CHARACTERISTICS, PROCESSES, & ETHICS OF RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. Empirical
2. Logical
3. Cyclical
4. Analytical
5. Critical
6. Methodical
7. Replicated

RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Define & develop your topic: RESEARCH PROBLEM
2. Find background info about the chosen topic: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, RRL
3. Plan the research design with sample: METHODOLOGY
4. Gather necessary data
5. Process & analyze data
6. Formulate new insights gained conclusions & recommendations
7. Define new problem
● When research follows a documented and transparent process, it becomes easier for
others to understand, scrutinize, and replicate the findings. This transparency fosters
trust and confidence in the research's credibility and generalizability (Creswell, 2017).

RESEARCH ETHICS
- guiding principles & standards to ensure moral integrity, safety, & respect for all
individuals with the research process
BELMONT REPORT
- widely cited & recognized framework for research ethics
- published: U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical
and Behavioral Research — 1979
THREE CORE ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
I. RESPECT FOR PERSONS - importance of respecting individuals’ autonomy & protecting
those with diminished autonomy with informed consent and their voluntary
participation.
II. BENEFICENCE - maximize the benefits of research while minimizing potential harm to
participants.
III. JUSTICE - fairness in the distribution of the benefits & burdens of research as it avoids
exploitation and ensuring equitable access to benefits.
OTHER CORES
IV. INFORMED CONSENT
- information about their research in a comprehensible manner without duress or
inappropriate inducement.
V. CONFIDENTIALITY
- respected & participant requirements concerning the confidential nature of info &
personal data.
VI. INTEGRITY
- honesty, accuracy, & ethical principles through the entire research process.
VII. CONFLICT OF INTEREST
- there’s a clash between the researcher’s obligations or responsibilities & their personal
interests or external influences.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACCORDING TO AUTHORS
1. CRESWELL, 2014 : social or human problems revolve around testing a theory by using
numbers & then analyzing those numbers with statistical methods.
2. PUNCH, 1998 : empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers
3. LEAVY, 2022 : values breadth, statistical descriptions, & generalizability
4. FALLON, 2016 : top-down process—emphasizes the importance of established theories &
prior research in guiding the formulation of new hypotheses.
CORE CHARACTERISTICS
● systematic collection & analysis of numerical data
● pursuit of objectivity & generalizability
● reliance on statistical procedures for data interpretation
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ACCORDING TO AUTHORS
1. NKWI, NYAMONGO, & RYAN, 2001 : qualitative research involves any research that
uses that do not indicate ordinal values.
2. DENZIN & LINCOLN, 2005 : study things in their natural settings, or to interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings.
3. CRESWELL, 1994 : an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem
based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed
views of informants, & conducted in a natural setting.
4. YILMAZ, 2013 : an emergent, inductive, interpretive, & naturalistic approach to the
study of people, cases, phenomena, social situations, & processes in their natural
settings in order to reveal in descriptive terms the meanings that people attach to their
experiences of the world.
CORE CHARACTERISTICS
● data without ordinal values
● naturalistics setting
● complex, holistic understanding
● emergent, inductive, & interpretive approach
STRENGTHS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. detailed & deep examination
2. easily revised as new info emerges
3. interviews are not being delimited to specific questions
4. obtained data from human experience is powerful & sometimes more interesting than
quantitative data
5. findings can be transferable to another setting
WEAKNESSES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
1. heavily dependent on the researcher’s skills
2. may be influenced by the researchers outlooks
3. volume of data makes analysis & interpretation time-consuming
4. hard to prove
5. the researcher’s presence during data gathering, can affect the subjects’ attitudes
6. issues of anonymity & confidentiality can bring/result in problems when presenting
findings
7. findings can be more difficult & take time to visualize
KINDS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
A. PHENOMENOLOGY - people give meaning to their experiences.
B. ETHNOGRAPHY - understanding of a particular cultural group.
C. GROUNDED THEORY - for discovering theory in a substantive area.
D. CASE STUDY - investigation of a person, group, organization, or situation for a long
period to explain why.
E. CONTENT & DISCOURSE ANALYSIS - requires the examination or analysis of the
substance or content of the communication.
F. HISTORICAL ANALYSIS - study of primary documents to explain the connection of past
events to the present time.

RESEARCH GAP

- Refers to a lack or barrier in current knowledge, necessitating exploration to

address challenges or unmet needs.

Research Objective

● Definition: Clear, specific, and focused statements outlining what a study aims to achieve.
● Purpose: Guides data collection and analysis, ensuring the study stays relevant.
● SMART Criteria:
○ Specific: Pinpoints the exact focus.
○ Measurable: Can quantify results.
○ Attainable: Realistic given resources.
○ Relevant: Aligns with the study's importance.
○ Time-Bound: Includes a deadline.

Research Questions

● Definition: Focused questions to guide the study and align with research objectives.
● Types:
○ Qualitative: Explores phenomena (e.g., "How do students perceive...").
○ Quantitative: Examines relationships (e.g., "What is the effect of...").
● Best Practices:
○ Be specific and aligned with objectives.
○ Use verbs like "explore," "investigate," or "determine."

Examples
Objectives

● "To explore the lived experiences of patients with chronic illness."

● "To understand the challenges faced by single mothers in urban areas."

Questions

● Qualitative: "How do senior high school students adapt to online learning during the
pandemic?"
● Quantitative: "What is the relationship between screen time and academic performance?"

Good Research Question Criteria

1. Relevant: Addresses the research problem directly.
2. Feasible: Answerable within resources and time.
3. Novel: Contributes new insights.
4. Ethical: Avoids harm to participants.
5. Measurable: Aligns with qualitative or quantitative methods.

Additional Tips
● Use action verbs like "explore," "understand," or "examine."
● Consider the population, context, and scope to ensure manageability.
 How to Write a Qualitative Research Objective

1. Clarity and Precision:

➢ Be clear, concise, and specific about your research aim.
2. Alignment with Research Questions:
➢ Ensure your objective aligns with your overarching research questions. 3.
Action Verbs:
➢ Use action verbs that convey the intended action or outcome
Limitations: Review
Explore Clarify
Examine Critique
Analyze Formulate
Investigate Generate
Understand Hypothesize
Evaluate Prioritize
Identify Propose
Describe Recommend
Assess Synthesize
Interpret Validate
Assist Specify
Develop Devise
Compare Elucidate
Contrast
Determine
Explain
Illustrate
Observe
Analyze
Survey
4. Scope

➢ Clearly define the scope of your study to set boundaries.

5. Avoid Jargon:
➢ Write in accessible language, avoiding unnecessary jargon.
6. Measurable and Achievable:
➢ Make sure the objective is measurable and achievable within your
study's context.
7. Contextual Background:
➢ Provide a brief rationale for the objective to explain its significance.
8. Phrasing:
➢ Structure the objective to reflect the qualitative nature of the study.
9. Consider Participant Perspective:
➢ Frame the objective from the participants' perspective if applicable.
10. Alignment with Research Design:
➢ Ensure the objective aligns with your chosen qualitative research
design and approach.
11. Ethical Considerations:
➢ Acknowledge ethical considerations if relevant to your study.
 How to Write Research Qualitative Questions
1. Open-Ended Nature:
➢ Formulate questions that invite in-depth exploration.
2. Exploratory Language:
➢ Use terms like "how," "what," "why," emphasizing understanding.
3. Connection to Research Purpose:
➢ Ensure alignment with the overall goals of your study.
4. Feasibility:
➢ Make questions realistic and manageable within your resources.
5. Clear and Concise:
➢ Keep questions straightforward, avoiding ambiguity or jargon.
6. Contextual Understanding:
➢ Consider the broader cultural, social, or historical context.
7. Participant Perspective:
➢ Frame questions from the viewpoint of the participants.
8. Flexibility:
➢ Be open to refining questions based on emerging insights.
9. Ethical Considerations:
➢ Ensure questions adhere to ethical guidelines and respect participant

confidentiality. Examples:

1. Case Study:
➢ Research Objective: Examine and analyze individual experiences within
a specific organization to understand their contributions to the overall
organizational culture. o Research Question: How do individual experiences
shape and contribute to the development of the organizational culture
within the specified organization? ➢ Research Objective: Identify and
analyze the factors that play a role in the success or failure of a particular
intervention implemented in a real-world context.
o Research Question: What factors influence the success or failure
of the specified intervention in a real-world context, as
perceived by those involved?

2. Phenomenology:
➢ Research Objective: Explore the essence of the lived experiences of
individuals facing a specific health challenge to gain a deep
understanding of their subjective realities. o Research Question: What is the
core essence of the lived experiences of individuals confronting the
specified health challenge?
➢ Research Objective: Investigate how teachers perceive the impact
of technology integration in the classroom on student learning,
focusing on their personal and experiential perspectives.
o Research Question: How do teachers subjectively perceive
the impact of technology integration in the classroom on
student learning?

3. Ethnography:
➢ Research Objective: Examine and describe how cultural practices
influence communication patterns within a specific community,
 emphasizing the social context and dynamics.

o Research Question: In what ways do cultural practices shape

communication patterns within the specified community, and
how is this influenced by social context and dynamics?
➢ Research Objective: Explore the social dynamics and rituals
within a particular workplace to understand their contributions to
team cohesion or conflict.
o Research Question: What social dynamics and rituals exist within
the specified workplace, and how do they contribute to either team
cohesion or conflict?

4. Content and Discourse Analysis:

➢ Research Objective: Analyze gender representation in media discourse to
understand its impact on societal perceptions and attitudes.
o Research Question: How is gender represented in media
discourse, and what are the perceived impacts of this
representation on societal perceptions and attitudes?
➢ Research Objective: Investigate dominant themes and framing
techniques used in political speeches during election campaigns to
reveal patterns of communication. o Research Question: What are
the dominant themes and framing techniques employed in political
speeches during election campaigns, and how do they contribute to
communication patterns?

5. Historical Analysis:
➢ Research Objective: Trace and document the evolution of societal
attitudes towards mental health over the past century, highlighting key
shifts and influences.
o Research Question: How have societal attitudes towards mental
health evolved over the past century, and what are the key shifts
and influences in this
evolution?
➢ Research Objective: Examine the role that economic factors played in
shaping labor movements during a specific historical period,
exploring their impact on social and economic structures.
o Research Question: What role did economic factors play in
shaping labor movements during the specified historical
period, and how did this influence social and economic
structures?

6. Grounded Theory:
➢ Research Objective: Identify and analyze emergent themes and
patterns in the experiences of individuals coping with chronic
illness, aiming to generate a theory grounded in participants'
perspectives.
o Research Question: What emergent themes and patterns
characterize the experiences of individuals coping with
chronic illness, and how can these be synthesized into a
grounded theory?
➢ Research Objective: Explore how organizational leaders navigate and
respond to unexpected challenges in a rapidly changing business
environment, focusing on patterns and strategies that emerge from the
data.
o Research Question: How do organizational leaders navigate and
respond to unexpected challenges in a rapidly changing
business environment, and what patterns and strategies
emerge from their experiences?