.l)

2 Voltage between conductor a andc

....4.14.2)
Va , In+9.In
3. Adding eq. (4.14.1) and (4.14.2)

14.3)

4 Also, 9+9+9=0

5. Substituting value of q, +9, in eq. (4.14.3)

Va+V 2,In,I

VabVa 34,i
2tE
4.14.4)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-23 B (EN.Sem-5)

Ve
(u) Three phase line (6) Phasor diagram of voltages.
with equilateral spacing.

FIA14
6. Vab3 V, 230
Vo-Vca
= v3 V2-30

Vab+Vac =3Van ..(4.14.5)

7. From eq. (4.14.4) and (4.14.5)

3V n
...4.14.6)
8. Line to neutral capacitance,

C In2TE
Dir F/m ..4.14.7)

For air, E,=1

Since & E

-F/m
C In DIr 14.8)
B. 30 line unsymmetricallyspaced but transposed:
1. When phase a is in position 1,b in position 2 and c in position 3.

a2ne In 9, In .4.14.9)
2. When a in position 2,6 in position 3 and c in position 1

In+q, In r
.(4.14.10)

3. Whena in position 3, b in position 1 and c in position 2

v. ,2te In +q, In r
..4.14.11)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-24 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission Line Parameters

Position 1

D31 Position 2
e Position 3 o
D23
Fig. 4.14.2. Transpositioncyele of
unequally spaced three phase line conductors.
4. Average voltage between conductor a anddb:

.4.14.12)

#)-«"|5]
.4.14.13)
where
is mutual
D DDPaa
geometric mean distance between phase
5. Similarly, average voltage between conductor a and c

.4.14.14
6. Similarly,average voltage between conductor b and c

Ve In +q, In ..4.14.15)
7. Let line to neutral
voltage of conductor a is Van
3VanVab+ae
2ne24, In9 In,lD
8. Here, 9++9. = 0
...414.16)

Eq. (4.14.16) becomes

.4.14.17)
9. Capacitanceof line a to neutral

ZTE
Can in (D, /r F/m
4.14.18)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-25 B (EN-Sem-5)

Comparison: In unsymmetrically spaced 30 line, capacitance to each

phase to neutral not same while in symmetrically spaced 3o ine,
capacitance to eachphase to neutral is same.
C. SelfGMD: Refer Q. 4.8, Page 4-12B, Unit-4
Qne 415. Derive expression of capacitance of three phase

untransposed line.

Anwer
L Athree-phase single circuit untransposed line is shown in Fig. 4.15.1.

D%

FE 415.1. Threephase oingle-cireuituntransponedline

2. The potential difference between a and b is given by

3. The potential difference between a and cis given by

4. But Vas+ Va3 Vn

Therefore,

5. Since for a three-phase three-wire circuit

9+9+9e=0

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission Line Parameters

4-26 B (EN-Sem-5)

In l,, ln D,D

6. But 992- 120°= q,|:

3Van

- n D,D jn

2me
2tE
Can

2TE

2TE F/m

7. Similarly,
2t&

2nE F/m
nIn +j"D,Da
It is found that the phase capacitances are complex numbers.

two conductor, single phase line operates at 60 Hz.

Que 4.16A
The diameter of each conductor is 6 em and is spacod 3 m apart
km (ii)
calculate (i) the
line to line capacitance
capacitance of
each conductor to neutral per
(ii) capacitive susceptance to neutral per

KIm. AKTU 2017.18,Marks10

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-27B (EN-Sem-5)

Answer
Given: D=3 m, r = 0.025, f= 60 Hz
To Find: C, and
C, b
1. The capacitance of each conductor to neutral
= 1.16 x 10" F/m

In 18x10" In0.025
1.16x 10-5 F/km.
2. Line to line capacitance

CC,0.58 x10- F/km

3. Capacitive susceptance to neutral

2nfC, 2n x 60 x 1.16x 10-8

b =

= 4.37 x 10-5 S/km.

50 Hz transmission line has flat horizontal

Que 417A 3-phase,
The
configuration with 3.5 m between adjacent conductors.
conductors are hard drawn 7 strand copper wire (outside conductor
diameter = 1.05 cm). The voltage of the line is 110 kV. Find the
to neutral and charging current per km.
capacitance

ALESVU 2019 20, Marke07

Answer
3.5 7)3
e(3.5 x x

4.4m
C, = 0.0242 0.0242
nlog (DIr) log (440/0.525)
= 0.00826 uF/km

10
3. C 314 x0.00826
= 0.384 x 10° km to neutral

4. Charging current

V(110/ v3) x 10000

0.384 x 10"

= 0.17 A/km

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-28 B (EN-Sem-5)
TransmissionLine Parameters

PART-2
CompositeConductorsTransposition,Buriled
ffort Conductors,and
of Barth on Capacitance.

Questions-Anowers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions

Que 4.18 Calculate inductance of a single-phase system (with

composite conductors).
Answer
1 Consider a
single-phasesystem consistingof two composite conductors
A and B, each having m and n number of strands,
in Fig. 4.18.1. respectivelyas shown

10 TO
Q Q
30
ConductorA ConductorB
Fi 418
2. The current is assumed to be equally divided amongst all the strands of

'A' conductor and is equal to (acts as "go" conductor for the single-

phase line) and current in all the strands of B conductor is (acts as

"return" conductor for the single-phase line).

3.
Using eq. v, =

2*10- 4 n., n l, InWb-Tm

the flux linkages of strand 1 due to currents in all conductors is given by,

V210'-|In-
In Dim

-210Inn . +In
.4.18.1)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-29 B (EN-Sem-5)

v,-210lInD.DD-2*10n
D D,D D
V2x 10" I| In In
WDDDam
2x10 1 1n .4.18.2)
D,D.
4. Inductance of strand 1 of conductor A is

2m x10 In V,D,.D,.D. HImn .4.18.3)

m
yD,D D.. D,
5. Inductance of strand 2 of conductor A is

2m x10 DDDaD
D,Da Da. Dam
HIm .(4.18.4)
6. Similarly, the inductance of strand m of conductor A is

-2m x10| In D Das D HIm .4.18.5)

DD D. D
7. The average inductance of each strand in conductor A is

.18.6)

8. Since conductor A is composed of m subeonductors electrically in parallel.

Thus the inductance of conductor A is

L= +L+..+L (4.118.7)

9. Substituting the logarithmic expression for inductance of each strand in

eq. (4.18.7) and combining terms, we get

L, =2x 10-7 In . D),), D .. D.).. D,D. D)

D,D.. D,)(D,D .. D,,)... (),Da .. D,.))

.(4.118.8)
10. In eq. (4.18.8), the numerator is known as Geometric Mean Distanee
GMD or mutual GMD) and is denoted as D,, and is equal to

D= lD, D.,D, D,.D,)..D ...(4. 18,9)

11. It is the mnh root of the product of the mn distances between m strands
of conductor A and n strands of conductor B.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Transmission Line Parameters

4-30 B (EN-Sem-5)
self GMD, denoted as D, and is
12. The denominator is known as GMR or

equal to

D,D.D)D,D.. D,)... D.,D. D)

D,
.

A.
13. It is the m* root of the product of m* distances within the conductor

13. Now eq. (4.18.8) can be written as,

H/m .(4.18.10)
LA = 2 x 10-7In
D
Bis
14. Similarly, the inductance of compositeconductor
Lg 2x 10-7In (4.18.11)

15. Therefore, the total inductance of a single-phase system of composite

conductor is
..4.18.12)
L= La+ L
B identical i.e.,DA=DB=D,, then the inductance
16.
f conductorsA and are

is

L= 4x 10-7 In Hm

mH/km ..4.18.13)
or L 0.4 In

bundled conductors ? How to caleulate self

What
Que 4.19. are

GMR of bundled conductor?

Answer
A Bundle Conductors: Refer Q. 2.9, Page 2-19B, Unit-2.

B. Calculation of GMR:
1. Let r be the radius of each subconductor in a bundle and r' is GMR, of

any one of the subconductor.

r= 0.7788r

2 Consider the bundle of two subconductors

Conductor I D Conductor 2
Fig. 4.19.1
3 Lt D be the spacing between two conductors in a bundle,

conductor
Dy =
SelfGMR of bundled
D D D D, D,, .. D,)..D, D, .. D,)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 4-31 B (EN-Sem-5)

Here x is number of subconductors in each bundle.

4. In case of two conductor bundle x = 2

Dg DD,D,D. ={D,D,D,D
Fdr D rD =[*D']
Dg = FD= v0.7788r.d.

Que 4.20.What is the effect of earth on line capacitance? Explain

the method of images to calculate the capacitance of two wire single
phase line.

Answer
1. Fig. 4.20.1(a) shows a two-wire single-phase line having conductors a
and b. The spacing between the conductors is D. a' and b' are images of
and b respectively. The charges on a and b are + q and -q respectively.

H
AVAUIA

H2

(a) (6)

F420.1.Single-phasesingle-cirestlin
difference between a and b can be written as
2. The potential

..4.20.1)
.In,
3. But

DanDbb =r
DabDarD, Da = H, Da = H2

DHy Du=Ha get

Substituting these values in eq. (4.20.1), we

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

4-32 B (EN-Sem-5) Transmission Line Parameters

Va n-vin-in gin
D
gin-gin
Inn
2nE
= _In,a
TE r (HH,)2
5. Mean distances
H=(H, H)12, H =(H, H
Then the expression for Vab can be written as

6. The line-to-line capacitance

Cah V 1n-In F/m ..(4.20.2)

7. Line-to-neutral capacitance
2T
TIn H
n
F/m .20.3)
18x10°In -In
Special Case:
i When the conductors a and b are at the same height h from the ground
as shown in Fig. 4.20.1(6).
H =H, =2h, H2 H21 =(D+ 4h3)u2
4h*)2
H =
(H, H,)2 2h,
=
H, =
H2 H, =
(D, +
Eq. (4.20.3) shows that there is a slight increase in capacitance of the
ine due o presence of earth.
ii The effect diminishes as the height of the conductor above the earth is
increased. It is not possible to caleulate the capacitance accurately.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONSs

Following questions are very important, These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION,

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5UNIT
Insulated Cables

CONTENTS
Part-1 Insulated Cables :. .. 9aD
5-2B to 5-7B
Introduction, Insulation,
Insulating Materials, Extra High
Voltage Cables, Grading of Cables

Part-2 Insulation Resistance of a.. 5-7B to 5-18

Cable, Capacitance of a Single
Core and Three Core Cables

Part-3 Overhead Lines Versus ..**********************

-9B to -23B
Underground Cables,
Types of Cables

5-1 B (EN-Sem-5)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-2 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

PART 1
InsulatedCables:Tntroduction,Insulation,InsulatingMaterials,
Extra HighVoltageCables,Gradinsof Cables.a

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 6.1. Explain the basie introduction of insulated cable.

Answer

The transmission and distribution of an electrical power can be done

with the help of overhead transmission lines or by underground cables
(insulated cables).
It is well known fact that in thickly populated area like town and cities,

3
the use of overheadlines is not practicable.
In such cases eleetrical energy is transmitted and distributed with the
help of underground cables.
In its basic torm, an underground cable is a conductor provide with
proper insulation. As the voltage level increases, the cost of insulation
nereases rapidly and thus the used of underground cables is restricted
to low and medium
voltage distribution.
Que 52 What should be the desirable characteristics of
insulating materials used in cables ? Also discuss general
construction of cable.

Answer
A Characteristics of insulating materials:
1 To prevent leakage current, its insulation resistance must be very high.
2 To avoid electrical breakdown, its dielectric strength must be very high.
3. It should be flexible.
4 To ithstand the mechanical
injuries, it must be
mechanically very
strong
5. tshould be non-inflammable.
6. It should be non-hygroscopicso that it will not absorb the moisture
the surrounding.
from
7. It should be unaffected by acid and alkalis.
8. It should be capable of
withstandinghigh breakdown voltage.
9. It should have high temperature
withstandingcapability.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 6-3 B (EN-Sem-5)

B. The main insulating materials which are in use are:

12. Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Paper
3. Cross linked polythene
4 Vulcanised India Rubber (VIR)
C. General construction of cable:
The Fig. 5.2.1 shows the general construction of a cable. Its various
parts are:
Serving
Armouring
- Bedding

-Led sheath
Insulation

Conductor
Fig-5.2.1. General constructionof a cable
1 Conductor or core :
LThis section consists of single conductor or more than one conductor.
The conductors are also called cores.
i. The conductors used are aluminium or annealed copper. The conductors
are stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable.
2 Insulation: Each conductor or core is covered by insulation
of proper
thickness. The commonly used insulating materials are varnished
cambric, vulcanized bitumen and impregnated
3 Metallic sheath: The insulated conductors
paper
are covered by lead sheath
or aluminium sheath. This provides the mechanical protection but
restricts moisture and other gases to reach to the insulation.
mainly
Bedding:
The metallic sheath is covered by another layer called bedding. The
bedding consists of paper tape compounded with a fibrous material like
jute strands or hess1an tape.
i The purpose of bedding is to
protect the metallic sheath from corrosion
and from mechanical injury
resulting due to armouring.
5.
Armouring: This
layer consists the layers of galvanizedsteel
of which
provide protectionto the cable from the mechanical injury.
6 Serving: The
last layer above
fibrous material like jute cloth the armouringis serving. It is a layer of
which protects the
atmospheric conductions. armouring from the
Que 53. Discuss extra high voltage cables.
Answer
1. The operating voltage of extra high voltage cables are 66 kV.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-4B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cabies

2. These cables are also known as solid cable and there 1s Do extra faciity
used to increase the dielectric strength and to avoid the po65ibility of
formation of voids
Thus the solidcables above 66 kV are unsoundand owingto development
of modern technique it would be impossible to avoid the formation of
voids
4 When these voids are subjected to electrostatic stresses, ionisation takes
place and sometimes acts as a primary cause of breakdown of cables
5. In above mentioned cables voids have been eliminated by increasir g the
pressure of compound and that is why such cables are also cal d as
pressure cables.

Que 54.Whatis grading of cable ? Why is it necessary ? Erplain

capacitance grading with suitable circuit diagram.

AKTU 2017-18,Marks 10
Answer
A Grading of cables: The process of obtaining uniform disrbution of
stress in insulation of cables is called grading of cables.
B. Necessity: Grading of cables is done because thE unequal disribution
has tollowing two unwanted eiiects
Greater insulation thickness is required, which increases the cost and
sze.
It may lead to the breakdown of insulation
C.
1
Capacitancegrading dielectricgrading:
or

The grading done by using the layers of dielectric having different

permittivities between core and sheath is called capacitie grading
2. Let r= Radius
1T
of conductor
= Radius of dielectrics

E Permittivity of cdielectrics

Sbeath

Fig 54.1.Deietric gradin

3 Dielectric stress is given by.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-5 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

4 Potential difference across inner layer,

dx = In
2t E, E

xrln =gmas rl.

5. Similarly, the potential difference between r, and r2, V2 = 8max2

6. Potential difference between r, and R, Vg= 8ma3a

7. Total potential difference between core and earthed sheath
V- V,+V,+ Vs

= Bmas1 In+8max 2'h In+Bmaxa In

8. Capacitance of cable, C =

n,n In||
21 Eo
In,In nR
E, r E 1

9. Maximum stresses,

Bmaxl 27 EE

Bmax2 2t E Ei
Bmaxs 2 E E,R
10. If maximum stress is same in each layer,

Bmax18max2mazs8maxSay

11.
. 1
Total voltage applied acroSs the cable,
.

V Bmax r In+, ln+r, In

Que 5.5. Explain Interswheath grading

OR
Discuss different methods of grading.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-6 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

Answer

Methods of grading :
A Capacitive grading: Refer Q 5.4, Page 5-4B, Unit-5.
B. Intersheath grading:
1. In intersheath grading, a homogeneous dielectric is used, but it is divided
intovarious layers by placing metallicintersheathsbetweenthe core
and lead sheath. The intersheaths are held at suitable potentials, which
are in between the core potentialand earth potential.
Consider a cable of core radius r and outer lead sheath of radius R.
Suppose that two intersheaths of radius r, and r, are inserted into the
homogeneous dielectric and maintained at some fixed potentials. V,. V2
intersheath 1,
and V3 respectively be the voltage between core and
between intersheath I and 2 and between intersheath 2 and outer

sheath.
3. Since there is a definite potential difference between the inner and
each sheath be treated
outer layers of each intersheath, therefore, can

as a homogeneous single core cable.

Maximum stress between core and the intersheath l is,

B 1max
r log.,
5. Similarly, B2max
r, log. r

V
B 3max R
Rlog. r

Lead
Sheath

Intersheath 1 -

Intersheath 2

Pig. 5.5.1.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 6-7 B (EN-Sem-5)

6. The dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress in each layer is the

same
1.e.,81maxB2max83max
R
rlog, log, Rlog
7. As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, therefore, ull the
are in phase i.e., voltage between conductor and earthed lead
potentials
sheath is
V= V,+ V2+Vs

PART-2
frsulation Resistanceof a Cable,Capacitanceofa Single
B Core and
1hree Core Cables.

Questions-Answers

LongAnswer 1ype and Medium

Answer Type Questions

Derive expression for dielectric stress in a single core

Que 5.8.
cable.

Answer inner radius of

Let r = Radius of conductor or
1.
insulation.
of sheath or outer radius of
R = Internal radius
insulation.

Permittivity of free space.

, Relative permittivity of the dielectric.
Charge on the conductor per unit length
V=Operating phase-to-peutralvoltage
from the center is, D, =
distance x
The electric flux density at
a
2. 21x

and the electric stress is given by,

..6.6.1)
8 E., (21te,6,)x sheath is equal
between the conductor and the
3. The potential difference from the conductor to sheath.
move a unit charge
to the work done to

Thus, (2 e,, )X
.5.6.2)
In "r

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-8B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

ig. 5.6.1. Single-corecable

4. Combining eq. (5.6.1) and (5.6.2), we get

xin
V ..(6.6.3)
5. The maximum stress will occur at x= T,8max
r InR
6. The minimum stress OCcurs atx = R, 8min

RIn

stress 1s,
7. Ratio of maximum and minimum
diameter
Vir ln (R/r)_ R_D_ Outer diameter
Bmas V/R In (RIr) r d Inner
min
Economical core diameter:

be ninimum when = 0
1. The value ofg,mas will
r and R =, in eq. (5.6.3), we get
2. Putting
2V
Bnax D
d In

Bmor
dind2)-2din
din
D
0-2V d din

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-9 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-l

2V

2V
...(5.6.4
T
3. Now the value of
C8max must be zero to get minimum
Bmax
In D 1 0
In 1

e 2.718
d
2.718
4 Hence, the core diameter must be 1/2.718 times the sheath diameter D
so as to give the minimum
value ot 8max
5. The value of minimum Bmax 15,

Minimum&max d

V
Minimum Bmax

Que 5.7.Derive the expression for insulation resistance and

capacitance of a single core cable.
OR
What are the main requirements of the insulating materials used
for cables ? Derive an expression for the insulation resistance of a
single core metal sheathed cable.
OR
AKTU 2015-16,Marks 7.5
Derive the expression for insulation resistance of single core cable.

AKTU 2018-19,Marks 07
Answer
A Requirements of insulating materiuls : Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5-2B.
Unit-5.
B. Insulation resistance of single core cable :
1. The resistance offered by cable to
path of the leakage current is called
an insulation resistance

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Insulated Cables
5-10B (EN-Sem-5)

Elementary
ring
Direction
of leakage
Core current

Layer of
insulation
r

R ix

Fig 5.7.1. Singie cable, Fig. 5.7.2. Elementary Ring

2. Load current flows through the core of cable while some leakage current
flows radially from the conductor to the sheath through the dielectric
material.
Resistance of any material is given by,

R- PA
where, P= Specific resistance of material.
Length of material.
A = Area of cross-section of material.
4. Resistance of elemental circular ring at distance x,

dR
p (unit length of cable)
dR = Differential leakage resistance,

R
=Inohms/metre
2
5. If length of cable is l units.

Leakage resistance, R = 2 ohms

C. Insulation capacitance:
Let, d- Conductor diameter
D Total diameter with sheath
=

Q= Charger per meter length of conductor in

coulombs
E= Permittivity of a material between core and
sheath
Permittivity of free space =8.854 x 1012 F/m
, Relative permittivity of the medium
2. Consider an
elernentary
The thickness
cylinderwith
of the cylinder is dx.
radiusx and axial
length of lm.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 5-11 B (EN-Sem-5)

3. Flux density D, Surface area 2x

The electric field intensity at any point Pon the elementary cylinder is

, 2rxe
- 2rE,,
V/m
4. Hence the work done is moving a unit charge a distance dx in the
direction of an electric field isg.ds.

-Conductor
-
Sheath

R-

(6)
(a)

513 Capacitancoofaingle-coreeable
5. The work done in moving a unit charge from the conductor to sheath is
the potential difference between the conductor and the sheath given by,
D/2

Qds
2R,6 2TEE,
log

2 6,e,L'

6. The capacitance of a cable is given by,

c el)
2te,,
C= 2TtE F/m

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-12 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

Derive the formula for insulation resistance of a cable.

Que6.8.
Calculate insulation resistance for 5 km length of single core cable
whose insulation resistance is 5 x 1014 N-cm, insulation thickness is

lem and radius of conductor is 1.25

em.AKTU2019-20,Marks07
Answer
Insulation resistance of a cable : Refer Q. 5.7, Page 5-9B, Unit-5.
Given: Specific resistance of insulation= 5 x 104Q-cm=5x 101 -m,
Length of cable, l= 5 km = 5000 m, Core radius, r, 1.25 cm
To Find: Insulationresistance,
1. Internal sheath radius, r =r, + Insulation thickness = 1.25 + 1 =2.25 cm

log,- log, 2.25*0=0.5878

o
1.25 10 x

2. Insulation resistance of cable

log,= 5x102 x0.5878 = 93.55 MO

2Tx 5,000
Que 5.9 Derive expression of capacitance for single core and

3-core cable.

Answer
of single cable: Refer Q.5.7, Page 5-9B, Unit-5.
A
B.
Capacitance core

Capacitance of three core cable:

1. In a 3-core cable, sheath is at earth potential and3 conductors at supply

potentials.
2. There are six capacitance formed, three capacitance between sheathed
conductors and other three capacitance between conductors.

3 The capacitances are Fig.

in the
shown while to core
5.9.1.The core
core to sheath capacitances are
capacitances are
denoted as
C,
denoted as

Fi5.04

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-13 B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

The core to core capacitances C, are in delta and can be presenterd in the
.
equivalent star as shown in the Pig. 5.9.2.

Fig. 5.9.2.
5. The impedance between core 1 and the star point Z, can be obtained as,

from delta-star conversionj

1
Now

1
3 oC
oC.

An d Z,
oC
1 1. 1
oC, 3 C

6.
C, 3C
fstar point is assumed to be at earth potential and if sheath is also
earthed then the capacitance of each conductor to neutral is,
Cy C,+ C, = C,+ 3C.
7. IfVph 15 phase voltage then charging current per phase is,

I=
Capacitance reactance/ phase

I= oCNph A
Measurement of C, and C,
1. Measurement involves two caseB.

Case I:
The core 2 and core 3 connected to sheath. Thus the C, between cores 2
and 3 and C, between cores 2, 3 and sheath get eliminated as shown in
the Fig. 6.9.3.
All the three capacitances are now in parallel across core 1 and the
sheath.
ii The capacitance ofcore1 with sheath ia measured practically and denoted
by C
C,-CC, (5.9.1)

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-14 B (EN-Sem-6) Insulated Cables

Sheath

(6)

Case II:
i All the three cores are bundled together. This eliminates all the core-
core capacitances. This is shown in the Fig. 5.9.4.
i The capacitances C, are in parallel between the common core and sheath.
This capacitance is practicallymeasured and denoted by Cg
C 30, 5.9.2)

2. Solving eq. (5.9.1) and (5.9.2),

c- 2
and C,- 3
3. Thus both the capacitances can be determined
C C,+ 3C

..5.9.3)
Capacitance can also be calculated by empirical formula given by Simon.
The formula is given a

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

6-15B (EN-Sem-5)
Power System-I

0.0299t, km
Cy
«|1.384-1.77052
wh ere, , = Relative permittivity of the dielectrie
d Conductor diameter
t Belt insulation thickness
T Conductor insulation thickness.

kV, 3-phase, 50 Hz underground line, 3.4 km long,

Que 5.10. A 33

uses three single cables. Each cable has a core diameter of

core
0.8 em. The relative
2.5 cm and the radial thickness of insulation is
maximum stress and (i)
permittivity of the dielectric is 3.1. Find (i)
total charging kVAAr.

Anawer
Given:d=2.5 cm, thickness 0.6 cm,e, =3.1
To Find: Maximum stress and total kVAr.
1 Internal diameter of sheath, D = 2.5 +2 x 0.6 3.7 cm

2 Capacitance of cable, C = x length of cable F

D
1OB10d

O.024 x3.4 x1,000

log1 3.7
2.5
1486 x 10-b F/phase

3. Chargingcurrent, I¢= 27C

= 2n x 50 x 1486 x 10-6 x A/phase
3
I 8.895A/Phase
4. Total charging in kVAr = 3 x Vp x lcx 10

3,000 x8.895
=
3x x
10
508.4 kVAr
5. Maximum stress in the cable
V 33,000/ V3
2.5 3.7
2 2
lo8. 2.5
max38.88 kVicm

Explain the phenomena of heating and different losses

Que5A
in cables.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-16 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

OR
Show that the most economical size of conductor in a single core
cable is obtained when radius of cable sheath (R) equals e.r. where e
is the base of radius of conductor. Explain dielectric loss and heating
of a cable.
AKTU 2019-20,Marks 07
Answer
1The temperature rise of the body depends upon the rate of generation
and dissipation of heat by the body. The temperature goes on rising until
the rate of heat generation becomes equal to that of heat dissipation.
2The heat is produced within the underground cables due to following
losses
A Copper loss in Cables:
1The copper loss is determined by the expression 1-R. The resistance of
the conductor changes at the temperature changes. The resistance
increases as the temperature increases.
2. To find copper value of resistance is necessary. The resistance at any

temperaturet, 1s given by
R= R, (1+aj)
where, R,= Resistanceat ,
aResistance temperature coefficient of materialat
B. Dielectrie loss:
1 There exists a capacitance between a conductor and sheath, with a
dielectric medium in between the two. This is represented as C. The
leakage resistance is denoted as R.
2. The equivalent circuit of the cable is a parallel combination of R and C.
So there are two currents one perpendicular to voltage V which is
leading capacitive current , while other is in phase with voltage V
which is resistive current representing dielectric los.

(a) Equivalent circuit 6) Phasor diagram

Fig 5.11.1
3. The dielectric loss is loss due to leakage resistance given by

WRV
VIR
Now,
tan8 V1X

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 5-17 B (EN-Sem-5)

V V
tan 8 = V»C tan8
R
W VaC tan
d= Dielectric loss angle in radians
where
5. Generally 8 is very small and hence tan ö » ö for low voltage cables
dielectric loss can be neglected as it is small but for high voltage cables it

must be considered.
C. Sheath loss:
1. In AC transmission, alternating currents flowing through the cable

produce pulsating magnetic field. This electromagnetic pulsating field

links with the lead sheath and induces current in it.
2. The value of this current depends on the frequency of pulsating field,
conditions whether
sheath resistance arrangement of cables and sheath
it is bounded or unbounded.
3. The approximate formula to calculate sheath losses due to sheath eddy

currents 1s given as,

Sheath loss = I'

x10 W/ em/phase
T= Current per conductor
where,
mMean radius of sheath
R, = Sheath resistance
d = SpaCing between conductor
These losses are practically very small and hence generally neglecte.

D. Most economical size of conductor : Refer Q. 5.6, Page 5-iB,

Unit-5.

for most economical size of cable

Que 5.12. Derive the condition three.
test results for 1 km of a
gradientmethod.
using voltagesheathed The of
phase metal gave a measured capacitance
belted cableand
between conductor
one the other two conductors
0.7 pF measured
bunched together with the earth sheath and 1.2 uF
conductors and the sheath. Find:
between the three bunched
i the capacitance between any pair of conductors, the sheath
being isolated and
current when the cable is connected to 11 kV,
ii. the charging
50 Hz supply.
Answer

A. Most economical size of conductor: Refer Q. 5.6, Page 6-7B,

Unit-5.
B. Numerical:

Given: C,= 1.2 pF, C, = 0.7 jF, V = 11

kV,f= 60 Hz
To Find: C, I

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-18 B (EN-Sem-5)
Insulated Cables

Cy

(a) (6)

L From ig. 5.12.1(a) and (6)

Fi6121
C 3C, 1.2 =
5.1:12.1)
C= C+2C, =0.7 ...5.12.2)
From eq. (6.12.1) and (5.12.2)
C0.4F
C 0.15pP
2 Since capacitance per phase
C+3C,
and C%= 0.85 uF
3. The equivalent circuit for measuring capacitance between two bunched
conductors and third conductor will be as in Fig. 5.12.2.
4. The equivalent capacitance C will be

C 2C,+C,
Substituting the values for C and C2
C= 0.56 uF
5. The charging current per phase, I¢
10-6x 103
J ox10am 3
= 1.54 A
x 314 x 0.85 x

6.19.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 5-19 B (EN-Sem-5)

PART-3

OuerheadLines Versus UndergroundCables, Types of Cables.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 6.13.Give a comparison of an overhead line with

underground cable as a medium of power transmission.

ARETU 2016-16,Marks05
Answer
1. Public safety: The underground system is safer than overhead system due
to the wiring placed underground and therefore little chances of any hazard.
2 Initial cost: The initial cost of an underground system may be f+ve to
ten times than that of overhead system due to high cost of trenching,
conduits, cables, manholes and other special equipments.
3 Flexibility: The overhead system is much more flexible than the
underground system because in an overhead system poles, wires,
transformers etc. can be easily shifted to meet the change in the load conditions.
4 Faults: The chances of faults in the underground system are very
the cables laid
rare as are
underground.
5 Fault location and repairs : Basically, there are little chances of
faults in an underground system. However, if a fault occurs, it is difficult
to locate and repair an
6
underground
system.
Current carrying capacity and voltage drop: An overhead system
has considerably higher current carrying capacity than an underground
cable conductor of the same material and cross-section. Also there is
low voltage drop in overhead system.
7. Useful life: The useful life of an underground system is much longer
than that of an overhead
system.
8 Maintenance cost: The maintenance cost of underground system is
very low as compared to the overhead system due to less chance of
faults and eervice interruptions from wind, ice, lighting etc.

Rue 6.14 Discuss in brief about the different types of cables.

Answer
The type of a cable basically decided based on the voltage level for which
it is manufactured and the material used for the inaulation such as
paper cotton, rubber ete.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-20 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

Typesof cable:
A Low tension cable (L. T. cable):

2.
These are
used for the voltage levels upto 6.6 kV.
The paper is used as insulation in these cables. Some time resin is also
usedwhich increases the viscosity and helps to prevent drainage.
3. The Fig. 5.14.1 shows the cross-section of a single core L.T. cable. It
consists of a circular core of stranded copper or aluminium.
Brass or steel
armouring
Serving

Lead . Conductor
sheath

Impregnated
paper

Fig.5.14.1.Singlecore LT. cable.

The conductor is insulated by impregnated paper over the paper
insulation the lead sheath is provided then a layer of compounded
fibrous material is provided. Then armouring is provided and finally
covered again with a layer of fibrous compounded material.
B. Medium and high tension cables:
The three phase medium and H.T. cables are three core cable. For
voltage upto 66 kV the three core cable i.e., multicore cable are used.
2. These cables are classified as
a. Belted cables:
1. These are used for the voltage level upto 11 kV. The construction of
belted cable is shown in Fig. 5.14.2.

Jute
- Lead sheath
t the
-Conduetor

( Paper belt
Paper
insulation

Jute filling

Pig 5.14.2. Bolted 3-core cable

2. The cores are not circular in shape. The cores are insulated from each
other by use of impregnated paper.
3. The three cores are grouped together and belted with the help of a
paper belt.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 5-21 B (EN-Sem-5)

4. The gaps are filled with fibrous material like jute. This gives circular
cross-sectional shape to the cable.
5. The belt is covered with lead sheath which protects cable from moisture
and also strength
gives mechanical
6. The d sheath is finally covered by jute like fibrous compounded
material.
'These cables used for the voltage levels of
b.Screened type cables: are

22 kV and 33 kV. The two types of sereened cables are :

H-type cable:
1 There is no paper belt is this type of cable. Each conductor in this cable
is insulated with a paper, covered with a metallic sereen which is generaly
an aluminium foil. The construction is shown in Fig. 5.14.3.

Serving Conductor

Paper
insulation

Armouring Conducting
belt

Lead
sheath

Metallic screen

Fls 814.3.Hypecable
ii. S.Ltype cable (Separate lead screened cable):
1. In this cable each core is insulated with an impregnated paper and each
one is then covered by separate lead sheath.
2. Then there is a cotton tape covering the three cores together using a
proper filter material.

Serving
Conductor

Paper
insulation

Separate
lead sheath

Armouring
Cotton tape

Pig, 6-14.4,8.L type cable.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

5-22 B (EN-Sem-5) Insulated Cables

C. Super tension (S.T.) cables:

The S.T. cables are used for 132 kV to 275 kV voltage level.
2. Such cables using oil or gas under pressure are called pressure cables
and are of two types
a. Oil filledcables:
1. In case of oil filled cables, the channels or ducts are provided within or
adjacent to the cores, through which oil under pressure is circulated.

-Bedding
Lead
sheath
Conductor
Oil
channel

Serving
Paper insulation

Fig 5.145.Conductorchannelsinglecore oil filledcable

2. Fig. 5.14.5 shows the construction of single core oil filled cable. It consists
of concentric stranded conductor but built around a hollow eylindrical
steel spiral core.
3. This hollow core acts as a channel for the oil. The oil channel is filled in
a factory and the pressure is maintained in the oil by connecting the oil
channel to the tanks which are placed at the suitable distances along the
path of the cable.
b. Gas pressure cables:
1 In case of gas pressure cables an inert gas like nitrogen at high pressure
is introduced. The pressure is about 12 to 15 atmospheres.
2. Due to such a high pressure there is a radial compression due to which
the ionization is totally eliminated. The working power factor of such
cables is also high.

Triangular
shape

Conductor

Fig5.14. Gas pressurecable

3. The Fig. 5.14.6 shows the section of a gas pressure cable. The cable is
triangular in shape and installed in the steel pipe.
4. The pipe is filled with the nitrogen at 12 to 15 atmospheric pressure.
There is no bedding and serving.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|51171922

Power System-I 5-23 B (EN-Sem-5)

Que5.15 What are the commonly used insulating materials for

underground cables ? Describe with a neat sketch, the construction
of a 3-core belted-type cable.
Calculate the kVA taken by a 10 km long, 3-phase 3-core cable, if the
capacitance measured between any two cores is 0.3 uFlem when it is
connected to 10 kV, 50 Hz busbar.
AKU 201617,Marka16
Answe
A Commonly used insulating material for underground cable:
Refer Q.5.2,Page 5-2B, Unit-5.
B. Construction of 3-core belted-type cable : Refer Q. 5.14,
Page 5-19B, Unit-5.
C. Numerical:

Given:C0.3 10 F, V= 10 kV, C= 0.3uFlkm,f= 50

To Find: Total charging in kVA
L IfCz be measured capacitance between any two core,

C. = 2 x0.3 x 10-6 =0.6 uF

C= 2C
2. Line
chargingcurrent, cVo
V.
0x
/3
201
Total
chargingin kVA v3VLl¢ x10
=

v3 xVx
=
200 «10"
2V~oC 10-3
= (10000)x 2n x 50 x 0.6 x 10-6 x 10 -3

0.188 kVA

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These question
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITYEXAMINATION,

Q1. What should be the desirable characteristica of ineulnting

materials used in cables ? Also discuss general construction
of cable.

Downloaded by Bhaumikk Mishra ([email protected])