MORPHOLOGIC AND TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION OF

Chromolaena odorata Linn. AND ITS POPULATION

DENSITY BY QUADRAT-TRANSECT METHOD
IN POOC, SANTA FE, CEBU, PHILIPPINES

BERNARD JAY DESABILLE ORILLO

KEANNA ALYSSA MARIE SARRAGA NERVIDA
LINMAR CABRERA CAYSON JR.

A PRACTICAL RESEARCH (INQUIRIES, INVESTIGATIONS AND

IMMERSION). SUBMITTED. TO. THE. FACULTY OF SCIENCE
TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS (STEM),
SANTA FE NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL- SENIOR
HIGH IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR

SENIOR HIGH

MAY 2022
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Bernard Jay D. Orillo is a Science, Technology,

Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) graduate in Santa Fe
National High School in Santa Fe, Cebu. He was born as a
Roman Catholic and the youngest among three children of Mr.
Gilmer L. Orillo and Mrs. Jessica D. Orillo. Every 14th of April, he
celebrated his natal day. His permanent address is in I-125 G.
Borraska Street, Talisay, Santa Fe, Cebu.
He completed his elementary education in Poblacion at Santa Fe Central
Elementary School. During the 2016-2017 academic year, he became an honor student
at Santa Fe National High School. He was able to maintain his honor student status in
the following years and progressed to Senior High School as an Honor student.
He competed in the Metrobank-Mtap Math Challenge (MMC) Competition
consecutively starting from 2016 to 2020 at the Area and Division Level, representing his
school and winning third place on the individual ranking and second place on the team
ranking.
He was able to bagged an award in the Area Schools Press Conference (ASPC)
as a Layout Artist. He placed third and was able to represent his school as a Layout Artist
at the Division Schools Press Conference
Through his passion in Computers and Mathematics, He is determined to achieve
his ambition of working as a successful and professional Civil Engineer and as a
Computer Programmer.

ii
 Keanna Alyssa Marie S. Nervida is a Senior High School
graduate under Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) strand at Santa Fe National High School in
Santa Fe, Bantayan Island, Cebu. She was born as a Roman
Catholic and a middle child among the three children of Mr. Noel
L. Nervida and Mrs. Merulina S. Nervida. She commemorates her
date of birth every 21st of November. Her home address is in Purok 5, Crossing
Tingtingon, Marikaban, Santa Fe, Cebu.
She graduated her primary education at Marikaban Integrated School on the year
2016 where she was recognized as the batch Valedictorian. She then completed Junior
High School at Bantayan Science High School with honors. She was a Senior High
student at Santa Fe National High School and performed academically well.
She was part of the Finance Committee of the Supreme Student Government. If
God permits, she considered to continue being part of the Supreme Student Government
in the past school year. She is also a member of the Parish Youth Coordinating Council
in Santo Niño Roman Catholic Parish Church henceforth she believes to serve God
through serving His people.
She dreams to become a psychologist as she is enlightened to embrace and
encounter people. Through hardwork, patience and passion, she is determined to achieve
her ambitions and goals in life.

iii
 Linmar C. Cayson Jr. is a Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) graduate in Santa Fe
National High School in Santa Fe, Cebu. He was born as a
Roman Catholic and the youngest among three children of Mr.
Linmar M. Cayson and Ma. Juvilyn E. Cabrera. Every 12th of
October, he commemorated his natal day. His permanent
address is in F. Roska Street, Talisay, Santa Fe, Cebu.
In Poblacion, he completed his elementary education at Santa Fe Central
Elementary School. He later became an honor student at SFNHS during the 2016-2017
academic year. He was able to maintain his honor student status in the following years
and progressed to Senior High School as a High Honor student.
He competed in the Math Challenge Competition at the Area Level in 2019 and
2020, representing his school and winning third and second place on the team ranking,
respectively.
He was able to win awards in several contests as an aspiring writer. He placed fifth
in the Division Schools Press Conference (DSPC) to earn a ticket to represent his school
as a Sports Writer at the Regional Schools Press Conference (RSPC) 2017. He was
appointed as the official sports editor of his school publication, "Ang Lapyahan”.
Through his enthusiasm for writing and mathematics, he is motivated to achieve
his ambition of working as a professional civil engineer by day and a writer by night.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Semper nobiscum Deus.

The researchers would like to thank the Almighty God for the strength, wisdom,
and protection He has given. All glory of this work is offered to Him.
The researchers would also like to express sincere gratitude to the people
contributed and supported in making this study and to those they failed to mention:
To Mr. Inocencio C. Raman Jr., their Practical Research III teacher, for sharing his
expertise, knowledge, and essential guidance in making their research paper.
To Mr. Cristopher A. Mancao, their class adviser for his endless support and
encouragement.
To Mr. Reynaldo A. Antolijao and Mrs. Grace E. Antolijao, and Mr. Gilmer L. Orillo
and Mrs. Jessica D. Orillo for offering a place to write their research paper.
Most importantly to the families and friends of the researchers, as well as to those
who have helped them indirectly, for the unconditional understanding, support, and love.
Ad Dei gloriam!

BERNARD JAY D. ORILLO

KEANNA ALYSSA MARIE S. NERVIDA
LINMAR C. CAYSON JR.

v
 ABSTRACT

MORPHOLOGIC AND TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION OF Chromolaena odorata Linn.

AND ITS POPULATION DENSITY BY QUADRAT-TRANSECT METHOD IN POOC,
SANTA FE, CEBU by BERNARD JAY D. ORILLO, KEANNA ALYSSA MARIE S.
NERVIDA, and LINMAR C. CAYSON JR., Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM), Santa Fe National High School, F. Duarte St., Poblacion, Santa
Fe, Cebu, Philippines, May 2022
Research Adviser: Inocencio Cañete Raman Jr.

The study aimed to identify the morpho-taxonomy of C. odorata, preserve a

specimen, and determine its population density in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

Results of the qualitative descriptions showed homogenous resemblance of the

morphologic and taxonomic identity of C. odorata based on the published literatures to
the actual identification.

The preservation of the collected C. odorata specimen was done at the house of
the researchers through the process of herbarium within the 2 weeks duration. The
population density was determined through quadrat-transect method.

Analysis of variance at 0.05 level at significance showed significant differences

among the three sampling sites in determination of population density of C. odorata
located at Purok Gemilina adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse, Site II (14.67 ±
10.41%) gave statistically high population density compared to, Purok Gumamela
adjacent to Petron gasoline station, Site I (10.33 ± 14.78%) and Purok Mangga adjacent
to Negosyo Center, Site III. Therefore, Site II is the most abundant area based on the
determined population density of C. odorata.

Further researches to warrant determination of population density of C. odorata is

thereby recommended.

Keywords: Morpho-taxonomy identification, population density, Quadrat-Transect

method, herbarium, Chromolaena odorata Linn.

vi
Copyright © 2022 BERNARD JAY DESABILLE ORILLO, KEANNA ALYSSA MARIE

SARRAGA NERVIDA, LINMAR CABRERA CAYSON JR.

Rights Reserved

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
TITLE PAGE i
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
ABSTRACT vi
COPYRIGHT PAGE vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS viii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES xii
LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES xiv

INTRODUCTION 1
Objectives 2
Significance of the Study 3
Scope and Limitations 3
Hypotheses 3

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 5

Chromolaena odorata Linn. 5
Morphotaxonomy 7
Scientific Classification 10
Asteraceae 11
Chromolaena 12
Herbarium 13
Glue Method 13
Species Distribution 14
Distribution Table 15
Factors Affecting Plant Distribution 16

METHODOLOGY 17
Location and Duration of The Study 17
Apparatus, Materials, and Equipment 17
Apparatus and Materials 17
Equipment 17

viii
 Sampling Site 17
Taxonomic identification of C. odorata 19
Morphologic Identification of C. odorata 20
Specimen Preservation 20
Determination of Distribution of C. odorata 21
Schematic Diagram 22
Statistical Analysis of Data 23

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 24

C. odorata Morphologic and Taxonomic Identification 24
Herbarium 26
Quantitative Analysis of C. odorata Morphologic Features 27
Leaf Length 27
Leaf Width 29
Stem Height 30
Determination of C. odorata Population Density 31

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION 34

LITERATURE CITED 36
APPENDICES 41

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Literature-based morphological features of C. odorata 9

2 Scientific Classification of Chromolaena odorata Linn. 11

3 Distribution table of C. odorata from Southeast Asia 15

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Photograph of Chromolaena odorata Linn. 5

2 Image of C. odorata seeds (A), flowers (B), leaves (C) 9

3 Distribution of C. odorota in the Zamboanga Peninsula 15

4 Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata at Purok Gumamela 18

adjacent to Petron Gasoline Station, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu

5 Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata at Purok Gemilina 18

adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu

6 Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata adjacent to 19

Negosyo Center Sta.Fe, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu

7 Illustration of Quadrat-transect method 22

8 Taxonomic features of the whole structure, stem, flower, 24

roots, and I leaf of the C. odorata specimen.

9 Morphologic features of the whole structure, stem, flower, 25

roots, and I leaf of collected C. odorata specimen.

10 Illustration of C. odorata specimen in whole structure, stem, 26

flower, roots, and leaf.

11 Mounted herbarium specimen with labelled descriptions 27

12 The Mean Length of C. odorata Leaf in the three sites located 28

in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

13 The Mean Width of C. odorata Leaf in the three sites located 29

in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

14 The Mean Height of C. odorata Stem in the three sites located 30

in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

15 The Mean Population of C. odorata in the three sites located 32

in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

xi
 LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES

Table Page

1 Raw data for the identification of common features of 42

taxonomic tree of C. odorata

2 Raw data for the identification of morphological features of 43

C. odorata

3 Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the length of 43

C. odorata leaf

4 Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the width of 44

C. odorata leaf

5 Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the height of 44

C. odorata stem

6 Raw data for the determination of population density of 44

C. odorata

7 Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the 45

length of C. odorata leaf from the three sampling sites.

8 Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis 45

of the length of C. odorata leaf from the three sites comparison.

9 T-test Results Comparing the Length of the C. odorata Leaf 45

from the three sites

10 Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the 45

width of C. odorata leaf from the three sampling sites.

11 Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis 46

of the width of C. odorata leaf from the three sites comparison.

12 T-test Results Comparing the Width of the C. odorata Leaf 46

from the three sites

13 Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the 46

height of C. odorata stem from the three sampling sites.

14 Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis 46

of the height of C. odorata stem from the three sites comparison.

xii
15 T-test Results Comparing the Height of the C. odorata Stem 47
from the three sites

16 Analysis of variance for the determination of C. odorata 47

population density from the three sampling sites

17 Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the determination of 47

C. odorata population density from the three sites comparison

18 T-test Results Comparing the Population Density of the 47

C. odorata from the three sites

xiii
 LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Photographs of the herbarium process. 48

2 Photographs of counting the distribution in three sites of 49

observation (1) adjacent to Petron Gasoline Station, (2)
adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse, (3) adjacent to
Negosyo Center Sta. Fe.

3 Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three 49

2-independent mean groups of the length of C. odorata leaf.

4 Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three 49

2-independent mean groups of the width of C. odorata leaf.

5 Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three 50

2-independent mean groups of the height of C. odorata stem.

6 Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three 50

2-independent mean groups of the population density of
C. odorata.

xiv
 INTRODUCTION

Organisms have progressed from their most basic forms to complex structures.
It could be a living creature, a plant, or a bacterium. Plants are photosynthetic
organisms that are members of the plantae kingdom. Algae, mosses, ferns, and
phanerogams are some examples of plants. Kingdom, phylum, class order, family,
genus, and species are the different classifications for plants. Plant classifications are
necessary because most plants have similar characteristics and cannot be accurately
identified based solely on perception (Joseph B, et al., 2013).
Morpho-taxonomy is a way to describe and classify the structures of organisms
as they evolved from simple to complex structures over time. Morpho-taxonomy is the
classification of organisms according to their morphology (Ali, 2021). It is coined by
two words such as morphology and taxonomy. Morphology is the study of the form
and structure of organisms while taxonomy is the science of naming, describing, and
classifying specimens. (Aronoff et al., 2011).
The number of organisms occupying an area in relation to the size of the area
they occupy is described by population density, which is an empirical consensus (Moll
et al,2005). The population density of a vulnerable organism can be used as an
indicator and a foundation for conservation and protection. (Allison et al., 1998; Fortes,
2013).
In many tropical countries, a fast-growing perennial shrub, Chromolaena odorata
Linn. is seen as a major agricultural sustainability issue. C. odorata has spread
throughout Asia’s tropical region including the Philippines, in which it is known by the
locals as ‘Hagonoy’ and is considered as an invasive weed affecting the crops
(Amundsen, 2003).
Plants that are highly invasive have reproductive, competitive, and dispersal
characteristics (C. Joshi, et al., 2006). C. odorata grows aggressively and suppresses
other vegetation by quickly forming a thick cover (L. Awanyo, E. M. Attuah, and M.
McCarron, 2011), as well as accumulating soil-borne fungi that act as pathogens on
native plants (S. Mangla, Inderjit, and R. M. Callaway, 2008).
 2

When it comes to the impacts of C. odorata in its native environments, the

allelopathic ability and rapid reproduction and growth of C. odorata is more likely to
influence abundance and successful invasion than local edaphic conditions. (L.
Awanyo, E. M. Attuah, and M. McCarron, 2011) (S. Mangla, Inderjit, and R. M.
Callaway, 2008).
Despite being difficult to eradicate, a nuisance in plantations, and known to injure
farm animals and devastate forage and native plant species, the ecology of the highly
invasive plant species C. odorata is currently understudied in the Philippines (L. T.
Codilla and E. B. Metillo, 2011).
It was identified as the most troublesome weed in Sri Lankan coconut plantations
as early as 1944, and has since become a problem in rubber, palm oil, tea, coffee,
cashew, teak, and other plantation crops throughout Asia (S. Mangla, 2008).
However, in many places where it has been introduced, there has been no study
reported about the morphologic and taxonomic identification of the said plant species
and its distribution in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines. Thus, this study was
conducted.

Objectives

The main objective of this study is to identify the characterization and determine
the distribution of Chromolaena odorata Linn. in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

Specifically, this study aimed to:

1. Identify the morpho-taxonomy of C. odorata;

2. Determine the population density of C. odorata in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines; and

3. Preserve the C. odorata specimen through herbarium.

 3

Significance of the Study

The results of this study provide morphological and taxonomic identity of C.

odorata from Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu. Furthermore, the study preserves herbarium as
reference for future – related studies on C. odorata.

Scope and Limitations

This study focused on the morpho-taxonomy, preservation of herbarium and

distribution of C. odorata in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu. Sampling was done on the first
week of February 2022. The morphologic and taxonomic identification of C. odorata
was based on literatures. The determination of the distribution of C. odorata was
separately divided into three sampling sites in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines and
was only limited to 3 quadrats per site along with a 5-meter transect line. The
preservation of C. odorata specimen was done through conducting herbarium after
obtaining from the sites. The sample preparation was only limited to the facilities in
the house of the researchers due to COVID-19 health protocols.

Hypotheses

In this study, the following hypotheses were tested:

HO1: There are no significant differences in the length of C. odorata leaf in sandy, silt,
and clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively,
in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.
 4

HA1: There are significant differences in the length of C. odorata leaf in sandy, silt, and

clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively, in Pooc,

Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

HO2: There are no significant differences in the width of C. odorata leaf in sandy, silt,
and clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively,
in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.
HA2: There are significant differences in the width of C. odorata leaf in sandy, silt, and

clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively, in

Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

HO3: There are no significant differences in the height of C. odorata stem in sandy,
silt, and clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga,
respectively, in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.
HA3: There are significant differences in the width of C. odorata leaf in sandy, silt, and

clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively, in

Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

HO4: There are no significant differences in the distribution of C. odorata in sandy, silt,

and clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively, in

Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

HA4: There are significant differences in the distribution of C. odorata in sandy, silt,
and clay soil in Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina, and Purok Mangga, respectively,
in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Chromolaena odorata Linn.

C. odorata (Figure 1) is a member of the Eupatorieae tribe, a predominantly

New World tribe under the Asteriodeae subfamily that has been known in the
Philippines as ‘Hagonoy’ since its invasion from South America through the country’s
southern backdoor in the 1960s (Gautier, 1992).

Figure 1. Photograph of Chromolaena odorata Linn.

C. odorata has been used in traditional medicine as a wound healer for burns
and skin infections in the past (Sirinthipaporn et al., 2017). C. odorata is widely used
in Vietnam for traditional wound healing as it has antibacterial, cytotoxic, anti-
inflammatory, analgesic, and a variety of other therapeutic qualities on a large scale
(Vijayaraghavan et al., 2017). They also confirmed the plant’s antibacterial and
cytotoxicity properties in their study by Vital, P. et al. (2009).
However, in many of the places where it has been introduced, such as Africa,
South and Southeast Asia, it has become a severe issue. C. odorata can spread
 6

quickly and cause infestations, which can harm agriculture, pastures, and biodiversity
by interfering with natural ecosystem functioning.
Due to its very invasive, allelopathic character, C. odorata is considered one of
the most dangerous weeds on the planet. It is a major weed in oil palm, coconut,
cashew, teak, rubber, and citrus plantations, as well as disturbed forests, pastures,
and natural reserves. It’s highly allelopathic, suppressing adjacent vegetation and
affecting native plant communities’ structure (Vaisakh and Pandey, 2012).
C. odorata also has an impact on conservation and ecotourism since it has
spread to wide regions of agricultural land, reducing crops and agriculture output, as
well as the diversity of plant native species (Macdonald 1983; Cronk and Fuller 1995;
Goodall and Erasmus 1996; Rose 1997; Matthews and Brand 2004).
Furthermore, in most invaded nations, C. odorata may swiftly develop and
produce a dense scrambling thicket that grows through and smothers plant crops,
forestry, and natural flora. C odorata’s invasiveness can be linked to its ability to
produce huge quantities of propagules and inhibit native plants (L. T. Codilla and E.
B. Metillo, 2011).
During the cropping season, C. odorata germinates alongside other plants and
faces stiff competition from tree seedlings. These tree species outgrow other species
in terms of height growth (3-6 m in a year). As the forest scrub gets thicker and higher,
C. odorata can only produce one or two weak seed crops before degenerating (Anneke
de Rouw, 1991).
As a result, the need of population management is stressed as a cornerstone
preventing native biodiversity loss (Hu G. and Z. Zhonghua, 2013).
 7

Morphotaxonomy

Morpho-taxonomy is the combination of two kinds of branches of science which

deals with the morphology and taxonomy of a particular organism of study. It is the
classification of organisms pertaining to their morphology in which organisms can be
adeptly identified. (Cain, 2020)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, a German poet, novelist, playwright, and
philosopher, is credited with coining the term morphology in a biological context early
in the nineteenth century. It has a Greek etymology: morph- means “shape, form,” and
-ology means “study of something.” The study of form or forms is known as
morphology. Morphology is the study of the shape and structure of organisms in
biology (Aronoff M., 2011).
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, classified different animals based on their habitat,
characteristics, and other factors, according to the history of biological classification.
Later, in the 18th century, a Swedish botanist named Carolus Linnaeus introduced
Taxonomic Hierarchy Categories, which is still used worldwide today. The word
“taxonomy” comes from two Greek words: “taxis,” which means “arrangement or
division,” and “nomos,” which means “method.” Taxonomy is a branch of biology that
deals with the classification of living organisms. A taxon is a group of organisms that
are classified as a single unit (Ltd, 2019).
The Asteraceae family includes C. odorata. Annual, biennial, or perennial
herbaceous plants, as well as shrubs, vines, and trees, are members of this family. It
is made up of around 165 species that are found in tropical and subtropical areas. The
presence of dozens or hundreds of small individual florets bound together by
protecting involucres in flower heads is the most prevalent feature (Gautier, 1992). C.
odorata was previously classified as part of the Eupatorium genus, but it is now
thought to be more closely related to other Eupatorieae taxa (R. King et al., 1970).
Based on the literature, the morphologic 7 haracterization of C. odorata
distinguished it from other weed species. C. odorata is a bushy herb with long,
wandering branches that do not twine. The pubescent stems are terete in shape. The
 8

leaves are opposite, velvety-pubescent, flaccid-membranous, acute, deltoid-ovate, 3-

nerved, with 1-5 teeth on each border, very rough toothed in younger leaves, or entire
in older leaves. The base is obtuse or subtruncate, however it is just 1-1.5cm long and
decurrent. The petiole is short and thin. The blade is 5-12cm long and 3-6cm wide,
with sub-corymbose axillary and terminal clusters of capitula. The bracteate peduncles
are around 1-3 cm long. Slender bracts are 10-12mm long. About 4-5 series of bracts
make up the involucre. It has a light complexion with green nerves. The upper ones
are approximately 8-9mm long, while the lower ones are approximately 2mm long.
Except for the extreme divergent tip, all are sharp, distally ciliate, flat, and appressed.
The florets are all alike (disc-florets) with pale purple to dull off-white color. The styles
extend to about 4mm beyond the apex of the involucre. Florets are about 20-30mm
or a few more, 10-12mm long. The receptacle is very narrow. The ovarian portion is
about 4mm long. The corolla slender has a trumpet form. The pappus of dull white
hairs measures 5mm long, and achenes are glabrous (Stone 1970).
C. odorata stems branch freely, with lateral branches forming in pairs from axillary
buds. Green and succulent at the tips and young shoots, older stems are brown and
woody near the base. The leaves are oval in shape, with a width of 3-6 cm and a
length of 6-10 cm, with the bottom part being wider and more pointed at the tip. The
leaves have a jagged edge that faces the base, and the leaves are arranged face to
face. The wreath is found at the branch’s end (terminal) and is composed of 20-30
flowers that are bluish when young and brown when mature (Zahara 2019). In most
soils, the root system is fibrous and does not penetrate deeper than 20-30cm. The
leaves have a characteristic 3-vein “pitchfork” pattern, are light green with velvety
hairs, triangular in shape, have enormous serrations (teeth) or are smooth on the
margins, and grow in opposing pairs from the stem. The seeds, on the other hand, are
dark in color and hav short, silky hairs. They measure 3-4 mm in length and have a 5
mm long fluffy structure (C. Russo, 2011). On all stems and branches, flowerheads
are borne in terminal corymbs of 20 to 60 heads. The flowers are white or pale bluish-
lilac in color that can cover the bushes completely (Cruttwell and McFadyen 1989).
 9

Figure 2. Image of C. odorata seeds (A), flowers (B), leaves (C) (Russo, 2011)

The morphological features and descriptions of C. odorata according to the

studies conducted Gunasekera (2009) are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Literature-based morphological features of C. odorata (Gunasekera, 2009)

Feature Details

Color White to pale

pink

Flower Shape panicles of 10

to 35 flowers

Pollination hairy and

achenes
 10

Size 4–10 cm long

by 1–5 cm wide

Leaf Odor Pungent and

aromatic odor

triangular to
Shape elliptical with
serrated edges

2 m tall that
Height can grow up to
10 m

Stem Type of Lateral

Branching branching

Structure Soft Structure

Root Type of root system Fibrous root

The morphologic studies and descriptions of C. odorata are extremely

important because they contribute to the taxonomic evaluation, evolutionary history,
and scientific classification of the species (L. T. Codilla and E. B. Metillo, 2011).

Scientific Classification

Chromolaena odorata Linn. Was previously classified in the genus Eupatorium,

but it is now thought to be more closely related to other genera in the tribe Eupatorieae.
The name Chromolaena is derived from the Greek word for “color,” and the name
odorata refers to the strong odor that the leaves emit when crushed (R. King et al.,
1970).
 11

Table 2. Scientific Classification of Chromolaena odorata Linn.

Family Asteraceae
Genus Chromolaena
Species Chromolaena odorata L.

Asteraceae

Five stamens with connate anthers (only some wind-pollinated species have
free anthers) and free filaments make up the Asteraceae family (with very few
exceptions, among others some Barnadesia) (K. Bremer, 1987).
Asteraceae, with two style arms and papillose, dry stigmatic areas in most
cases. Asteraceae fruits are achenes, which are single-seeded dry fruits formed by a
unilocular, inferior ovary that is often described as indehiscent (but is split open by the
growing embryo at preformed dehiscence lines in some Asteraceae), crowned by a
persistent and more or less modified calyx (K. Bremer, 1987). The leaves are simple
and some are compound, its arrangement along the stem could be radical, petiolate,
and exstipulate, covered area, attenuate, acute, dentate, hairy membranous,
reticulate and deep green color. Most stems of Asteraceae are lateral branching,
woody, hairy, or prostrate. The root systems are taproot to fibrous, often rooting to the
nodes (A.H.M.M. Rahman, et. Al., 2008).
The chemistry of the Asteraceae family is rich and complex, but much of it
evolved after the family’s origin; the chemistry of early-branching clades like
Barnadesioideae appears to be less specialized than that of younger clades (K.
Bremer, 1987).
The bitter, toxic sesquiterpene lactones are another family of compounds
commonly associated with Asteraceae, but they appear to be absent from
Barnadesioideae, suggesting that they are an apomorphy for non-barnadesioid
Asteraceae (they are particularly complex among the asteroid tribes) (K. Bremer,
1987).
 12

Chromolaena

There are over 165 species of Chromolaena, all of which are native to South
Florida, South and Central America, and the West Indies. Chromolaena is the name
given to a group of Eupatorian species that were previously known as Osmia or
Eupatorium section Cylindrocephala. The genus belongs to the Critonioid family,
which includes glabrous and not enlarged style bases, opposite leaves, few hairs on
the corolla, and a small but distinct carpopodium. The phyllaries, on the other hand,
are Chromolaena’s most distinguishing feature. The phyllaries of closely related
species in other Eupatorieae groups can differ greatly, and they have been overused
as relationship indicators (King and Robinson, 1987; Gautier, 1992).
In Chromolaena, the phyllaries have a very regular pattern of numerous rows
that get longer and longer, giving the head a distinctly cylindrical appearance. The
anther collar, which is frequently larger below and with small cells that are noticeably
annulate in various directions, is also distinctive of the genus. There are certain
obvious specializations among Chromolaena’s various species. The genus is
distinguished by strong pales on the receptacle, which have resulted in separate
generic or sectional status being retained (King and Robinson, 1987; Gautier, 1992).
Chromolaena odorata Linn. Belongs to the Eupatorieae subfamily of the
Asteroideae subfamily of the Asteraceae family, formerly known as Compositae.
Chromolaena odorata Linn. Is found in open, well-drained places but is not found in
natural woods (McFadyen, 1996). C. odorata spreads quickly, forming dense
scrambling thickets that engulf natural vegetation, subsistence and commercial crops,
grazing pastures, and silviculture.
 13

Herbarium

Herbarium is a collection of plant specimens that have been collected, dried,

and mounted on handcrafted paper sheets. They were organized into plant families
using a recognized classification system, kept in pigeon holes made of steel or
wooden cup boards, and carefully maintained for current and future research. It serves
as a resource for plant naming, identification, and classification (Seshagirirao* K., et
al., 2016).
Methods described by Lawrence (1967), Jones and Luchinger (1987),
Anonymous (1996), and Manilal and Kumar (1998) were used to prepare the
specimens. Collection: The specimen material (plants) that you are interested in
should be collected in its entirety. Carefully remove the insects, spiderwebs, and
foreign bodies attached to your specimens before placing them in the collection bag.
Poisoning and Drying the specimen: Poisoning kills plants by preventing the formation
of an abscission layer, which protects the plant’s leaves, flowers, and fruits while
keeping the specimen (twig) attached. Usually, the plant is poisoned by dipping it in a
saturated mercuric chloride solution in ethyl alcohol (usually 20 gm per litre of alcohol)
The specimens are spread out for pressing and drying. It’s important to apply enough
pressure to the plants; otherwise, it’ll take longer to achieve a good desiccation, and
they’ll be damaged by dampness and moulds. Labeling and mounting: The plant
specimens have now been dried and are ready to be mounted on herbarium sheets.
Mounting is the process of affixing a processed plant specimen into an herbarium
sheet. (Seshagirirao* K., et al., 2016).

Glue Method
The glue method is a method of conducting herbarium in which glue is the most
important component. This method entails directly applying adhesive to the plant
specimen before mounting it. Furthermore, the best adhesive for attaching plant
specimens to herbarium sheets is one that dries quickly, is clear, and contains novel
chemicals that won’t harm or change the specimen. Two glues that have worked well
are Weldbond and Elmer’s Glue-all (Smith and Chinnappa, 2015).
 14

Species Distribution

C. odorata is a major weed in all humid tropical perennial crops as well as

forestry. It encroaches on pastures and is far more aggressive in the Old-World
tropics, where it is an exotic, than in its native Americas. C. odorata is found primarily
in the humid part of the inter-tropical zone, at elevations below 2000 m, in open
secondary habitats such as cultivated lands, abandoned or neglected fields, forest
clearings, wastelands, along forest trails, fence rows, roadsides, and forest margins,
and along forest trails, fence rows, roadsides, and forest margins. Researchers
discovered significant differences in four invaded habitats in KwaZulu-Natal, South
Africa, concluding that it is most abundant in state forest, followed by eucalyptus
plantations, and a low abundance in sugar cane fields and communal grasslands is
thought to be due to fires and ground cover (Gils et al., 2006).
The distribution of C. odorata in the Philippine archipelago, according to L. E.
Codilla and T. Codilla B. Metillo (2011), and can be found all over the Zamboanga
Peninsula in the Philippines. It spans the provinces of Zamboanga del Sur,
Zamboanga del Norte, and Zamboanga Sibugay on the Zamboanga Peninsula.
 15

Figure 3. Distribution of C. odorota in the Zamboanga Peninsula (Codilla & Medillo,

2011)
Distribution Table
This summary table’s distribution is based on all available information. When
numerous sources are mentioned, the information about the status may be
contradictory. Individual references may have further information accessible in the
Distribution Table Details section, which may be accessed by selecting Generate
Report.

Table 3: Distribution table of C. odorata from Southeast Asia (Salise et al., 1974)

Country Distribution Origin First Reported Invasive

Brunei Present Introduced __ Invasive

Cambodia Present Introduced __ Invasive

 16

Indonesia Present, Introduced __ Invasive

Widespread

Laos Present, Introduced 1960 Invasive

Widespread

Malaysia Present, Introduced __ Invasive

Widespread

Philippines Present, Introduced __ Invasive

Widespread

Thailand Present, Introduced __ Invasive

Widespread

Vietnam Present, Introduced __ Invasive

Widespread

Factors Affecting Plant Distribution

Plant species distribution is affected by the differences of the soil-type and the
elevation above sea level of the site observed. The differences in the plant distribution
among sites were likely due to the effects of the soil-type (Groffman, 1996). Plant
distribution can be affected by altitudinal gradient or elevation. The elevation above
sea level will affect the range of the distribution of plants (Sims-Chilton et. al., 2009).
 METHODOLOGY

Location and Duration of the Study

Determination of the population density was conducted in February 2022 in

Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines. The preparation of herbarium was mounted at the
house of the researchers due to COVID-19 protocol. The collected data was evaluated
at the house of one of the researchers in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

Apparatus, Materials and Equipment

Apparatus and Materials

The following apparatus and materials that were used are scissors, small tags,
pencil, notebook, glue, newspaper, thick cardboard, 1/8 illustration board, 1-L distilled
water, measuring tape and sealable plastic bags

Equipment

The equipment that was used in the study are bolo, heavy-load material, plastic
straw, and smartphones

Sampling Site

C. odorata was collected at Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu with Global Positioning System
(GPS) coordinates of 11 0
̊ 9’09’’ North and 123 ̊46’57’’ East with elevation of 15 meters
above sea level in three sites of observation.
 18

The images below show the aerial view and coordinates of the sampling areas,
Purok Gumamela, Purok Gemilina and Purok Mangga for sandy, silt, and clay soil,
respectively.
Collection of C. odorata specimen was first done at Purok Gumamela Adjacent to
Petron gasoline station (Site I) with GPS coordinates of 11°09’13” North and 123°48’ 04’’
East with the distance of 9 meters away from the shoreline.

Figure 4: Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata at Purok Gumamela adjacent to
Petron Gasoline Station, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu (Google Earth, 2021).

On the second site, C. odorata specimen was collected at Purok Gemilina adjacent
to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates of
11°09’16” North and 123°48’04” East with the distance of 10 meters away from the
shoreline.

Figure 5: Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata at Purok Gemilina adjacent to
Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu (Google Earth, 2021).
 19

The last collection of C. odorata specimen was at Purok Mangga adjacent to

Negosyo Center Sta. Fe with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates of
11°09’16”North and 123°47’36”East with the distance of 8 meters away from the
shoreline.

Figure 6: Aerial view of the sampling site for C. odorata adjacent to Negosyo Center
Sta.Fe, Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu (Google Earth, 2021).

Taxonomic Identification of C. odorata

C. odorata specimen was examined on-site. Previous studies observed about

the taxonomical identity of C. odorata were used as references for taxonomic
identification in Pooc Santa Fe, Cebu. Gunasekera (2009), Hill et al. (2000), and
Russo (2011) essentially covered the classification of taxonomical identity of C.
odorata.
The taxonomic identification was done by following a comprehensive
comparison between researcher’s observations and literature-based descriptions.
Based on the Asteraceae Family, the Inflorescences of the flower are all alike,
disk or ray, which is surrounded by bracts. The calyxes have been reduced to pappus
and a single-seeded fruit known as an achene. The leaves are arranged in a radical,
petiolate, and exstipulate pattern. The stem might be upright, lateral, hairy, woody, or
prostrate. The root system ranges from taproot to fibrous.
In the Genus Chromolaena, the floret of the flower ranges from white to pale
blue. The leaves are triangular and oppositely oriented, emitting a pungent odor. The
stem is straight, pithy, and brittle. The root system is fibrous root system.
 20

Morphologic Identification of C. odorata

Morphological features of C. odorata was thoroughly identified through

literature-based descriptions and the features containing measurements were
analyzed quantitatively by collecting three sample parts of the C. odorata species.
Features of C. odorata are described as hairy and achenes. The flower has
panicles of 10 to 35 pieces of flowers. The color of the flower varies from white to pale
pink. C. odorata leaves has a size of 4 to10 cm long and 1 to 5 cm wide. It gives off a
pungent and aromatic odor when it is crushed into pieces. The shape of the leaves
varies from triangular to elliptical with serrated edges (Gunasekera, 2009).
C. odorata has a multi-stemmed or lateral branching type of shrub to 2.5 m tall
in open areas. C. odorata has soft stems, but the bottom of the shrub is woody which
are the older stems. In shady areas it is faded and behaves as a creeper, growing on
other vegetation. The stems can grow up to 10 m tall. In favorable conditions the plant
can grow with a minimum of 3 cm per day (Gunasekera, 2009). In addition, it also
comprises a morphologic feature of a fibrous root system. The root system can
tolerate a wide range of soil conditions and severe drought. It prefers full sun to partial
shade and it cannot tolerate heavy shade, resulting in a very widespread of superficial
network specifically a fibrous root preventing other plants from growing nearby (Hill et
al., 2000).

Specimen Preservation

Healthy and mature C. odorata specimens was collected after the population
density determination. C. odorata was collected during low tide in the afternoon of 9th
– 11th day of February 2022. In preparing the specimens, methods by Lawrence
(1967), Jones and Luchinger (1987), Anonymous (1996), and Manilal and Kumar
(1998) was used. The collected specimens were cleaned thoroughly with water to
remove dirt and soil debris and then, it was sealed in a sealable plastic bag for
 21

containment. The specimens were cleaned with running water and rinsed with distilled
H2O in the house of the researchers.
Drying was done by spreading out the specimen on the newspaper and bond
paper to absorb the remaining liquid present in the plant and replaced the newspaper
after checking the state of the specimen.
Pressing should have sufficient pressure; it is important that the sample should
be pressed with an ample amount of pressure to avoid dampness and molds to
achieve a good desiccation. The applied pressure added to the sample was remained
up to two weeks. The specimen in the press was linked with detailed notes and data
in the field notebook.
After two weeks, the dried plant specimen, was thereby, ready for mounting on
herbarium sheets (1/8 illustration board). The researchers then followed the glue
method, pasting the specimen to the sheet with adhesive. The herbarium sheets also
had a paper bag to keep the seed fragments of the sample detached from the
specimen. The label of the specimen was pasted at the bottom right-side corner of the
herbarium sheet.

Determination of the Distribution of C. odorata

The determination of the distribution of C. odorata was done using the quadrat-
transect method postulated by Jumawan et al. (2015) and by preparing 3 quadrats in
each site of observation along with a 5-meter transect line.
Purposive sampling approach was used in determining the location of the
transect line. Along the transect line, three 1 × 1-meter quadrats have twenty-five 10
× 10 -centimeter sections or grid inside. The utilization of sections in the quadrat
served as a guide on counting the C. odorata to avoid repetition and lost in track. C.
odorata, on each section in a quadrat, was individually tallied for data collection and
noted in the field notebook.
 22

Formula for determining the distribution on its population density:

N
Dp= --------------------

Where: Dp= Population density

N= Total number of population
A= Total land area covered by the population

Figure 7: Illustration of Quadrat-transect method

Schematic Diagram

Morphological features
Scientific Herbarium
classification m
C. odorata Taxonomic identification

Quadrat-transect
Specie distribution method Population density
 23

Statistical Analysis of Data

The population distribution of specie was carried out in three treatments per
site. The data generated in the determination of distribution of the specie was
subjected to One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in Randomized Complete Block
Design (RCBD) at 0.05 Level of significance. Significant differences among the means
were determined using Tukey’s Test. Determination of significant differences between
two independent mean groups were subjected to Two-tailed T-test at 0.05 significance
level.
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

C. odorata Morphologic and Taxonomic Identity

The morphological traits of the C. odorata specimens were its flowers, which
consisted of florets with panicles of 21 to 25 blossoms. Hairy and achenes pollinate
the bloom. The flower is white. The leaf measures 9 to 10.33 cm length by 6 to 6.3 cm
width. The odor of the leaf ranges from harsh to fragrant. The leaf is triangular or
elliptical in form, with serrated edges. Its stem is 32.33 to 41.67 tall and contains lateral
branching with a delicate texture. The root system is fibrous.
The taxonomic identification of C. odorata specimens includes the flower being
encircled by bracts, the leaf being petiolate, the stem being lateral branching, and the
roots being fibrous. The flower in the genus Chromolaena is white, the leaves are
triangular in shape, the stem is straight, pithy, and brittle, and the root structure is
fibrous. Figure 8 shows the taxonomic identification of C. odorata.

Figure 8. Taxonomic features of the (A) whole structure, (B) stem, (C) flower, (D)
roots, and leaf of the C. odorata specimen.

The results of this study show that the morphologic and taxonomic identity of
C. odorata are completely consistent with the information presented in the preceding
exposition. Figure 9 depicts the identified morphological traits of C. odorata.
 25

Figure 9. Morphologic features of the (A) whole structure, (B) stem, (C) flower, (D)
roots, and leaf of collected C. odorata specimen.

The morphologic and taxonomic identification of C. odorata based on published

literature conforms to the collected specimen in the field of study. This study combines
information from two sources to identify the inherited features and scientific
categorization of C. odorata. Appendix Table 2 displays the raw data and literature-
based data of observations. Figure 9 depicts the collected specimen of C. odorata.
A suitable recognition and classification of the species is significant since it
reflects the validity and reliability of the study's findings. Distinction of species
characteristics could result in the falsification of the research subject's study or a new
discovery or mutation of the species (den Hartog, 1997).
 26

Figure 10. Illustration of C. odorata specimen in whole structure (A), stem (B), flower
(C), roots (D), and leaf (E).

Herbarium

The herbarium method was used to preserve the C. odorata specimen. The C.
odorata specimen was stored in its current state at the researchers' home for two
weeks, from March 21 to April 4, 2022, as part of the COVID-19 health guidelines.
During the detachment of the used cardboard and papers after drying and
pressing the specimen, it was observable that the specimen was completely flattened
and dried in comparison to its original state and yet still manages display its authentic
external characteristics. The dried and pressed C. odorata specimen, as presented in
Figure 11, was mounted on the illustration board (alternative for herbarium sheet) and
covered with plastic cover with detailed information.
 27

Figure 11. Mounted herbarium specimen with labelled descriptions

Quantitative Analysis of C. odorata Morphologic Features

The determination of the measurements of C. odorata morphologic features was

carried out at March 22 year 2022 in the afternoon. The identification and measurements
of the morphologic features is presented in Figure 8.

Leaf Length
The quantitative analysis of the length of C. odorata leaf with 12 cm long was
recorded to be the highest, which is the second sample of the third site of observation,
which is adjacent to Negosyo Center Sta. Fe. The lowest length recorded was 7.5 cm
long which is the first sample in the second site of observation. The raw data for the
quantitative analysis of the length of C. odorata leaf are shown in Appendix Table 3.
 28

The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 significance level, as

shown in Appendix Table 7, reveal that there is no significant difference in length of the
C. odorata leaf among the three sampling sites since the p-value is greater than the level
of significance. The subsequent Post Hoc Tukey’s Test, as shown in Appendix Table 8,
indicates that the length of the C. odorata leaf from Site I (1 + 11.11%), Site II (1.528 +
16.66%), and Site III (1 + 9.091%) gave no significant difference in comparison.

I
I I

Site 1 Site2 Site 3

Figure 12. The Mean Length of C. odorata Leaf in the three sites located in Pooc, Santa
Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

The following T-test results, as shown in Appendix Table 9, reveal that there are
no significant differences among the three 2-sample site comparison between the two
independent mean groups of the length of the C. odorata leaf. Since the t-score is outside
the critical region, as shown in Appendix Figure 3, there is no evidence to reject the null
hypothesis.
 29

Leaf Width
The quantitative analysis of the width of C. odorata leaf with 8 cm wide was
recorded to be the highest, which is the second sample of the second site of observation,
which is adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse. The lowest width recorded was 4 cm
wide which is the first sample in the second site of observation. The raw data for the
quantitative analysis of the width of C. odorata leaf are shown in Appendix Table 4.

The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 significance level, as

shown in Appendix Table 10, reveal that there is no significant difference in width of the
C. odorata leaf among the three sampling sites since the p-value is greater than the level
of significance. The subsequent Post Hoc Tukey’s Test, as shown in Appendix Table 11,
indicates that the width of the C. odorata leaf from Site I (1 + 16.67%), Site II (2 + 33.33%),
and Site III (0.764 + 12.06%) gave no significant difference in comparison.

I I
I

Site 1 Site2 Site 3

Figure 13. The Mean Width of C. odorata Leaf in the three sites located in Pooc, Santa
Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

The following T-test results, as shown in Appendix Table 12, reveal that there are
no significant differences among the three 2-sample site comparison between the two
independent mean groups of the width of the C. odorata leaf. Since the t-score is outside
 30

the critical region, as shown in Appendix Figure 4, there is no evidence to reject the null
hypothesis.

Stem Height
The quantitative analysis of the height of C. odorata stem with 49 cm tall was
recorded to be the highest, which is the third sample of the third site of observation, which
is adjacent to Negosyo Center Sta. Fe. The lowest height recorded was 27 cm tall which
is the first sample in the first site of observation and the second site of observation. The
raw data for the quantitative analysis of the height of C. odorata stem are shown in
Appendix Table 5.
The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 significance level, as
shown in Appendix Table 13, reveal that there is no significant difference in height of the
C. odorata stem among the three sampling sites since the p-value is greater than the level
of significance. The subsequent Post Hoc Tukey’s Test, as shown in Appendix Table 14,
indicates that the height of the C. odorata stem from Site I (8.386 + 25.94%), Site II (8.737
+ 25.45%), and Site III (10.21 + 24.51%) gave no significant difference in comparison.

I
I

Site 1 Site2 Site 3

Figure 14. The Mean Height of C. odorata Stem in the three sites located in Pooc,
Santa Fe, Cebu, Philippines.
 31

The following T-test results, as shown in Appendix Table 14, reveal that there are
no significant differences among the three 2-sample site comparison between the two
independent mean groups of the height of the C. odorata stem. Since the t-score is
outside the critical region, as shown in Appendix Figure 5, there is no evidence to reject
the null hypothesis.

Determination of C. odorata Population Density

The determination of the population density of C. odorata was carried out at 10:30
in the morning of March 21 year 2022. The identification of the species distribution is
presented in Appendix Figure 2.

The population density of C. odorata with 16 species per square meter was
recorded to be the highest on the first quadrat of the second site of observation which is
adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse. The lowest population density is 9 species per
square meter recorded in the third quadrat in the first site of observation. The counted
population of C. odorata in the three sites of observation were 107 in total. The raw data
of the determined population distribution of C. odorata are shown in Appendix Table 3.

The results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 significance level, as

shown in Appendix Table 16, reveal the significant difference in the C. odorata distribution
among the three sites of observation. The subsequent Post Hoc Tukey’s Test, as shown
in Appendix Table 17, indicates that the distribution of C. odorata from Site II (14.67 +
10.41%) gave a higher value in comparison to Site I (10.33 + 14.78%) and Site III (10.67
+ 5.413%).
 32

I I

Figure 15. The Mean Population of C. odorata in the three sites located in Pooc, Santa
Fe, Cebu, Philippines.

The following T-test results, as shown in Appendix Table 18, reveal that there are
significant differences in the comparison between the independent mean groups of Site I
to Site II and Site II to Site III. Since the t-score belongs in the critical region, as shown in
Appendix Figure 6, so we reject the null hypothesis.

This is supported by the findings of this study in which presented higher value of
the absolute differences on the three 2-sample site tests compared to the critical range,
indicating there has been significant difference on the distribution of C. odorata.

The stated null hypothesis was posing at the rejection region, indicating the
alternate hypothesis to be accepted. Therefore, there are significant differences in the
distribution of the C. odorata specimen in the three sampling sites in Pooc, Santa Fe,
Cebu.

Due to the types of soil each plant inhabits, C. odorata is most abundant in the silt
soil with elevation of 10 meters above sea level. The population density of C. odorata, as
shown in Appendix Table 6, differs by its type of soil and the elevation above sea level.
 33

Evidently, the higher value of the distribution of the C. odorata is related to the
abundance of the species. C. odorata is one of the most dangerous weeds in the planet
due to its invasiveness according to Vaisakh and Pandey (2012). Moreover, C. odorata’s
invasiveness is linked to its ability to produce propagules and inhibit native plants (L. T.
Codilla and E. B. Metillo, 2011). However, C. odorata has other features that can affect
the native biodiversity loss.

Previous studies showed that C. odorata along with L. camara were pre-
dominantly abundant as reported by Rosacia, W. Z. et al. (2004) in the
grassland/rangeland during the dry season when there is scarcity of feedstuffs. Moreover,
studies reported that C. odorata is a neotropical plant introduced to humid tropical Asia
and Africa in the mid 1800 s. In the mid1900s it became a weed problem in West, Central
and Southern Africa, South and Southeast Asia and Micronesia, invading disturbed
forests, vacant lands, wildlife reserves, riverbanks, pastures and plantation crops
(Muniappan, R. et al., n.d.).
 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

The morphological characteristics and taxonomic identification of C. odorata and

determination of its population density were done on three sites in Pooc, Santa Fe, Cebu,
Philippines. The study was conducted within approximately 2-month period from late
March to late May 2022. The sample preparation and preservation of the C. odorata
specimen were done at the researcher’s home due to COVID-19 health protocols.

Qualitative descriptions such as morphologic and taxonomic identification on C.

odorata were conducted. Preservation of C. odorata specimen through herbarium was
also done. Utilization of Quadrat-transect method by Jumawan et al. (2015) was carried
out to determine the population density of C. odorata.

Qualitative descriptions conducted confirms identification of morphological and

taxonomic identity of C. odorata based on literatures and to the actual assessment.
Findings of this present study indicate that the morphological taxonomic identity of C.
odorata were entirely resemblant to the information described to the information
described in the above-mentioned studies. Thus, the collected specimens of C. odorata
are true to what indicated in the literatures.

Quantitative analysis of C. odorata morphologic features involving measurements

conducted confirms that there are no significant differences among the three sampling
sites. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) displays results that the p-value is greater than
the level of significance. The Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the comparison of the length of
the leaf shown in Appendix Table 8, width of the leaf shown in Appendix Table 11, and
height of the stem shown in Appendix Table 14, indicates that the measurements of the
morphologic features of C. odorata has no significant difference. The following T-test
results for the measurements of the morphologic features, as shown in Appendix Table
9, Appendix Table 12, and Appendix Table 15, show that there are no significant
differences since the t-scores are outside the critical regions, as shown in Appendix
Figure 3, Appendix Figure 4, and Appendix Figure 5, indicating that there are no
evidences to reject the null hypotheses.
 35

The results of analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 0.05 level of significance reveal

significant differences in the C. odorata distribution among the three sites of observation.
The subsequent Post Hoc Tukey’s Test, as shown in Appendix Table 11, indicates that
the distribution of C. odorata from Site II (14.67 + 10.41%) gave significantly higher value
than those of Site I (10.33 + 14.78%) and Site III (10.67 + 5.413%). The recorded data
indicate inhabited C. odorata species. The following T-test results for the distribution of
C. odorata, as shown in Appendix Table 18, reveal that there are significant differences
in the comparison between the independent mean groups of Site I to Site II and Site II to
Site III. Since the t-score belongs in the critical region, as shown in Appendix Figure 6, so
we reject the null hypothesis.

Population density from Site II with silt soil is an area where C. odorata is the most
abundant among the three sampling sites. However, to warrant further determination of
population density of C. odorata, the following are recommended:

1. Expand the study area on C. odorata distribution in order to provide more

effective information and share more specific definitions about the said plan;
2. Material innovation and invention for use in the Quadrat-Transect method to
speed up distribution determination.
 36

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APPENDICES
 42

APPENDIX TABLE

Appendix Table 1. Raw data for the identification of common features of taxonomic
tree of C. odorata
Features

Taxonomic
identification of Charact Literature- based Observations
C. odorata er data
I II III
Inflorescences Florets florets florets,
(heads) resemble surrounded achene
by
florets, disk or ray,
bracts
which is
surrounded by
bracts. The
Flower
calyx(sepals) have
been reduced to
pappus and one-
seeded fruit called
Family:
an achene.
Asteraceae
Radical, petiolate petiolate petiolate
petiolate, and arrangement arrangement
Leaf
exstipulate
arrangement
Lateral, erect, Lateral Lateral Lateral
Stem hairy, woody or
prostrate
Taproot to Fibrous Fibrous Fibrous
Root Fibrous root
system
Florets vary from white white white
Flower white to pale blue
Triangular leaves Triangular Triangular Triangular
placed oppositely leaves leaves leaves
Leaf
and has a strong
Genus:
odor
Chromolaena
Straight, pithy Straight, Straight, Straight,
Stem and brittle pithy and pithy and pithy and
brittle brittle brittle
Fibrous root Fibrous Fibrous Fibrous
Root
system
 43

Appendix Table 2. Raw data for the identification of morphological features of C. odorata
Parts Character Literature-based data Observation

I II III
Color White to pale pink + + +
Flower Shape panicles of 10 to 35 21.67 25.33 22.67
flowers
Pollination hairy and achenes + + +
Size 4–10 cm long by 1–5 cm 9 cm 9.167 cm 10.33 cm
wide long by long by 6 long by 6.3
Leaf 6.167 cm cm wide cm wide
wide
Odor Pungent and aromatic + + +
odor

triangular to elliptical with + + +

Shape serrated edges
2 m tall that can grow up 32.33 cm 34.33 cm 41.67 cm
Height to 10 m
Type of Lateral branching + + +
Stem Branching
Structure Soft Structure + + +
Root Type of root Fibrous root + + +
system
‘+’ present, ‘-‘ absent

Appendix Table 3. Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the length of C. odorata leaf
Site Sample Measurement, Mean SD (RSD)
cm
A 8 1
1 B 10 9 (11.11)
C 9
A 7.5 1.528
2 B 10.5 9.167 (16.66)
C 9.5
A 10 1
3 B 12 11 (9.091)
C 11
 44

Appendix Table 4. Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the width of C. odorata leaf
Site Sample Measurement, Mean SD (RSD)
cm
A 5 1
1 B 7 6 (16.67)
C 6
A 4 2
2 B 8 6 (33.33)
C 6
A 5.5 0.764
3 B 6.5 6.333 (12.06)
C 7

Appendix Table 5. Raw data for the quantitative analysis of the height of C. odorata
stem
Site Sample Measurement, Mean SD (RSD)
cm
A 27
1 B 42 32.33 8.386
C 28 (25.94)
A 27
2 B 32 34.33 8.737
C 44 (25.45)
A 30
3 B 46 41.67 10.21
C 49 (24.51)

Appendix Table 6. Raw data for the determination of population density of C. odorata
SD
Site Replicate Type Population Area Population Elevation Mean (RSD)
of Soil Density (Dp) above
(N) (m2) Sea Level
(m)
A 12 1 12 1.528
B Sandy 10 1 10
1 9 10.33 (14.78)
C 9 1 9
A 16 1 16 (1.528)
B Silt 15 1 15
2 10 14.67 10.41
C 13 1 13
A 11 1 11 (0.577)
B Clay 11 1 11
3 8 10.67 5.413
C 10 1 10
 45

Appendix Table 7: Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the length of C.
odorata leaf from the three sampling sites.

Source Sum of squares DF Mean Squares F-value P-value

Between Groups 7.38889 2 3.694 2.558 0.157
Within Groups 8.66667 6 1.444

Total 16.05556 8
*not significantly different

Appendix Table 8. Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis of the
length of C. odorata leaf from the three sites comparison.
Comparison Absolute Difference Critical Range Groups
Site I to Site II 0.167 3.011 C
Site I to Site III 2 3.011 A
Site II to Site III 1.833 3.011 B

Appendix Table 9. T-test Results Comparing the Length of the C. odorata Leaf from the
three sites
Comparison t-value t-crit df p-value Results
Site I to Site II -0.158 + 2.776 4 0.883 Not significant
Site I to Site III -2.449 + 2.776 4 0.071 Not significant
Site II to Site III -1.739 + 2.776 4 0.157 Not significant

Appendix Table 10: Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the width of C.
odorata leaf from the three sampling sites.

Source Sum of squares DF Mean Squares F-value P-value

Between Groups 0.22222 2 0.111 0.06 0.943
Within Groups 11.16667 6 1.861

Total 11.38889 8
*not significantly different
 46

Appendix Table 11. Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis of the
width of C. odorata leaf from the three sites comparison.
Comparison Absolute Difference Critical Range Groups
Site I to Site II 0 3.418 B
Site I to Site III 0.333 3.418 A
Site II to Site III 0.333 3.418 A

Appendix Table 12. T-test Results Comparing the Width of the C. odorata Leaf from the
three sites
Comparison t-value t-crit df p-value Results
Site I to Site II 0 + 2.776 4 1 Not significant
Site I to Site III -0.459 + 2.776 4 0.672 Not significant
Site II to Site III 0.269 + 2.776 4 0.808 Not significant

Appendix Table 13: Analysis of variance for the quantitative analysis of the height of C.
odorata stem from the three sampling sites.

Source Sum of squares DF Mean Squares F-value P-value

Between Groups 144.889 2 72.44 0.866 0.467
Within Groups 502 6 83.67

Total 646.8889 8
*not significantly different

Appendix Table 14. Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the quantitative analysis of the
length of C. odorata stem from the three sites comparison.
Comparison Absolute Difference Critical Range Groups
Site I to Site II 2 22.92 C
Site I to Site III 9.3333 22.92 A
Site II to Site III 7.3333 22.92 B
 47

Appendix Table 15. T-test Results Comparing the Height of the C. odorata Stem from
the three sites
Comparison t-value t-crit Df p-value Results
Site I to Site II -0.286 + 2.776 4 0.789 Not significant
Site I to Site III -1.223 + 2.776 4 0.288 Not significant
Site II to Site III -0.945 + 2.776 4 0.398 Not significant
**p>0.05

Appendix Table 16: Analysis of variance for the determination of C. odorata population
density from the three sampling sites.

Source Sum of squares DF Mean Squares F-value P-value

Between Groups 34.89 2 17.44 10.47 0.011
Within Groups 10 6 1.667

Total 44.89 8
*significantly different

Appendix Table 17. Result of Post Hoc Tukey’s Test for the determination of C. odorata
population density from the three sites comparison.
Comparison Absolute Difference Critical Range Groups
Site I to Site II 4.333 3.235 A
Site I to Site III 0.333 3.235 C
Site II to Site III 4 3.235 B

Appendix Table 18. T-test Results Comparing the Population Density of the C. odorata
from the three sites
Comparison t-value t-crit Df p-value Results
Site I to Site II -3.474 + 2.776 4 0.025 Significant
Site I to Site III -0.354 + 2.776 4 0.742 Not significant
Site II to Site III -4.243 + 2.776 4 0.013 Significant
**p<0.05, **p>0.05, **p<0.05
 48

Appendix Figures

Appendix Figure 1. Photographs of the herbarium process.

 49

Appendix Figure 2. Photographs of counting the distribution in three sites of

observation (1) adjacent to Petron Gasoline Station,
(2) adjacent to Imelda & Arsenio Guesthouse, (3) adjacent to
Negosyo Center Sta. Fe.

Appendix Figure 3. Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three

2-independent mean groups of the length of C. odorata leaf.

Appendix Figure 4. Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three

2-independent mean groups of the width of C. odorata leaf.
 50

Appendix Figure 5. Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three

2-independent mean groups of the height of C. odorata stem.

Appendix Figure 6. Two-tailed t-test distribution graph comparison between three

2-independent mean groups of the population density of C.
odorata.