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9. Vehicles

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Franklin Daniel Xalxo
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Module 5, Lecture 12: Applications of Friction

Introduction:
In this lecture, we will explore additional applications of friction.
We will focus on the role of friction in journal bearings and also examine how rolling
resistance and wheel friction come into play when wheels are in motion.

Journal Bearings:
We begin by discussing the application of friction in journal bearings. In this setup, an axle
supports pulleys that drive or are driven by machinery.

Setup:
The axle rotates about a horizontal axis and is supported by two bearings located at the ends.
The pulleys (or wheels) are supported by the axle, with the radial forces (including the weight of
the pulley) being transmitted to the bearings. These bearings must provide lateral support to the
rotating axle.
To reduce friction, lubrication is applied between the axle and bearing blocks.

Friction in Journal Bearings:


The frictional resistance depends on several factors:
Clearance between the axle and journal block
Rotational speed of the axle
Viscosity of the lubricant
When lubrication is not sufficient, the bearing operates as a dry contact bearing with either point
or line contact between the axle and bearing surface.

Explanation of Axle and Bearing Interaction:


Initial Setup:
The axle supports a pulley, and the bearing surface is where the axle contacts the bearing block.
W represents the weight of the pulley, and M is the applied moment that keeps the wheel in
motion.

Idle Shaft:
When the axle is stationary, the point of contact between the axle and bearing is at a specific
location. For simplicity, this point is initially marked A.

When Axle Starts Rotating:


Upon rotation, friction causes the axle to climb along the journal, shifting the point of contact.
This movement continues until it reaches the impending slippage point.
The point of contact gradually shifts, and the axle experiences frictional forces opposing the
motion.

Frictional Forces:
The frictional force F is related to the normal reaction N by the coefficient of static friction at the
point of contact.

Kinetic Friction and Equilibrium:


Axle at Higher Speeds:
As the axle's speed increases, the friction reduces to kinetic friction, and the point of contact
shifts downward from the initial maximum point.
The resultant frictional force is now lower, and the axle remains in equilibrium at this new position.

Equilibrium and Moment Calculation:


The frictional moment M that must be overcome is the moment produced by the
forces W and R (normal reaction).
For the axle to maintain constant motion, a moment equal to M must be applied to counteract
the frictional forces.

Calculation of Frictional Moment:


The angle between the normal reaction and the frictional force is denoted as φk (angle of kinetic
friction).
The moment produced by this system is M = R × r × tan(φk), where r is the radius of the axle.
Graphical Analysis of Journal Bearings:
Force and Couple Representation:
The bearing reaction R can be treated as a force and couple system acting at various points in the
bearing.
Graphically, the reaction force R can be represented as a force acting tangentially to the circle of
friction. The radius of this circle is proportional to the frictional forces involved.

Example Problem: Journal Bearing


1. Problem Setup:

A pulley is supported by a shaft with a 200 mm diameter.


The pulley has a 400 mm diameter, and the coefficient of static friction between the pulley
and the shaft is 0.2.
A 500 N load is attached to the pulley, and we are asked to determine:

The smallest vertical force P required to start lifting the load.


The smallest vertical force P required to hold the load in place.

Step 1: Solve for the Force to Lift the Load


As the pulley rotates clockwise, the point of contact shifts, and the slippage occurs at the point
where the frictional force exceeds the static friction threshold.
The smallest force P required to lift the load is calculated using a moment balance. The
reaction R is displaced by 20 mm, and the equilibrium condition is applied to find P = 611 N.

Step 2: Solve for the Force to Hold the Load


In this case, when the pulley tends to move counterclockwise, the point of contact shifts in the
opposite direction.
A similar moment balance is applied, and the smallest force P required to hold the load is found
to be 409 N.

Wheel Friction:
Wheel Supported on an Axle:
In this scenario, the wheel is supported by an axle at O, with its weight W acting through the axis.
When the wheel is idle, the normal reaction N from the ground acts through the point of contact
with the wheel.

When the Wheel Starts Moving:


Upon motion, friction between the axle and the wheel creates a resisting moment, opposing the
motion of the wheel.

Direction of Friction:
If the wheel rotates in the clockwise direction, friction produces a counterclockwise resisting
moment at the axle.

Conclusion:
The applications of friction in journal bearings and wheel motion illustrate how forces, moments,
and friction interact in mechanical systems. By understanding the forces acting on bearings, shafts,
and wheels, engineers can design more efficient systems with minimized frictional losses.
Rolling Resistance and Friction in Wheels: A Detailed Explanation

Introduction to Frictional Forces in Wheel and Axle Systems


When a wheel is mounted on an axle, frictional forces or frictional moments (denoted as M) at the
axle and wheel interface prevent the forward motion.
To sustain forward motion, an external force P must be applied to overcome the frictional
moment M . The force P creates a moment equal to P × r , where r is the radius of the wheel.
This keeps the wheel moving.

Balance of Forces and Moments in the System


In the system, the frictional moment M at the axle is balanced by the applied moment P × r . For
the system to be in equilibrium, a force F at a point A is required to prevent unbalanced forces.
Without this force F , the wheel would slide instead of rolling, as the point of contact would move.

Role of Friction in Rolling Motion


Friction is necessary to maintain rolling motion, even in systems with point contact between the
wheel and the surface.
The friction at the contact point A ensures that the wheel rolls rather than slides.

Free Wheel Without an Axle


A free wheel (without an axle) experiences no frictional forces at the axle. If the contact at point A
between the wheel and the ground has no relative motion, the wheel could theoretically roll
indefinitely if the surfaces are ideal.
In reality, however, this does not happen because of rolling resistance. Rolling resistance arises
due to the deformation of the wheel and the ground at the point of contact.

Deformation and Rolling Resistance


In real materials, both the wheel and the ground are deformable under the action of forces. As the
wheel moves, it compresses the material at the contact point, while other areas are relieved of
pressure.
The distribution of these forces changes as the wheel rolls, creating a horizontal displacement b at
the point of contact, which leads to rolling resistance.

Moment Due to Rolling Resistance


As the wheel moves, the displacement of the reaction forces from the vertical axis causes a
moment of resistance. This moment must be overcome by an applied force P to maintain the
rolling motion.
The moment due to the reaction force is balanced by the moment generated by the applied force
P × r.
Coefficient of Rolling Resistance
The distance b, which represents the displacement of the reaction force from the vertical, is known
as the coefficient of rolling resistance. This coefficient has units of length (e.g., millimeters or
meters).
Rolling resistance requires a force to counteract the moment caused by the deformation at the
contact point.

Example Problem 1: Vehicle on Slippery Tracks


A vehicle weighing 65 kN is designed for slippery tracks, with a low coefficient of friction (0.005)
and a coefficient of rolling resistance (0.8 mm).
The vehicle has four-wheel drive, meaning all four wheels contribute to propulsion. To check if the
vehicle will move, we calculate the maximum available frictional force and compare it to the
rolling resistance.

1. Normal Reactions (N1 and N2):


The total normal reaction N 1 from the rear wheels and N 2 from the front wheels are
calculated using the equilibrium equations.
The total frictional force is limited by μ × N 1 and μ × N 2, where μ is the coefficient of
friction.
2. Rolling Resistance:
The rolling resistance is calculated based on the distribution of forces and the displacement
caused by the rolling motion. The total rolling resistance must be less than the maximum
frictional force for the vehicle to move.

If the rolling resistance is smaller than the available friction, the vehicle will be able to propel
forward. Otherwise, it will be stationary.

Example Problem 2: Roller Thrust Bearing


A roller thrust bearing with a set of rollers supports a load P . The mean radius of the rollers is 30
mm, and the coefficient of rolling resistance is 0.127 mm.
To keep the shaft in rotation, a torque T is required to overcome the rolling resistance.

1. Forces and Reactions:

The reactions from the top and bottom surfaces of the rollers are calculated. When the shaft
rotates, the point of contact shifts, causing a displacement that leads to rolling resistance.
2. Torque Calculation:

The required torque T is determined by summing the forces and moments acting on the
system, considering the displacement of the reaction forces.
In this case, the torque required to keep the shaft rotating is calculated to be 0.190 N·m.
Conclusion
Rolling resistance is a crucial factor in determining whether a wheel or vehicle will move. It arises
from the deformation at the contact point between the wheel and the ground, causing a moment
that must be balanced by an applied force or torque.
The coefficient of rolling resistance is key to understanding and calculating the forces and
moments involved in rolling motion.

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