Overview of the Immune System o Thymus: Site of maturation for T

cells.
The immune system is the body's defense
mechanism against pathogens such as bacteria,  Secondary Lymphoid Organs: Where
viruses, fungi, and parasites. It is a complex immune responses are initiated.
network of cells, tissues, and organs that work
o Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph fluid
together to identify and eliminate foreign invaders
and house immune cells; sites
while maintaining tolerance to self-components.
where antigens are presented and
1. Components of the Immune System immune responses are triggered.
1.1. Immune Cells o Spleen: Filters blood, removes old
or damaged cells, and houses
 White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): The
immune cells.
primary cells involved in immune
responses. o Mucosa-associated lymphoid
tissues (MALT): Includes tonsils,
Phagocytes:
Peyer’s patches in the intestines,
 Macrophages: Engulf and other lymphoid tissues in
and digest pathogens and mucosal areas.
dead cells; present
2. Immune Responses
antigens to other immune
cells. 2.1. Innate Immune Response
 Neutrophils: First Description:
responders to infection;
engulf and destroy  Immediate and non-specific response to
pathogens. pathogens.

Lymphocytes:  Components:

 B Cells: Produce antibodies that o Physical Barriers: Skin and

neutralize pathogens. mucous membranes that block
 T Cells: pathogen entry.
 Helper T Cells (CD4+): Activate other o Chemical Barriers: Secretions
immune cells and coordinate the immune such as stomach acid and
response. antimicrobial peptides.
 Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+): Destroy
infected or cancerous cells. o Cellular Defenses:
 Regulatory T Cells: Help prevent
 Phagocytes: Engulf and
autoimmune responses by maintaining
destroy pathogens.
tolerance to self-antigens.
 Inflammatory Response:
o Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Target
Redness, heat, swelling,
and kill infected or abnormal cells
and pain to isolate and
without prior activation.
eliminate pathogens.
1.2. Immune Tissues and Organs
Key Mechanisms:
 Primary Lymphoid Organs: Where
 Recognition of Pathogens: Pattern
immune cells are produced and mature.
recognition receptors (PRRs) on innate
o Bone Marrow: Site of production immune cells detect pathogen-associated
for all blood cells, including molecular patterns (PAMPs).
immune cells.
  Activation of Complement System: A  Immunodeficiency Disorders: Reduced
series of proteins that enhance the ability ability to mount an immune response (e.g.,
of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear HIV/AIDS, SCID).
pathogens.
 Cancer: Malignant cells evade immune
2.2. Adaptive Immune Response detection and grow uncontrollably.
Description: 4. Vaccination and Immunity
 Specific and targeted response to Description:
pathogens.
 Vaccination: Introduces a weakened or
 Components: inactive form of a pathogen (or a piece of
it) to stimulate an immune response and
o Antigen: A molecule recognized
develop memory cells.
by the immune system as foreign.
 Types:
o B Cells: Produce antibodies that
bind to antigens and neutralize o Live Attenuated Vaccines:
them or mark them for Contain weakened forms of the
destruction. pathogen.

o T Cells: o Inactivated Vaccines: Contain

killed pathogens or inactivated
 Helper T Cells: Activate toxins.
B cells and other T cells.
o Subunit, Recombinant, or
 Cytotoxic T Cells: Kill
Conjugate Vaccines: Contain
infected or cancerous
parts of the pathogen or toxins.
cells.
Benefits:
Key Mechanisms:
 Herd Immunity: When a significant
 Antigen Presentation: Antigens are
portion of the population is immune, the
presented by antigen-presenting cells
spread of disease is reduced, protecting
(APCs) to T cells.
those who are not immune.
 Clonal Selection: B and T cells with
 Prevention of Disease: Reduces the
receptors specific to an antigen proliferate
incidence and severity of infectious
and differentiate into effector cells that
diseases.
respond to the antigen.
5. Summary
 Memory Cells: Long-lived cells that
provide a faster and stronger response The immune system is a highly coordinated
upon subsequent exposure to the same network of cells, tissues, and organs that work
antigen. together to defend the body against infections and
maintain overall health. It comprises two main
3. Immune System Disorders
types of responses: the innate, which provides
 Autoimmune Diseases: The immune immediate and broad protection, and the adaptive,
system mistakenly attacks the body's own which provides specific and long-lasting
tissues (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, lupus). protection. Understanding the components and
mechanisms of the immune system is crucial for
 Allergies: An overreaction to harmless comprehending how the body protects itself from
substances (allergens) such as pollen or disease and how various disorders can impact
certain foods. immune function.
  Thymus: Where T cells mature and
differentiate.
Overview of the Immune System in Animals
 Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph fluid and are
The immune system in animals is responsible for sites where immune cells interact with
defending against pathogens such as bacteria, antigens.
viruses, fungi, and parasites. It involves a range of
cells, tissues, and organs that work together to  Spleen: Filters blood, removes old cells,
recognize and eliminate these threats while and contains immune cells that respond to
distinguishing them from the animal's own tissues. blood-borne pathogens.

1. Components of the Immune System  Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues

(MALT): Includes structures like the
1.1. Immune Cells tonsils and Peyer's patches in the
 White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): intestines, which protect mucosal surfaces.
Essential for immune responses. 2. Types of Immune Responses
Phagocytes: 2.1. Innate Immune Response
 Macrophages: Large cells that engulf and Description:
digest pathogens and dead cells. They also
present antigens to other immune cells.  Immediate and non-specific response to
 Neutrophils: The most common type of pathogens.
white blood cell, they are among the first
 Components:
responders to infection and can
phagocytize pathogens. Physical Barriers: Skin and mucous membranes
that act as the first line of defense.
Lymphocytes:
Chemical Barriers: Secretions such as
B Cells:
antimicrobial peptides, stomach acid, and enzymes
 Produce antibodies that bind to specific in saliva.
antigens, marking them for destruction or
Cellular Defenses:
neutralizing them.
 Phagocytes: Engulf and destroy
T Cells:
pathogens.
 Helper T Cells (CD4+): Activate other  Inflammatory Response: Involves
immune cells, including B cells and redness, heat, swelling, and pain to isolate
cytotoxic T cells. and eliminate pathogens.
 Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+): Kill infected
Key Mechanisms:
or cancerous cells directly.
 Regulatory T Cells: Help regulate the  Pattern Recognition: Immune cells
immune response and prevent autoimmune recognize common features of pathogens
reactions. (PAMPs) through pattern recognition
 Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Kill infected receptors (PRRs).
or abnormal cells without the need for
prior activation.  Complement System: A series of proteins
that enhance the ability of antibodies and
1.2. Immune Tissues and Organs phagocytes to clear pathogens.
 Bone Marrow: The site where all blood 2.2. Adaptive Immune Response
cells, including immune cells, are
produced. Description:
  Specific and targeted response to  Fish: Have innate immunity with
pathogens. phagocytic cells and an adaptive response
with specialized lymphocytes in the
 Components:
spleen and gills.
Antigens: Molecules recognized by the immune  Amphibians: Exhibit both innate
system as foreign. immunity (e.g., antimicrobial peptides on
skin) and adaptive immunity (e.g., lymph
B Cells: Produce antibodies that bind to antigens, nodes and spleen).
neutralizing them or marking them for destruction.  Reptiles: Have a more developed
T Cells: adaptive immune system, including a
thymus for T cell maturation.
 Helper T Cells: Activate B cells and other  Birds: Possess both innate and adaptive
T cells. immune responses with specialized
 Cytotoxic T Cells: Directly kill infected organs like the bursa of Fabricius (for B
or cancerous cells. cell maturation).
 Mammals: Have a complex immune
Key Mechanisms:
system with well-defined innate and
 Antigen Presentation: Antigens are adaptive responses, including specialized
presented by antigen-presenting cells organs like the bone marrow, thymus, and
(APCs) to T cells. lymph nodes.

 Clonal Selection: B and T cells with **4. Immune System Disorders

receptors specific to an antigen proliferate
 Autoimmune Diseases: The immune
and differentiate into effector cells.
system mistakenly attacks the body’s own
 Memory Cells: Long-lived cells that tissues (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, lupus).
provide a faster and stronger response
 Allergies: An overreaction to harmless
upon subsequent exposure to the same
substances (allergens) such as pollen or
antigen.
certain foods.
3. Types of Immune Systems Across Animal
 Immunodeficiency Disorders: Reduced
Groups
ability to mount an immune response (e.g.,
3.1. Invertebrates HIV/AIDS, SCID).

 Innate Immunity: Most invertebrates rely  Cancer: Malignant cells evade immune
primarily on innate immunity. They have detection and grow uncontrollably.
various mechanisms such as phagocytosis,
5. Summary
antimicrobial peptides, and barriers.
The immune system in animals is essential for
o Examples:
protection against diseases and pathogens. It
 Insects: Use a hemolymph-based immune comprises both innate and adaptive components
response with antimicrobial peptides and that work together to recognize and eliminate
phagocytic cells. foreign invaders. Invertebrates primarily rely on
 Mollusks: Have hemocytes that perform innate immunity, while vertebrates have more
phagocytosis and produce antimicrobial complex systems that include both innate and
substances. adaptive responses. Understanding these
mechanisms and their disorders helps explain how
3.2. Vertebrates animals protect themselves from infections and
 Innate and Adaptive Immunity: how immune system dysfunctions can impact
Vertebrates possess both innate and health.
adaptive immune systems.