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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2007-01-0587

Disc Brake Squeal: An Overview

F. Chen
NAE, Ford Motor Company

Reprinted From: Brake Technology 2007

(SP-2070)

2007 World Congress

Detroit, Michigan
April 16-19, 2007

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-0790 Web: www.sae.org
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2007-01-0587

Disc Brake Squeal: An Overview

F. Chen
NAE, Ford Motor Company

Copyright © 2007 SAE International

ABSTRACT wear and life, brake fade, dust, water resistance,

environmental friendly lining material, and so forth.
Understanding, reducing, eliminating and preventing
brake squeal is a challenging task. It involves many Brake squeal deals with many design variables
design variables in a complex brake system and there and components in a complex brake system. It can
are many harsh operational and environmental occur in many un-friendly operational and environmental
conditions under which squeal may occur. Much conditions. A brake system condition will also change
progress has been made on understanding brake squeal during its usage. In addition, there exist production
mechanisms and causes. Squeal simulation and variations, which make brake squeal often difficult to
analysis methods have been significantly advanced. The reproduce during diagnosis process. Understanding the
evaluation and testing technologies have been fundamentals, one may involve tribology, nonlinear
noticeably improved, and reduction remedies and dynamics, contact mechanics, and so forth. The spatial
prevention measures have become more mature. and time scales of the concerned problem, ranging from
Brakes have become much quieter. However, the nano/microscopic to high frequency, further complicate
recurring occurrence of disc brake squeal indicates that the issues. No automakers, so far, are immune from this
there are still many challenges ahead and brake squeal quality issue.
is still an elusive quality issue. This overview provides
the summary of some current developments and The research activities and application practices
discusses remaining challenges along with future may be grouped into four categories: 1) mechanisms
technologies. In addition it emphasizes the real world and causes, 2) simulation and analysis, 3) evaluation
counter measures for squeal reduction, elimination and and test, and 4) elimination and prevention. Recently
prevention. there are quite a few of developments, remaining
challenges/questions, and future technologies in these
INTRODUCTION categories, which will be selectively discussed in
following sections.
Brake squeal has been recognized in the automotive
industry as one of the most challenging quality issues for MECHANISMS AND CAUSES
years. From 1997, the amount of published SAE
technical papers on brake squeal shows gradually The general consensus on the fundamental cause of
upward trend as shown in Fig.1. In Europe, starting in brake squeal in the industry is that it is generated by
the 1960s, researchers and engineers actively studied brake system dynamic instability. However, instability
squeal mechanisms and reduction counter measures. analysis may need to combine excitation/triggering
From the 1980s to 1990s, researchers and engineers causes (energy input) and squeal tendency/system
from Japan steadily increased contributions to the instability (energy accumulation). Without considering
mechanisms research and remedies finding. For excitation or triggering mechanisms, one may have
example, there are 3 and 9 Japanese papers out of total either over or under prediction of squeals. If there is a
5 and 15 papers in 1989 and 1997, respectively. In very strong excitation at a frequency with relatively low
addition the top brake noise expert from Toyota instability (squeal tendency), the system may still squeal
published series papers including the review paper [1]. at this frequency. On the other hand, if there is a very
This may shed some light and serves as an example on low or no excitation at a frequency with very high
how Japanese automotive industry made efforts to instability, the system may not squeal at this frequency.
improve vehicle quality during this period. From the late As described in some of the recent review articles [1-9],
1990s to present, North American automotive industry theories on brake squeal mechanisms can be mainly
accelerated the pace on brake squeal research and grouped into following categories, in which reference [9]
application to catch up with Japanese quality provides a very comprehensive and detailed review.
performance. It has been more tailored towards They are 1) stick-slip, sprag-slip and creep-slip, 2) modal
American vehicle brake designs which often have more lock-in or coupling that two modes are coalescing or
challenges to balance between brake performance and merging to form a complex and unstable mode and 3)
quality. It includes stopping distance, pedal feel, lining moving load and others. In the following, attach-
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release/impulsive excitation caused squeal, wire brush kHz, 10-11 kHz and 14-15 kHz regions depending on
noise and rotor in-plane mode induced squeal will be rotor sizes [10-13] as shown in Fig.5. The first line of
discussed. defense may be to reduce rotor tangential modal and
instability sensitivity and in-plane excitation. Secondly
Example One: Impulsive Excitation Caused Squeal modal separation needs to be fulfilled, which includes its
in-plane pair modes and out-of-plane modes, and other
This example is designed to show squeal can be component modes. There are evidences that in an in-
generated without modal lock-in or coupling. As plane mode induced squeal, rotor out-of-plane mode
described in reference [10], a steel plate as the base interact with the in-plane mode [13-15]. The references
with dimension of 86.7mm x 76.6mm x 12.6mm and showed the ODS contains both rotor in-plane and out-of-
weight of 648g, and a small steel block as the slider with plane modes/vibrations. Reference [15] applied modal
dimension of 43mm x 25.3mm x 12.6mm and weight of participation analysis on the complex mode and showed
110g are used to facilitate the discussion. By analysis or mode A is dominated by rotor first tangential mode and
testing, it is known that the base plate has bending mode B has contributions mainly from pad with partially
modes at 5.7 kHz, 8.2 kHz and 11 kHz in the concerned from rotor bending mode. Similarly, in reference [14],
frequency range from 0 kHz to 12.8 kHz. The slider does modal participation analysis showed there is also major
not have any flexible modes in this frequency region. A contribution from caliper mode in the complex mode
thin and soft foam layer is attached to the slider contact besides rotor tangential mode. However, there is also
surface and the plate contact surface is polished to evidence that when the rotor is modified to shift its in-
assist to generate the attach-release/impulsive plane mode frequency, the squeal frequency is shifted
condition. By sliding the slider on the plate with different accordingly. As discussed in reference [13], and studied
pressure and speed, squeal can be generated at some in references [16-17], rotor in-plane mode pair actually
distinct frequencies different from or adjacent to plate have coupled with each other to form an unstable
resonant frequencies. Squeal frequencies adjacent to complex mode, which may be the leading cause for rotor
and below the first plate resonant frequency are shown in-plane mode induced squeal. But the question still
in Fig.2 and Fig.3. Squeal frequencies that are usually remains if and how the rotor out-of-plane mode has
lower than the adjacent resonant frequencies are anything to do with the squeal besides assisting sound
reported in various literatures and summarized in generation. In addition, in reference [18], it states that to
reference [9]. It should be noted that in this case, there generate brake instability, at least one of the coupling
are no modal lock-in or coalescing since the slider has modes is a rotor bending mode (out-of-plane mode). In
no flexible mode in the concerned frequency range. none of the cases above, when the rotor in-plane mode
However, there are attach-release activities caused frequency is shifted to avoid coupling with out-of-plane
impulsive excitations at the contact surface. In addition, mode, it has been shifted to the trough of the out-plane
squeal is generated with flexible vibration similar to the mode. Thus, out-of-plane mode effect can not be
modes of the plate. completely ruled out although from complex mode
analysis it has shown the out-of-plane mode is not the
Example Two: Wire Brush Squeal major contributor or coupler. It is very interesting to
observe that for the first tangential mode in Fig.7 of
During the development of a brake system, one of the reference [17], it aligns to the trough of rotor out-of-plane
most problematic issues is the wire brush squeal since it mode, and there is no squeal at this frequency. Still
occurs at or adjacent to multiple rotor resonant caution needs to be exercised since there may be other
frequencies as shown in Fig.4. One of the causes may reasons why there is no squeal at this frequency.
lie in rotor surface bumps that can generate periodic and
impulsive excitation, which in turns excites the resonant Similar to example one, a rotor with its cheek
frequencies of the rotor. It is still debatable if some of surface is polished and the same slider was used to
potential complex modes of the rotor have been produce squeals. In this case, only rotor modes will
triggered or it is just like the previous example that it has contribute to squeal generation. It is shown in Fig.6 that
mainly excited rotor resonant modes that manifests the the squeal occurs at the first tangential mode with some
process. Another similar phenomenon has been out-of-plane vibration/mode participation during a slide.
observed that before an insulator is applied to a brake As described in references [10, 13], the so called out-of-
pad, the squeal plot is very similar to Fig.4 with many plane squeal vibration is not at the exact out-of-plane
squeals around rotor modes. This may be caused by mode frequency. As long as it is not aligned at the
excessive pad excitation and vibration. After an insulator trough of out-of-plane mode, the out-of-plane vibration
is applied, only the most sensitive or complex modes will contribute to squeal. The operation squeal deflection
may still produce squeals, which may need to have other shape will resemble one of out-of-plane mode pattern,
means to reduce. which is suggested as vibration coupling instead of
modal coupling in reference [19]. In addition, the squeal
Example Three: Rotor In-Plane Mode Induced Squeal frequencies will not exactly be aligned with in-plane
modal frequencies (but will be very close to) due to
Rotor in-plane mode induced squeal is one of the most friction force and may be characterized as instantaneous
often occurred high frequency squeals. They are usually modes [10].
at the first three tangential modal frequencies around 6-7
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SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS ODS will show rotor mode like pattern. There are also
good examples on better correlation between model and
There are two main approaches to simulate and analyze measurement as shown in reference [26], which within
disc brake squeal using FEA methods: one is nonlinear 1% for the rotor from 0 up to16kHz.
transient simulation and the other is linear or nonlinear
stability analysis using complex mode evaluation. The other issues using FEA complex mode
Although both methods have their advantages and analysis are either over or under prediction. Adding
limitations [20-22], to accurately analyze and predict positive system damping will reduce the probability to
squeal, both need to have good correlation between over predict while introducing negative damping tends to
simulation and test in terms of modal characteristics of minimize under prediction. Negative damping sensitivity
rotor and other brake components. Recently, in quite a will help to single out the most likely real world unstable
few of published papers, the correlation between models modes. When combined with modal participation
and measurements are not in sufficient agreement. analysis it may guide the rotor robust design to reduce
There may be also the cases in real product in-plane mode sensitivity [26]. Another approach to rank
developments. One of the factors among others that the most likely squeal mode is to evaluate the type of
may affect the accuracy of the correlation is: accuracy of coupling modes and the modes merging speed [18].
geometry representation of a brake system. The
following will discuss the accuracy of the geometries of
parts using rotors as an example.
EVALUATION AND TEST
Brake tests are crucial. For example, measurement of
For resonant frequencies correlation between squeal ODS will assist identification of root cause.
simulation and test, in principle, the error should be with Vibration characterization of a brake system and
1% up to 16 or 20 kHz for a rotor. However, the real components will provide potential resolution for squeal
challenging is to have correct and accurate rotor reduction and elimination. In the development stage,
geometry data, which is often not exactly matched with when a CAE modeling is done, it needs to know in a
CAD data due to manufacturing variation. A case study timely manner if the model is correlated to the test. If the
shows when an accurate rotor geometry measured from test provides misleading information, much time will be
a 3-D X-ray tomography scan is fed into a CAE model; lost when later it found out that there are squeals in
the resonant frequencies are with 1% compared with production brake system. In the exercise to find a fix, if
test. But if measured by conventional methods or based the squeals can not be reproduced or can not be
on CAD database, the error may exceed 1%. Since reproduced at all squeal conditions, either there is no fix
brake squeal frequencies are often quite high, say 10 or it is only a partially remedy. In the following, squeal
kHz, 2% variation will result in 200 Hz difference, which dynamometer test in cold and humidity conditions,
may cause difficult to identify which two modes will measurement of pad damping and insulator bonding
merge or the merged two modes are true modes. As quality, operational deflection shape (ODS) of squeal will
shown in references [23-24] for low frequency squeals, be discussed.
the two merged modes are about 2% of the frequencies
Cold and High Humidity Dynamometer Test
apart. As for high frequency modes merge, many are
also less 3% of the frequencies as experienced by High frequency squeal dynamometer tests have become
researchers, in literatures and mentioned in reference more mature after they have evolved from the AK master
[18]. An example of this manufacturing variation is dynamometer test procedure to SAE J2521. It is difficult
shown in Fig.7 and Fig.8. Fig.7 compares rotor out-of- to include all conditions under which a brake system
plane resonant frequencies between the two rotors while might occur due to the constraints of time and cost. One
Fig.8 shows the difference of geometry and mass/weight of the research areas with recent development is cold
between the fins of the two rotors. It can be seen that at and humidity test procedure, as it is amended in recent
high frequency, there is about 704Hz difference with updated SAE J2521 [27]. One of the challenges is the
about 7% error in resonant frequencies (in reference equipment itself – dynamometer. It is difficult to reach
[25], a rotor of having the same specification with about some conditions of both cold and high humidity. For
5% error is provided.) It also shows in Fig.7 that using example, there are damp cold days or cold
first modal frequency as benchmark to verify raining/snowing days where temperatures can be at 40C
manufacturing variability may not be sufficient if the and relative humidity reaches 80%-90%. The average
measurement tool and method do not have sufficient temperature and humidity from Nov. to Mar. in selected
resolution and accuracy. One of the causes of the eight states/cities in coastal and lake areas are shown in
variations is that the rotors were produced with different Table 1 [28]. One can see that there are many days with
foundries at different plants of the same supplier. Even temperature from -9 0C to 12 0C and relative humidity
with the same foundry as time goes by, variation may from 79% to 93%. It should be noted that it is on average
still arise. Rotors are always one of the key factors in basis. For instance, in Jan. 2006 in Detroit, most of the
brake squeal. So far there are rarely the cases that disc dates have relatively humidity exceeding 90% at a time
brake squeals have not been at one of rotor's resonant of the days. Some of the weather examples on the
frequencies. When squeals occur the rotor resonant specific dates in Jan. 2006 in Detroit are shown in Table
frequencies may shift to the squeal frequencies due to 2 [29]. From Table 1 and 2, it can be seen that if a cold
modes merging. In most cases if not all, laser vibrometer and humidity dynamometer test procedure does not
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include sections including 90% relative humidity at low vibrameter can also be used to measure/infer 3-D ODS
temperature, the screening process may not reproduce as reported in reference [13]. Any in-plane vibration also
squeals or underestimate squeal severity. There are induces out-of-plane motion. An example using 2-D
other states/cities where temperature and humidity fall laser vibraometer to measure rotor ODS and compare it
into these ranges in winter time. In a real squeal with its mode is shown in Fig.10. It shows the transition
example, a vehicle had very severed cold and humidity from in-plane dominate vibration (in-plane mode shape)
squeal, and it happened very often in the morning. It was to out-of-plane dominate vibration (out-of-plane mode
reproduced both in the field and dynamometer tests at shape) during the squeal. Similar to 3-D laser
the condition of 40C with 90% relative humidity. In the vibrometer, a 3-D pulsed laser ESPI also uses three
dynamometer tests, most of the squeals were cameras to deduce 3-D ODS. While using holographic
reproduced above 100 dB as shown in Table 3 with the interferometry, 3-D ODS can be obtained with multiple
maximum one at 118dB. It can be seen that this film plates or inferred from a rotor edge by a novel setup
procedure is very effective. Out of the total 250 stops, as employed in references [39-40]. Another approach
more than half of them make squeal above 100 dB. could be the combination of accelerometer with a laser
Conventional NAO friction materials are more prone to technique. Small accelerometers can be instrumented
cold and humidity squeal due to its large porosity, which inside rotor fins in three directions as reported in
may result in high friction coefficient. References [30-32] references [13, 41].
provide some investigation of squeal on cold and
humidity conditions due to friction materials.
Pad Damping and Insulator De-Bonding Test and REDUCTION AND PREVENTION
Measurement The purpose of all above sections is to reduce, eliminate
The recently developed SAE J2598 test procedure on and prevent brake squeal. The process to prevent
pad damping measurement [33] provides a robust squeal can be summarized in the flow chart in Fig.11. It
procedure with a certain degree of reproducibility and starts at component level modal analysis and correlation
reparability. It proposes using a small impact hammer both in test and CAE, then transits to system level, and
and a small accelerometer. Hammer excitation avoids last involve the whole brake. ODS is the final piece to
attachment like shakers although the contact effect can correlate the CAE model. After the potential root cause
not be totally eliminated. Small accelerometer avoids has been identified, a counter measure will be adopted
mass loading effect. Still caution needs to be exercised to eliminate the squeal. Following are the list including
when gluing the accelerometer so that it will be the often-used and real world fix methods: 1) find squeal
consistent. An alternative way to have test results with insensitive friction material by modifying its compositions
consistent reproducibility and repeatability is to use non- or ingredients, 2) separate merging modes by modifying
contact excitation (magnetic force) and non-contact mass and stiffness distribution, 3) chamfer brake pad
signal pick-up (laser vibrometer) [34]. friction material to reduce excitation and alter its modal
characteristics, and 4) select and design the right type
Laser vibrometer can also provide information insulator to damp and isolate excitation, and adjust
on insulator bonding quality by comparing a brake pad pressure distribution. In addition, pad friction material
mode with an insulator mode. If the two modes are the under-layer damping, caliper smooth motion and caliper
same, then in principle, the insulator is bonded well finger position/shape may also have influence on squeal
otherwise de-bonding may exist. It should be noted that elimination.
insulator de-bonding may not necessarily have low
damping. It actually often increases the damping [35-37]. Squeal Insensitive Friction Material/Compound
It is still not clear how the de-bonding affect squeal Lowering friction coefficient usually will reduce squeal
generation, which will be further discussed in reduction propensity. Some friction materials have higher friction
and prevention section. Fig.9 shows the pad/insulator coefficient in cold or wet conditions [30-32]. However,
modes among eight pads after a LACT test. It can be other factors may also affect squeal generation. Friction
seen that the one at top left corner has de-bonding materials with the same friction coefficient may have
areas. different squeal generation propensities. A lining
Squeal Operation Deflection Shape material usually consists of several types of ingredients
such as friction modifiers (friction, wear, and heat
One of the most important tests that can be used to management), binders (binding), solid lubricants
correlate CAE model is squeal ODS measurement using (stabilizing friction and wear), fibers (strength), fillers
laser metrology. It includes holographic interferometry, (reducing noise and improve manufacturing capability)
electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) and and water repellent materials (water/moisture absorber
laser vibrometer. The most often used in the industry is resistance) [42-44]. The following are some recent
laser vibrometer. It uses low power laser thus relieving developments:
laser safety requirements. In addition, it is user-friendly.
The regular equipment is capable of measuring two • As conventional practice, organic materials such as
dimensional velocity distributions. The recent developed cashew dust or rubber filler are often used to reduce
laser vibrometer can measure 3-D velocity distributions squeal generation propensity, and inorganic
with three laser vibrometer heads [38]. A 2-D laser abrasives such as metal powder is employed to
improve braking effectiveness. However, abrasives
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usually have detrimental effect on noise either compliment or oppose to each other. If a rotor has
performance. In reference [47], it has found that by an insufficient thermal design, thermal distortion or non-
combining two or more abrasive materials with uniform deformation may cause non-smooth excitation
different Mohs hardness (certain values) is and thermal instability, which in terns to lead to squeal or
particularly effective to avoid the detrimental effect other types of noise. On the other hand, in order to
on squeal generation. separate rotor modes or reduce vibration sensitivity,
alternative rotor design may cause thermal issues due to
• Adjustment of lining damping as one of the means to structural/geometric non-uniformity. Several designs can
reduce pad vibration is often used. In reference be pursued to separate rotor modes and reduce
[48], it states if the difference of modal damping vibration sensitivity. There are quite a few of papers and
values at 50 0C and 300 0C for 100Hz is minimized patents published in this regards, which will be
then squeal can be minimized assume both values selectively to be discussed.
are as high as possible. However, the noise
performance is better if the difference is minimized • Increase rotor damping – damped rotor
according to the higher damping. The underline
Using damped rotor is one way to increase damping in a
principle is to keep the damping value consistent
brake system, and to reduce rotor vibration. There are
over the temperature range.
mainly two types of damped rotors: one by using
• The lubricants in a lining such as graphite are used damped cast iron and the other by special rubbing
to modify and stabilize friction and improve wear. In surface machining [50]. It should be noted that using
reference [49], it found out that the lubricant bismuth damped iron rotor can also significantly change rotor
sulfide can both improve lining tribological resonant frequencies and lot rust resistance.
characteristics and reduce noise propensity. Unlike
• Special fins or vanes design
lead sulfide, it does not have environmental
implication. It is usually present in an amount of Altering the fins shape, length and arrangement or
from about 2 to 10 volume percent based on the position, rotor sensitivity and modes separation may be
total volume of lining [49]. achieved. In reference [51-52], it uses long and short
fins alternatively in circumferential direction. The long fin
• For a friction material after soaking overnight, driving
has an expanded wider shape at the end. In this way,
in a raining day or going through car washing, if it
the multiple root modes have a quarter wavelength
absorbs more moisture or water, its friction
phase difference such that their vibrations are not
coefficient usually will be raised significantly,
coupled. In reference [53-55], long T-shape end vanes
especially in a relatively cold condition. The higher
alternatively are arranged with shorter vanes in
the porosity of a lining, the more water it will absorb.
circumferential direction. The cross sections of vanes
The more the moistened of the lining, the more
are not rectangular type. With this types of design, it has
prone it generates squeal. The porosity in a lining
be found that rotor modes coupling can be minimized.
can range from 10% to 30%. By minimizing the
porosity of the friction material, it will reduce rising Chamfers and Slots Effect
effect of friction coefficient. However, larger porosity
One of the most often used squeal elimination
usually helps to improve brake fade resistance and
measures, especially at high frequencies, is to chamfer
enhance performance at high speed stop [45-46].
the brake pad. The reason on how it exactly eliminates
One way to overcome this drawback is to add the
squeal still needs to be further investigated and
right type of water repellent materials as additions as
understood. Pad chamfers can result in multiple effects
described in reference [42]. The details on materials
such as changes of contact area/size, contact pressure
and the ratio of parts by weight can be found in [42].
distribution and modal frequencies as shown in Table 4.
Modal De-coupled and Low Sensitivity Rotor Contact area change theory states since the area has
been changed, the vibration energy transferring
If two modes are widely separated then there is less
efficiency and effectiveness between the pad and rotor
chance for friction coupling to have these two modes
have been reduced [9, 56]. While contact angle change
merged to form a complex mode. This may apply to rotor
principle explained that the large angle (contact pressure
in-plane and out-of-plane modes, in-plane and other
distribution) of the contact between pad and rotor
component modes. However, when two modes are
contact surface can lead to excitation [9, 57]. However
closely spaced, it is not necessarily they will form a
arguably, the hypothesis of modal frequency change
complex and unstable mode. The tendency of the
considers that for vibration energy transfer between pad
coupling usually depends on the types of the two modes.
and rotor if there was no mode in the first place, the
As mentioned above, the rotor is always one of energy transferring would have not been efficient and
the key factors in brake squeal since so far there are effective [34]. In other words, the chamfer has also
rarely cases that disc brake squealing were not at or significantly changed the modal frequency. As shown in
close to one of its resonant frequencies. In most cases, Table 4, the modal frequency for the third and second
laser vibrometer ODS will show rotor mode like pattern. bending modes have changed from 9368 Hz to 8085Hz
and 5420Hz to 4715Hz. However, for the first bending
Currently rotor design has the challenge to meet mode, it is virtually the same (the difference may be
requirements both for: thermal and noise. They can caused by some variation). Does it imply why chamfers
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are usually effective at relatively high frequency? It not at others. The first mostly relates to build/usage/wear
should be noted that the first modal frequency of pad is variations and the second ties to specific conditions
mainly controlled by pad backing plate. Chamfers can be either can trigger system instability or can make the
at one end or both ends, cut-off/J-shape, straight/wedge system more instable. For example, if it squeals at
type, diamond with symmetric wedge angles, or radial certain temperature, there are several
angle. Some of the chamfers are shown in Fig.12. One properties/parameters of the system that can be
end chamfer is based on that leading edge may have influenced by temperature. A brake pad can have 400
the intention to dig-in due to brake system configuration Hz decrease in frequency at modal frequency 5400 Hz
as shown in Fig.13. The chamfer will reduce the dig-in under free-free condition from room temperature 24 0C
effect and hence the excitation. One of the drawbacks of to 100 0C. Friction coefficient of the pad may change. In
chamfering is the reduction of friction material useful life. addition, the film formation and transfer between pad
In addition, except the cut-off chamfer, as wear and rotor surface may also be different. Squeal
increases, the pad contact area change accordingly. prevention under various variations or operational
Compressibility or total deformation under certain load conditions leads to the broad or robust stable brake
may also be changed, which may affect pad feel. system consideration. It can be achieved by either
design or service whichever may be cost effective and
The effect of pad slots is mainly to change the
customers prefer. For design and verification test, for
pad bending modal frequencies in addition to giving a
example, squeal free for pad at 50% of thickness and
channel for debris and dust exit. Some slot patterns are
friction coefficient from 0.3 to 0.7 may need to be
shown in Fig.14.
considered [60]. In addition, the pad surface
Insulator Effect profile/wear [61] and rotor resonant frequency shift may
also need to be considered. Reference [22, 62] provides
Adding brake pad insulators have almost become a
some more detailed information on squeal reduction and
must-have to reduce or eliminate squeals at certain
prevention.
frequencies besides overall squeal reduction. They have
been on almost all vehicles in North America regardless
of brands or automakers. Insulators have effects on
adding damping, isolating vibration/excitation, and FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES
adjusting contact condition or pressure distribution in
addition adding compressibility. Which effect is dominant There have been efforts to explore new technologies
depended on the types of insulators used as shown in that can be used to effectively suppress squeal when
Fig.15. Adhesive bonded-on insulators tend increase needed. The following section will discuss some of such
damping and isolation while clip-on or clip-on with potential technologies.
grease types emphases contact pressure adjusting and Dithering
isolation. It should be noted that adding an insulator can
also slightly increase the pad stiffness or pad modal Dithering is one of the effective ways to suppress
frequencies due to insulator stiffness. Some design and nonlinear dynamic instability caused large vibration.
calculation can be found in reference [58-59]. For a References [63-64] are the first among others to explore
bonded-on insulator, if there are de-bonding areas, the the possibility and devised a system to demonstrate its
pad damping measured under free-free condition may feasibility in brake squeal suppression. The principle is
actually increase. However, caution should be taken that to use an external excitation at a much higher frequency
the performance for squeal reduction of a de-bonding compared with squeal and audible frequency to
pad may actually decrease. Further understanding smooth/suppress the system nonlinear characteristic.
requires further study. In Fig.16, a CAE complex mode The major advantage of this method is that it tends to
analysis result shows that as friction coefficient suppress all squeal frequencies below the excitation
increases the squeal tendency increases. When pad frequency. The limitation is that it needs active power to
damping increases, the squeal tendency decreases at supply sufficient energy for the excitation, which may
this frequency. It should be noted that at other add extra cost and weight, and may have
frequency, damping increase monotonically versus packaging/heat dissipation issues. The effectiveness to
squeal tendency decrease may not be always the case. suppress individual squeal frequencies may depend on
Traditionally, insulator design can only have one the excitation frequency and amplitude. Reference [65,
effective damping peak area at certain temperature. 22] provides some of one dimensional simulation cases,
With the multiple layers/materials design, an insulator and using FEA simulation for a brake system.
can be tailored to cover two temperature ranges, which Passive Shunt Piezoelectric Material Induced Vibration
is often useful if a brake system happened to have both Reduction
cold/humidity and warm squeal issues.
Piezoelectric materials have ability to transfer
Conditions Affect Squeal Generation and Robust mechanical energy to electric energy or vice versa. A
System passive shunted piezoelectric material device uses
shunt circuits that can be resistive, inductive, capacitive
Some vehicles may squeal and some not at apparently and switched types [66]. Resistive circuit dissipates
the same vehicle and operational conditions. The same electric energy with heat so it adds damping to a
vehicle squeals under certain operational conditions and vibration system while inductive one acts as a
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Friday, September 14, 2018

mechanical vibration absorber. The effective stiffness Simulation and Analysis:

can be altered by a capacitive circuit. Once the circuit
electric frequency matches the mechanical vibration • Variations of manufacturing on rotor and other brake
frequency, it will have the maximum effect to reduce components need to be reduced thus assist the
vibration. Reference [67] explores the application of better correlation of modal characteristics between
shunted piezo-ceramics to reduce or eliminate squeal. FEA and test. This will lead to one step close to
The advantage of this technique is it does not need accurate predict squeal using FEA methods.
active power supply to operate and can target a specific
• In simulation, friction damping, friction coefficient
squeal frequency to maximize its effectiveness. The
relationship with velocity/temperature/humidity, pad
limitation is if it can tune to a specific squeal frequency, it
surface profile, and modal variations caused by
can also be de-tuned due to variation. In addition it may
usage need to be considered to reduce either over
loose effectiveness at low frequency and add cost.
or under prediction.
Finally, the heat resistance needs to be considered as
well since for most piezo-materials the operation Evaluation and Test
0
temperature is below 200 C while the temperature
operation range of a brake can be up to 500 0C. • Squeal dynamometer test procedure in cold and
humidity conditions may need to include the range of
conditions from -9 0C to 10 0C with 90% relative
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION humidity to avoid underestimating squeal propensity.
As mentioned above, this paper has provided some • 2-D laser vibrometer is also capable to measure
selectively discussions on some of recently both in-plane and out-of-plane motion/vibration of
developments on brake squeal mechanisms, analysis, ODS.
evaluation, reduction/elimination/prevention, and future
• Pad damping and insulator de-bonding can be
technologies and summarized as follows.
robustly and accurately detected by laser
Mechanisms and causes: technologies.
• Intermittent or impulsive and creep slip [10, 68-69] Reduction and Prevention
interactions between pad and rotor have been
• Chamfers have effects both on changes of contact
revealed via analytical and numerical models. Both
pressure distribution and pad modal frequency.
are impulsive excitation. Reference [68] found that
in-plane excitation is dominated from deterministic • More modal separation will make modes merging
friction while the random one usually excites out-of- more difficult. However, higher friction coefficient
plane modes. Reference [69] attributes it to in- has adverse effect.
balance motion of caliper.
• Insulator design has three main effects: changing
• Periodic impulsive vibration is the mechanism of vibration damping and isolation, and contact
squeal sound generation. How a brake system is pressure distribution. Using multiple layers design, it
drawn into an impulsive vibration state, it may be can achieve high damping at both low and high
caused by impulsive excitation, system instability or temperatures, which will assist to eliminate both cold
the combination. Excessive impulsive excitation and warm squeals.
alone may be sufficient to generate squeal. Flexible Finally, an optimal brake design without squeal would
vibration generates squeal. require knowledge of what exactly causes squeal
generations and the operational conditions customers
• It should be noted that rotor in-plane vibration may use. Otherwise, either over or under design may be the
have sufficient energy to generate or amplify squeal result.
since it also generate out-of-plane motion by
contraction and expansion. For some squeal, even
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2. D. A. Crolla, and A. M. Lang, "Brake Noise and
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pp. 255-274, 1996. "Brake Noise Study (Part I) – Low Frequency
6. C. A. Tan, and B. Kang, “A Study on the Root Squeal", , 2006-01-0474, 2006
Causes of Disc Brake Squeal”, Wayne State 25. F. Chen, M. K. Abdelhamid, P. Blaschke, and J.
University, Technical Report # Tan/Tr-98-02, 1998. Swayze, " On Automotive Disc Brake Squeal Part
7. A. Papinniemi, J. C. S. Lai, J. Zhao, and L. Loader, III: Test and Evaluation”, SAE 2003-01-0684, 2003
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Acoustics, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 391-400, 2002. Andrzej Bajer, "Brake Squeal Analysis
8. Y. Yuan, “On Brake Squeal Mechanisms”, Internal Incorporating Contact Conditions and Other
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9. N. M. Kinkaid, O. M. O’Reilly, and P. 2003
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Review”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 2002. Procedure, Published by US Working Group, 2005
10. F. Chen, C.A. Tan and R.L. Quaglia, "On 28. Compiled from source:
Automotive Disc Brake Squeal, Part I: Mechanisms www.cityrating.com/cityweather.asp?city=Detroit,
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11. M. Matsuzaki, and T. Izumihara, “Brake Noise 29. Complied from source: local climatological data,
Caused by Longitudinal Vibration of the Disc NOAA, national climatic data center, Jan. 2006
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12. K. Brent Dunlap, M. A. Riehle, and R. E. Vapor on Friction and Deformation of Polymeric
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1999. Systems, ed. B. Bushan, et al, STLE SP_16, pp.27-
13. F. Chen, D. McKillip, J. Luo, and S.F. Wu, 34, 1984
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Mode Induced Disc Brake Squeal and Beyound," Stabilization Friction Coefficient of Disc Brake Pads
SAE paper 2004-01-2798, 2004 in Cold Condition", SAE 973030, 1997
14. N.A. Jaber, A. Wang, Y. Yue, and R. Allgaier, 32. N. Odani, M. Kobayashi, and K. Kakihara, “Effects
"Brake Noise Study (Part II) – High Frequency of Transferred Surface Film on μ Behavior of Disc
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15. Shih-Wei Kung, V.C. Saligrama, and M.A. Riehle, 01-3391, 1999
"Modal Participation Analysis for Identifying Brake 33. SAE J2598, Brake Pad Damping Measurement
Squeal Mechanism", SAE paper, 2000-01-2764, Procedure, Published by US Working Group, 2006
2000 34. F. Chen, A. Wang, J. Bloomer and M. Yang, "Brake
16. H. Lee, "Influence of In-Plane Modes of A Rotor to Pad Modal Characteristics Measurement and
Brake Noise," ASME Proceeding, 2004 Analysis," SAE Paper 2005-01-3926,
17. A. Papinniemi, J. Zhao, D. Stanef, J. Ding, "A 35. Brake Pad Insulator De-bonding Test Procedure,
Investigation of In-plane Vibration Modes in Disc Ford, 2001
Brake Squeal Noise," SAE paper 2005-01-3923, 36. Truck vehicle line insulator de-bonding study –
2005 Ford 6-Sigma project, 2004
18. Jerry Chung Chih-Hung and Mark Donley, "Mode 37. Eric Denys, "A Method to predict the Modal
Coupling Phenomenon of Brake Squeal Dynamics", Damping in a Braking System based on the
SAE paper, 2003-01-1624, 2003 Damping of the Pad in its Free-Free Condition"
19. M. Yang, A.H. Afaneh, and P. Blaschke, "A Study SAE paper 2006-01-3222, 2006
of Disc Brake High Frequency Squeals and Disc In- 38. M. Johansmann and J. Sauer, " A New Tool for
Plane/Out-of-Plane Modes", SAE paper, 2003-01- Three Dimensional Non-Contact Vibration
1621, 2003 Measurements in Automotive Applications," SAE
20. T.S. Shi, O. Dessouki, T. Warzecha, W.K Chang paper 2005-26-052, 2005
and A. Jayasundera, " Advances in Complex 39. J.D. Fieldhouse, A. Ettemeyer, and F. Chen, "Laser
Eigenvalue Analysis for Brake Noise", SAE paper, Metrology and Its Applications to Brake Squeal",
2001-01-1603, 2001 Disc Brake Squeal: Mechanism, Analysis,
21. H. J. Ouyang, W. V. Nack, Y. Yuan, and F. Chen, Evaluation and Reduction/Prevention, edited by F.
“On Automotive Disc Brake Squeal Part II: Chen, C.A. Tan and R.L. Quaglia, and published by
Simulation and Analysis”, SAE paper 2003-01- SAE International, 2006
0684, 2003 40. R. Krupka, T. Walz, and A. Ettemeyer, "New
22. "Disc Brake Squeal: Mechanism, Analysis, Techniques and Applications for 3D Brake
Evaluation, and Reduction/Prevention," edited by F. Analysis, " SAE Brake Colloquium, 2000
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41. F. Chen, G.M. Brown, and M.M. Marchi, "Recent Brakes 2000, Automotive Braking – Technologies
Advance on Brake Noise and Vibration Engineering for 21st Century, ed. By D. Barton and S. Earle,
Using Laser Metrology", Optical Engineering, May, pp.19-28, 2000.
2003 59. P. Heppes, “Noise Insulators for Brake Squeal
42. Friction Material, US patent, 6,190,761 B1, 2001 Reduction – Influence and Selection of the
43. A.E. Anderson, "Friction and Wear of Automotive Damping Material”, The 2nd International Seminar
Brakes, in: ASM Handbook, Vol.18, pp.569-577, on Automotive Braking, ed. By D. Barton and M.
ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1992 Haigh, pp.15-26, 1998.
44. M.G. Jacko, P.H.S. Tsang and S.K. Rhee, 60. F. Chen, H. Tong, S. Chen and R. Quaglia, "On
"Automotive Friction Materials Evolution During the Automotive Disc Brake Squeal, Part IV: Reduction
Past Decade," Wear 100, pp.503-515, 1984 and Prevention", SAE paper, 2003-01-3345, 2003
45. B.B. Palmer and M.H. Weintraub, "The Role of 61. Abd Rahim Abu Bakar, H. Ouyang, L. Li, J.E.
Engineered Cashew Particles on Performance", Siegel, "Brake Pad Surface Topography Part II:
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Technologies for the 21st Century, ed. D. Barton 2005-01-3935, 2005
and S. Earle, 2000 62. O. Dessouki, G. Brake, B. Lowe, and W.K. Chang,
46. Hideki Kimijima, Keiichi Orita, Toyoaki Hagiwara, "Disc Brake Squeal: Diagnosis and Prevention",
Shuuichi Kamiyama, Tohoku Chemical Industries, SAE paper, 2003-01-1618, 2003
"Excellent Cashew Dust in NVH Properties of 63. K.A. Cunefare and A.J. Graf, "Disc Brake Rotor
Friction Materials", Oral Presentation, SAE 23rd Squeal Suppression Using Dither Control", SAE
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47. Non-Asbestos Friction Material, US patent: US 64. K.A. Cunefare and A.J. Graf, “Experimental Active
6,656,240 B2, 2003 Control of Automotive Disc Brake Rotor Squeal
48. Non-Asbestos Friction Material, US patent: US using Dither,” Journal of Sound and Vibration, Vol.
6,596,789 B2, 2003 250, No. 4, pp. 575-590, 2002.
49. Solid Lubricants Containing Bismuth Sulfide for Use 65. F. Chen, A. Wang and C.A. Tan, "Suppression of
in Friction Lining, US patent: US 6,228,815 B1, Self-Excited Vibration by Dither Technique with
2001 Potential Application to Reduce Brake Squeal'" SAE
50. Damped Disc Brake Rotor, US patent: US
paper 2004-01- 2790, 2004
6,505,716 B1, 2003
66. G.A. Lesieutre, "Vibration Damping and Control
51. Damped Disc Brake Rotor, US patent: US
Using Shunted Piezoelectric Materials," Shock and
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52. Brake Disc Rotor, US patent: US 6,325,185 B1, Vibration Digest, V30, N3, pp 187-195, May, 1998
2001 67. Marcus Neubauer, Dominik Niederberger and
53. Disc Brake Rotor, US patent: US 6,655,508 B2, Manfred Morari, " A Novel Approach for Brake
2003 Squeal Control Using Shunted Piezoceramics," SAE
54. Disc Brake Rotor, US patent: US 6,405,839 B1, paper 2006-01-3198, 2006
2002 68. D.M. Beloiu and R.A. Ibrahim, "Disc-Pad Interaction
55. Disc Brake Rotor, US patent: US 6,454,058 B1, Related to Brake Squeal", SAE paper, 2004-01-
2002 0826, 2004
56. Chamfer –contact theory 69. V. N. Pilipchuck and C. A. Tan, "Investigation of a
57. J.D. Fieldhouse, "A Proposal to Predict The Noise Friction-Induced Source of Excitation in Disc Brake
Frequency of a Disc Brake Based on the Friction Systems", ASME, Symposium on Dynamics,
Pair Interface Geometry," SAE paper, 1999-01- Acoustics and Simulations Sponsored by The
3403, 1999 Technical Committee on Vibration and Sound,
58. P. Heppes, “Brake Squeal Reduction by the Design IMECE, New Orleans 2002.
of the Interface Caliper – Friction Pads – Brake
Shoe Holder”, the International Conference on
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Friday, September 14, 2018

SAE Technical Paper Published on Brake Squeal

PapermPublished
30
25
Number of

20
15
10
5
0
85

05
86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01

02

03

ar 4
Ye 0
19

20
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20
ar
Ye

Calendar Year

Fig.1 Published SAE technical papers on brake squeal versus calendar years

Instantaneous mode
at 5.5kHz First resonant mode at
5.7kHz

Second resonant
Squeal frequency at mode at 8.2kHz
5.5kHz
Third resonant
mode at 11kHz

Fig.2 Squeal, instantaneous mode, and resonant modes of the plate

First resonant mode at

5.7kHz

Squeal frequency Second resonant

and instantaneous mode at 8.2kHz
mode at 5.1kHz Third resonant
mode at 11kHz

Fig.3 Squeal, instantaneous mode, and resonant modes of the plate at a different sliding condition
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Fig.4 Wire brush squeal/noise frequencies

Fig.5 Example of Rotor In-plane Modes Induced Squeals

 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Nottingham - Kings Meadow Campus, Friday, September 14, 2018

Squeal aligned with instantaneous in-plane

mode at in-plane mode frequency
7.024kHz
Instantaneous out-of-plane mode aligned
with out-of-plane mode at 7.248kHz

Instantaneous out-of-plane mode

aligned with squeal

Fig.6 Squeal is aligned and instantaneous in-plane mode are aligned with in-plane mode at 7.024kHz

704Hz
448Hz

Fig.7 Rotor resonant frequency comparison of two rotors with the same design specification and manufactured from the
same supplier

Fig.8 Corresponding rotor fin comparison in Fig.7

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Table.1 Selected coastal and lake state/city area winter weather (average)

Detroit/Michigan Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%) Buffalo/NY Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%)
Nov. 40.2/4.6 82 Nov. 40.5/4.7 80
Dec. 28.3/-2.1 81 Dec. 29.1/-1.6 81
Jan. 22.9/-5.1 80 Jan. 23.6/-4.7 79
Feb. 25.4/-3.7 79 Feb. 24.5/-4.2 80
Mar. 35.7/2.1 79 Mar. 33.8/1 80
Five Months Ave 30.5/-0.8 80 Five Months Ave 30.3/-0.9 80
Huntsville/AL Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%) San Francisco/CA Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%)
Nov. 51.5/10.8 84 Nov. 54.8/12.7 84
Dec. 42.9/6.1 82 Dec. 49.4/9.7 85
Jan. 38.8/3.8 82 Jan. 48.7/9.3 86
Feb. 43.1/6.2 81 Feb. 52.2/11.2 84
Mar. 51.9/11.1 80 Mar. 53.3/11.8 82
Five Months Ave 45.7/7.6 81.8 Five Months Ave 51.7/10.9 84.2
Eugene/OR Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%) Seattle/WA Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%)
Nov. 46.1/7.8 93 Nov. 46.3/7.9 85
Dec. 41.1/5.1 92 Dec. 41.6/5.3 83
Jan. 40.8/4.9 92 Jan. 41.3/5.2 82
Feb. 44.2/6.8 92 Feb. 44.3/6.8 80
Mar. 47.4/8.6 91 Mar. 46.6/8.1 83
Five Months Ave 43.9/6.6 92 Five Months Ave 44/6.7 82.6
Youngstown/OH Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%) Madison/WI Ave Temp (F/C) Ave Morning Humidity (%)
Nov. 41/5 82 Nov. 35.4/1.9 84
Dec. 29.5/1.4 82 Dec. 21.7/-5.7 82
Jan. 23.6/-4.7 81 Jan. 16/-8.9 79
Feb. 25.9/-3.4 81 Feb. 20.6/-6.3 80
Mar. 36.3/2.4 80 Mar. 32.3/0.17 81
Five Months Ave 31.3/-0.4 81.2 Five Months Ave 25.2/-3.7 81.2

Table.2 Detroit area winter weather (specific)

Detroit Area Weather H/L Temp (F) Relative Humidity (%)

Jan.2, 2006 Drizzle 40/32 93
Jan. 8, 2006 Mist 41/30 92
Jan.17, 2006 Rain 44/31 96
Jan.18, 2006 Snow-Mist 35/23 92
Jan.23, 2006 light cloud 39/28 89

Table.3 Cold and humid dynamometer test result

Cold and High Humidity Dynamometer Test Procedure

Number of stops 250
Number of stops of squeal < 70dB 61
Number of stops of squeal >= 70dB and <80dB 4
Number of stops of squeal >= 80dB and <90dB 13
Number of stops of squeal >= 90dB and <100dB 26
Number of stops of squeal >= 100dB and <110dB 95
Number of stops of squeal >= 110dB 51
Max dB level 118
Ave dB level 94
Objective noise index 33
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De-bonding areas

Fig.9 Laser de-bonding test results of four pads/insulators in which one at top left has de-bonding

0 Psi/5704Hz/0o 1Psi/5711Hz/20o 1Psi/5711Hz/30o 1Psi/5711Hz/45o 1Psi/5711Hz/90o

0o 20o 30o 45o 90o

Fig.10 Comparison between rotor ODS and steady excited mode

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Yes
Component design and Meet design Component modal
CAE modal analysis criteria? test
No

No No
CAE/test
correlated?
Meet design
criteria? No Yes

Yes
CAE system operation Meet design CAE system complex
simulation - LS Dyna criteria? mode analysis - Nastran

Yes
No
Yes
Inertia/chassis dyno test Meet design Vehicle road test
Weibull plot criteria? Weibull plot
Future?
Future?
Yes No
Meet design
Implementation
criteria?

Fig.11 Design cascade chart for squeal prevention

Table 4 Pad resonant frequency comparisons of chamfer and damping conditions

Pad insulator
configuration Pad lining configurations Mode 1, Hz Mode 2, Hz Mode 3, Hz
20 mm cut-off chamfer
Insulator (production) 2405 4715 8085
12 mm cut-off chamfer,
Insulator highly damped under layer 2472 5128 8336
diamond chamfer, highly
Insulator damped under layer 2405 5221 8864

Insulator diamond chamfer 2431 5350 9170

Insulator no chamfer 2388 5420 9368

(a) Diamond chamfer (b) Straight/wedge chamfer (c) Cut-off/J chamfer

Fig.12 Various chamfers

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N1 N2

Leading edge
Pad
V
Rotor

Fig.13 Schematic description of modeling pad rotation effect and contact intention

Diagonal Triangular Parallel

Fig.14. Slot arrangements

(a) bonded-on (b) clip-on with grease in between the two ( c) clip-on

Fig.15 Various insulators ,

(Courtesy: Wolverine Advanced Materials Division: EaglePicher Corporation)

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Fig.16. Brake stability (negative damping) versus pad damping at 7 kHz with complex mode analysis.

Loss Factor Viscoelastic layer 1: Viscoelastic layer 2:

low temperature use high temperature use

Layer 1+2:
low +high
temperature
use

Temperature

Fig.17. Insulator design concept

(Cited from reference [22])

1.000
Mode 2
Composite Loss Factor

Mode 3
0.100

Mode 4

0.010
Mode 5

Mode 6
0.001
-10 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150

Temperature (°C)

Fig.18. Insulator design example

(Cited from reference [22])