Industrial/Organizational Training Based

Internship
Module II

Facilitator: Ankita Rani Bhuyan

Organizational Attitudes

What are attitudes?

Organizational Attitudes

Attitudes are relatively stable clusters of

feelings, beliefs, and behavioral intentions
toward a specific object, person, or institution.
Work-related attitudes can be defined as
attitudes relating to any aspect of work or work
settings.
Organizational Attitudes
•Three components of attitude (ABC’s)-
•Cognitive- the description of or a belief itself devoid of emotions. “My boss is
being unfair’
•Affective/Evaluative- emotional or feeling component. ‘I hate my boss’
•Behavioural- Our predisposition to behave in a way consistent with our beliefs and
feelings about an attitude. Eg. ‘Im quitting this job’
•Attitudes can vary based on whether it is positive/negative, or
favourable/unfavourable and intensity
•Can lead to behavioral intentions but not behavior always
Functions of Organizational Attitudes

● Attitudes can help predict work behavior.

● According to Katz it serves 4 functions:
1.To help people adjust to their work environment
2.Helps people retain their dignity and self-worth
3.Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing one’s central
values.
4.Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to
understand and perceive the world around him.
Organizational Attitudes and Behaviour

We are wired to keep our attitudes and behaviours in harmony. I.e, your behaviours should
reflect your attitude and vice versa
Dissonance occurs when there is no harmony. Eg, I believe that fries are bad for health
(attitude), but I always end up ordering fries (beh.)
•How to reduce dissonance?
•Change one or more of the attitudes, behavior, beliefs, etc., to make the relationship
between the two elements a consonant one.
•Acquire new information that outweighs the dissonant beliefs.
•Reduce the importance of the cognitions (i.e., beliefs, attitudes).
Measurement of Attitudes
Surveys and Questionnaires
Structured surveys and questionnaires are typically used to gather quantitative data on workers'
attitudes. They provide insights into workers' perceptions, opinions, and levels of satisfaction.
The queries can be rated on a Likert scale, where respondents show their deal or clash with
ideas. Surveys are efficient, cost-effective, and provide measurable data that can be studied for
trends and patterns.
Interviews and Focus Groups
Qualitative methods such as interviews and focus groups allow in-depth inquiry into attitudes,
providing a deeper sense of personal affairs and views. These plans allow pupils to study
attitudes in greater depth, capture nuances, and uncover underlying motivations or crises.
Interviews involve one-on-one talks with workers, allowing them to express their thoughts,
emotions, and perspectives in a more detailed manner.
Measurement of Attitudes

● Behavioural Observations
● Electronic Monitoring
● Existing organizational data
Values

Values represent basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or

end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.” They contain a
judgmental element in that they carry an individual’s ideas as to what is right,
good, or desirable. (Robbins. S)
Importance of Values

Values lay the foundation for our understanding of people’s attitudes and
motivation and influence our perceptions. We enter an organization with
preconceived notions of what “ought” and “ought not” to be. These notions
are not value-free; on the contrary, they contain our interpretations of right
and wrong and our preference for certain behaviors or outcomes over others.
As a result, values cloud objectivity and rationality; they influence attitudes
and behavior. (Robbins. S)
Types of Values

Values come in many forms, and experts on this topic have devoted considerable attention
to organizing them into clusters. Several decades ago, social psychologist Milton Rokeach
developed two lists of values, distinguishing means (instrumental values) from end goals
(terminal values).

The instrumental-terminal values distinction was neither accurate nor useful, and experts
have identified values that were excluded from Rokeach’s lists.
Types of Values

Schwartz reported that

human values are
organized into the circular
model (circumplex). The
model organizes values
into 10 broad categories,
each representing several
specific values.
Values and Cultures
Individualism and Collectivism

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize

independence and personal uniqueness.

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize duty
to groups to which people belong and to group harmony.
Values and Culture

Power Distance
A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture accept
unequal distribution of power in a society.
Uncertainty Avoidance
A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture
tolerate ambiguity(low uncertainty avoidance) or feel threatened by ambiguity
and uncertainty (high uncertainty avoidance).
Values and Culture

Achievement-Nurturing Orientation

A cross-cultural value describing the degree to which people in a culture emphasize

competitive versus cooperative relations with other people.

Values and Ethics

Ethics refers to the study of moral principles or values that determine whether actions are
right or wrong and outcomes are good or bad. People rely on their ethical values to
determine “the right thing to do.”

There are three Ethical Principles which we follow in I/O Psychology

Values and Ethics

Utilitarianism .
This principle advises us to seek the greatest good for the greatest number of
people. In other words, we should choose the option that provides the highest
degree of satisfaction to those affected. This is sometimes known as a
consequential principle because it focuses on the consequences of our actions,
not on how we achieve those consequences.
Values and Ethics

Individual rights .
This principle reflects the belief that everyone has entitlements
that let her or him act in a certain way. Some of the most widely cited rights are
freedom of movement, physical security, freedom of speech, fair trial, and freedom
from torture. The individual-rights principle includes more than legal
rights; it also includes human rights that everyone is granted as a moral norm of
society.
Values and Ethics

Distributive justice .
This principle suggests that people who are similar to each
other should receive similar benefits and burdens; those who are dissimilar
should receive different benefits and burdens in proportion to their dissimilarity.
For example, we expect that two employees who contribute equally in their
work should receive similar rewards, whereas those who make a lesser contribution
should receive less.
Motivation

● Definition: The set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human
behavior toward attaining some goal (Greenberg)
○ Arouse: to be successful, to do interesting work, to change the world
etc (the drive)
○ Direct: work hard, network etc (what they do)
○ Maintain: persistence
Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The best-known theory of motivation is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs . Maslow
hypothesized that within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs:
1. Physiological. Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
2. Safety. Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Social. Affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
4. Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors
such as status, recognition, and attention.
5. Self-actualization. Drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth,
achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment.
Early Theories of Motivation
Motivation Theories

Theory X Y- Douglas McGregor

This theory outlines two opposing views on human behavior in the workplace.
Each of the viewpoints addresses a different way of meeting each individual’s
motivational needs. McGregor believed that a manager’s assumptions about their
employees determined their leadership style in the workplace.
Early Theories of Motivation

Under Theory X , managers believe employees inherently dislike work and must therefore
be directed or even coerced into performing it.
Under Theory Y , in contrast, managers assume employees can view work as being as
natural as rest or play, and therefore the average person can learn to accept, and even seek,
responsibility.
Theory Y assumes higher-order needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself believed
Theory Y assumptions were more valid than Theory X. Therefore, he proposed such ideas
as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group
relations to maximize an employee’s job motivation.
Early Theories of Motivation
Early Theories of Motivation

Many workplaces originally utilized Theory X, which believes that

employees are lazy and unproductive. This led them to use rewards and
punishment as their primary means to motivate employees. In a strict
environment with little autonomy, workers were indeed unhappy and
lacking ambition. McGregor suggested that organizations would
experience greater success if they focused on satisfying interpersonal
needs, which led to the development of Theory Y.
Early Theories of Motivation

While McGregor’s theory was developed to improve motivation in the

workplace, it has been recently used in the school system. Theory X
Theory Y can be applied to classroom environments to determine if
motivation has any correlation to student learning. It has been
discovered that the intrinsic feedback given in the classroom setting has
the greatest effect on motivation and learning.
Early Theories of Motivation
Theory of Needs- David McClelland
This outlines the three desires that an individual could possibly have. Each person is
motivated by power, affiliation, or achievement. One trait is usually more dominant,
but the others are present in an individual as well.
While his ideas are used primarily to assess work performance, McClelland
conducted other studies that centered on motivation. He researched how motivation
affects one’s health; an individual’s drive to succeed can cause stress, high blood
pressure, or abnormal hormone levels. This demonstrated that internal factors, i.e. a
motive, can cause a physical response. Some were not convinced, but these ideas
provided a foundation for future studies.
Early Theories of Motivation

Three Needs
● Need for achievement (nAch) is the drive to excel, to achieve in
relationship to a set of standards.
● Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way
they would not have otherwise.
● Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships.
Early Theories of Motivation

Need for Power

McClelland found that power-motivated individuals were best suited for leadership
positions within a company. If they were able to effectively delegate tasks in the
workforce, they were often able to be successful leaders. This does not mean that all
power-motivated individuals will make good leaders.

The Power Motive is not without its own disadvantages. Individuals who are motivated by
power are often flighty and frustrate easily. They have no problem moving locations or
changing situations if the opportunity presents itself.
Early Theories of Motivation

Need for Achievement

Achievement-oriented individuals will change the situation or the location if they feel like it is
not meeting their needs. They do not like working in groups because they do not like having
limited control over the outcome. Instead, they prefer to do work where the results are clear and
visible.
Many entrepreneurs are motivated by achievement. They have the drive to be successful and
this is, in turn, vital to the economy. However, this may not mean that they are the best bosses to
their employees. Achievement-motivated individuals often prefer to do things themselves,
leading them to micromanage things in a business. They prefer not to work in a team and often
fail to share the workload and responsibility.
Early Theories of Motivation

Need for Affiliation

If an individual’s predominant motive is affiliation, they are essentially motivated by
social connections. They are primarily motivated to fit in and please others, and value
their relationships with their peers. These individuals appreciate familiar situations and are
unlikely to leave their work location. They also do not like working alone and try to avoid
disappointing their coworkers and managers at all costs.
Even though affiliation-motivated individuals work well in a team, they are often not the
best employees. They are not motivated to do better as they are content to stay in their
position. There is no drive to improve their employee status or their personal position,
which makes them, in effect, the least effective workers.
Early Theories of Motivation

Frederick Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory outlines that humans are motivated by two things:
motivators and hygiene factors. These two factors are both critical to motivation:
motivators encourage job satisfaction and hygiene factors prevent job
dissatisfaction.
Early Theories of Motivation

● Motivation factors: factors that are related to workplace satisfaction.

They cover intrinsic needs such as achievement, recognition, and
advancement. Motivation factors allow employees to be content in their
jobs and promote growth.
● Hygiene factors: factors that are not related to workplace satisfaction but
must be present in the workplace in order to prevent dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors cover extrinsic needs such as pay grade, workplace policy
and relationships with their peers.
Early Theories of Motivation
Early Theories of Motivation
According to Herzberg, the factors that lead to job satisfaction are
separate and distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction. Therefore,
managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction
may bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation.
They will be placating rather than motivating their workers. As a result,
Herzberg characterized conditions such as quality of supervision, pay,
company policies, physical working conditions, relationships with others,
and job security as hygiene factors.
Motivation across Cultures

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SVSycyhrY2Q
Motivation across Cultures

There are various factors that can affect working motivation in employees’
perceptions, such as the relative affluence level of their countries . When people’s
living condition is high, the significance of work is more than just providing basic
living economy.
Economic disparities among different countries lead to different attitudes towards
work in different countries. In particular, young people in the Far East and Middle
East countries have the highest sense of work ethic and a sense of achievement.
Motivation across Cultures

It is found that the characteristics and mechanisms of effective incentives for

employees of different cultures are different. In practical application, the
managers of international enterprises should be good at observing and
discovering the characteristics and inner needs of cross-cultural employees and
design corresponding incentive mechanism, making it easy to achieve good
results as well as fully arouse the employees’ enthusiasm for work so that the
organizational performance can be improved.
Group and its Dynamics

Work Groups-Meaning
Stephen Robbins defines a group “as two or more individuals, interacting and
interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.”
“A collection of two or more interacting individuals who maintain stable
patterns of relationships, share common goals, and perceive themselves as
being a group.” (J Greenberg)
Group and its Dynamics
To be considered a group, the collection of people in question must satisfy all four of these
criteria:

● SOCIAL INTERACTION: the members of a group must have some influence on one
another. The interaction between the parties may be either verbal (such as sharing
strategies) or nonverbal (Sharing Smiles)
● STABILITY: a relatively stable structure. Although groups can change, and often do,
they must have some stable relationships that keep members together and functioning
as a unit. (e.g., the people inside an office waiting room at any given time) may not be
considered a group.
Group and its Dynamics

● COMMON INTERESTS OR GOALS: sports club, Co-community for

common goal
● RECOGNITION AS BEING A GROUP: individuals involved must
perceive themselves as a group. shoppers in a checkout line probably
don’t think of each other as being members of a group.
Types of Groups- Formal Groups

Groups that are created by the organization, intentionally designed to direct its members toward
some organizational goal. (Greenberg)
● Command Groups- A group created by connections between individuals who are a formal
part of the organization (i.e., those who legitimately can give orders to others).
● Task Groups- A task group is created by the management to accomplish certain
organizational goals. It is specifically created to solve the problem or preform a defined
task.
● Standing Committees- Committees that are permanent, and existing over time by the
organization.
● Taskforce and Ad hoc Committees- A temporary committee formed for a special purpose
by the organization.
Types of Groups- Informal Groups

Informal groups develop naturally among an organization’s personnel without any

direction from the management of the organization within which they operate. They
are formed spontaneously and are based on personal relationships or specific interests.
(Greenberg)

● Interest Groups- A group of employees who come together to satisfy a common

interest.
● Friendship Groups- Informal groups that develop because their members are
friends, often seeing each other outside of the organization.
Five Stage Model of Group Formation

The conceptualization claiming that groups develop in five stages— forming, storming,
norming, performing, and adjourning. (Bruce Tuckman)
STAGE 1: FORMING:
Members get acquainted with each other. They establish the ground rules by trying to find out
what behaviors are acceptable with respect to both the job (how productive they are expected to
be) and interpersonal relations (who’s really in charge).
During the forming stage, people are a bit confused and uncertain about how to act in the group
and how beneficial it will be to become a member of the group.
Once the individuals come to think of themselves as members of a group, the forming stage is
complete.
Five Stage Model of Group Formation

STAGE 2: STORMING:
It is characterized by a high degree of conflict within the group.
Members often resist the control of the group’s leaders and show hostility
toward each other.
If these conflicts are not resolved and group members withdraw, the
group may disband. However, as conflicts are resolved and the group’s
leadership is accepted, the storming stage is complete.
Five Stage Model of Group Formation

STAGE 3: NORMING:
During this stage, the group becomes more cohesive, and members begin to identify more
strongly with it.
Close relationships develop, shared feelings become common, and a keen interest in
finding mutually agreeable solutions develops. Feelings of camaraderie and shared
responsibility for the group’s activities are heightened.
The norming stage is complete when the members of the group accept a common set of
expectations about how to do things.
Five Stage Model of Group Formation

STAGE 4: PERFORMING:

During this stage, questions about group relationships and leadership have been resolved
and the group is ready to work.

Having fully developed, the group now devotes energy to getting the job done.

The group’s good relations and acceptance of the leadership help it perform well.
Five Stage Model of Group Formation

STAGE 5: ADJOURNING:

Recognizing that not all groups last forever, the final stage is known as adjourning.

Groups may cease to exist because they have met their goals and are no longer needed
(such as an ad hoc group created to raise money for a charity project), in which case the
end is abrupt.

Other groups may adjourn gradually as the group disintegrates, either because members
leave or because the norms that have developed are no longer effective for the group.
Group Structure/Development

The term group structure refers to the interrelationships between the individuals
constituting a group, the characteristics that make group functioning orderly and
predictable.

The four different aspects of group structure:

● the various parts played by group members (roles),

● the informal rules and expectations that develop within groups (norms),
● the prestige of group membership (status),
● members’ senses of belonging to their groups (cohesiveness).
Group Structure/Development

ROLES:

Roles are defined as the typical behaviours that characterize a person in a social context.
An individual in a group may play one or more specific roles.

In organizations, many roles are assigned by virtue of an individual’s formal position

within an organization. These are behaviours expected of the individual in a particular
position (i.e., the person in that role).
Group Structure/Development

NORMS:
Norms may be defined as generally agreed-upon informal rules that guide group members’
behaviour. They represent shared ways of viewing the world.
Norms differ from organizational rules in that they are informal and unwritten.
Norms regulate the behaviour of groups in important ways, such as by fostering workers’ honesty
and loyalty to the company.
In fact, group members may not even be aware of the subtle group norms that exist and regulate
their behaviour. Yet norms have profound effects on what they do.
Group Structure/Development

STATUS:
The relative prestige, social position, or rank given to groups or individuals by others.
Within most organizations, status may be recognized as both formal and informal in nature.
COHESIVENESS:
Groups differ in their cohesiveness —the degree to which members are attracted to each other and
motivated to stay in the group.
Some work groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, or
the group’s small size facilitates high interaction, or external threats have brought members close
together.
Group Behaviour Components

● Social Loafing, the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working
collectively than alone. It directly challenges the assumption that the productivity of
the group as a whole should at least equal the sum of the productivity of the
individuals in it.
● Social Striving: People work harder when they are in groups, then when they are
alone.
● Social Facilitation: The presence of others can enhance an individual’s performance
for simple or well-rehearsed tasks.
● De-individuation: This pattern happens when you have the increased desire to please
management with the diffusion of responsibility from social loafing.
Teams

Meaning
A group whose members have complementary skills and are committed to
a common purpose or set of performance goals for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable. (Greenberg)
Types of Teams

Problem Solving Teams

A team from the same department or functional area that’s involved in efforts to improve
work activities or to solve specific problems.

Problem-solving teams meet regularly & examine important workplace issues. Example- a
quality control circle. These teams rarely have the authority to unilaterally implement any
of their suggestions.
Types of Teams

Self-Managed Teams

A type of work team that operates without a manager and is responsible for a complete
work process or segment. These teams are empowered to make decisions about planning,
doing, and evaluating their daily work.

Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members and evaluate each other’s
performance. Supervisory positions take on decreased importance and are sometimes even
eliminated.
Types of Teams

Cross-Functional Teams

A work team composed of individuals from various functional specialties. It brings

together persons from different functions to work on a common task.

Cross-functional teams represent an effective way of bringing people together from

throughout an organization to cooperate with each other on the diverse tasks needed to
complete large projects.
Types of Teams

Virtual Teams

Teams that operate across space, time, and organizational boundaries, communicating with
each other only through electronic technology. (Greenberg)

Virtual teams are sometimes created to promote telecommuting but sometimes they also
may be formed very deliberately, such as when it is important to bring together the most
talented people in the world on a project.
FOUR STAGE PROCESS OF TEAM FORMATION

STAGE 1: PREWORK.
Before teams are created, a decision has to be made about whether or not a team should be
formed—a stage known as prework.
One of the most important objectives of this phase is to determine whether a team should
be created at all.
The team’s objectives must be established, and an inventory of the skills needed to do the
job should be made.
In addition, decisions should be made in advance about what authority the team should
have.
FOUR STAGE PROCESS OF TEAM FORMATION

STAGE 2: CREATE PERFORMANCE CONDITIONS

Building on the prework, organizational officials must ensure that the team has the proper
resources needed to carry out its work.
This involves material resources (e.g., tools, equipment, and money), human resources
(e.g., the appropriate blend of skilled professionals), and support from the organization
(e.g., willingness to let the team do its own work as it sees fit).
Unless managers help create the proper conditions for team success, like it or not, they are
contributing to its failure.
FOUR STAGE PROCESS OF TEAM FORMATION

STAGE 3: FORM AND BUILD THE TEAM

First, managers should form boundaries—clearly establish who is and who is not a
member of the team. Some teams fail simply because membership in it is left unclear.
Reducing such ambiguity can help avoid confusion and frustration.
Second, members must accept the team’s overall mission and purpose. Unless they do,
failure is inevitable.
Third, organizational officials should clarify the team’s mission and
responsibilities—make perfectly clear exactly what it is expected to do (but not necessarily
how to do it). Will team members be responsible for monitoring and planning their own
work? If so, such expectations should be spelled out explicitly.
FOUR STAGE PROCESS OF TEAM FORMATION

STAGE 4: PROVIDE ONGOING ASSISTANCE

Finally, once a team is functioning, supervisors may be needed to help the team eliminate
problems and perform even better. For example, disruptive team members either may be
counselled or replaced.

Similarly, material resources may have to be replenished or upgraded. Although it may be

unwise for a manager to intervene in the successful affairs of a team that has taken on its
own life, it also may be unwise to neglect opportunities to help a team do even better.
Difference between Groups and Teams