CHAPTER # 8

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION –A
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Chlorosis does not occur due to the deficiency of

A) sulphur (B) magnesium C) phosphorus (D) calcium
2. Most of the uptake of water and minerals from soil takes place through
A) epidermal cells (B) root cap C) root (D) root hair
3. The sugar moves through phloem is mostly in the form of
(A) glucose (B) sucrose (C) maltose (D) lactose
4. Which category of plants stores a small amount of water and has a thin cuticle?
A) Hydrophytes (B) Xerophytes C) Mesophytes (D) Succulents
5. What is a key role of leaves in managing waste in plants?
A) Storing waste materials (B) Producing chlorophyll
C) Absorbing water from the soil (D) Converting waste into energy
6. When the rate of photosynthesis become equal to that rate of respiration in the plant
body, which of the following pattern of gaseous exchange occurs between plant and its
environment:
A) Carbon dioxide is absorbed, and oxygen is released
B) Oxygen is absorbed, and carbon dioxide is released
C) Both carbon dioxide and oxygen are absorbed
D) Neither carbon dioxide nor oxygen are absorbed
7. What is the role of companion cells in the translocation process?
A) They store excess solutes in the phloem
B) They help regulate water potential in the xylem
C) They actively transport sugars into the phloem's sieve tube elements
D) They assist in the absorption of water by roots
8. What drives the translocation of organic solutes in plants?
A) Differences in sugar concentration (B) Differences in leaf size
B) Differences in root structure (D) Differences in stem length
9. According to the TACT theory, what are the four factors that work together to move
water and minerals up a plant?
A) Temperature, humidity, sunlight, and soil type
B) Transpiration pull, Adhesion, Cohesion, and Tension
C) Stomata, xylem, phloem, and roots
D) Leaves, stems, roots, and flowers
10. What drives the bulk flow of water to the top of the plant according to the TACT
theory?
A) Root pressure B) Soil moisture
C) Solar energy from photosynthesis D) Transpiration from the leaves

CHAPTER # 8
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION –B
SHORT QUESTIONS
1) Why transpiration is called necessary evil?

Transpiration is a vital process for the plant as it not only provides cooling to the plant but also
help to absorb the water and dissolved minerals and to move them in upward direction to the
leaves. Therefore, without transpiration plants are unable to survive. On the other hand,
transpiration is generally regarded as disadvantageous as it shows great loss of absorbed water
so, an unchecked excessive transpiration can lead to the wilting (loss of turgor) and ultimately
death of the plant.

2) What is the composition of translocating fluids?

Phloem sap contains about 10-25% dry matter. Most of this dry matter is sucrose (a kind of
sugar), with some other organic compounds

3) Why gardeners use autumn leaves in their soil?

When the leaves are loaded with large amount pigmented compounds, they turn yellow.
Remember, this yellowing is not due to lack of chlorophyll as happens in chlorosis. Such leaves
are generally fallen from plants in autumn season. In this way leaves act as organ of excretion,
therefore, such leaves are also called excretophores. This is why gardeners like using
decomposed autumn leaves as a mineral-rich source for plants.

4) What is the effect of temperature on the rate of transpiration?

On a sunny day with strong sunlight, the air temperature rises, and this increase in temperature
lowers the humidity in the air. As a result, more water evaporates from the surfaces of plant
mesophyll cells, which leads to a higher rate of transpiration. For every 10°C increase in
temperature, the rate of transpiration roughly doubles. However, when the environmental
temperature becomes very high, around 40-45°C, it causes the stomata on plant leaves to close.
This closure helps the plant conserve its much- needed water because excessive loss can be
detrimental

If these higher temperatures persist for an extended period and the soil doesn't have enough
water, the plants may start to wilt and could eventually die.

5) Write any 3 osmotic adjustments in hydrophytes?

 hydrophytes live in water-rich environments
 Transpiration rates of hydrophytes is highest.
hydrophytes have Stomata on the upper leaf surface,
hydrophytes keep stomata open day and night.
hydrophytes almost none Cuticle.
6) What is the pattern of gas exchange between plant and environment at the time of
dawn and dusk?

During dawn and dusk, when light intensity is low, the rates of photosynthesis and respiration
become equal. This means the carbon dioxide produced by respiration is enough for
photosynthesis, and the oxygen released by photosynthesis is used in respiration. At this point,
there's no net exchange of gases with the environment, and we call it the "compensation point
of photosynthesis.”

7) Why plants absorb carbon dioxide and releases oxygen during daytime?

During the day, plants are busy with both photosynthesis (making food) and respiration. The rate
of photosynthesis varies throughout the day as it mainly depends upon light intensity. Generally,
the rate of photosynthesis is greater than rate of respiration, therefore, the photosynthesis needs
more carbon dioxide than what respiration produces, so plants bring in extra carbon dioxide from
the environment. On the other hand, photosynthesis produces more oxygen than respiration
needs, so plants release excess oxygen.

8) Define following terms:

1. Osmotic Adjustment:
Osmotic adjustment, also known as osmoregulation, is plant's way of maintaining the
right balance of water and solutes in its body. This balance creates three different
situations: hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic.
2. Transpiration:
It is the loss of water (approx. 99%) from plant surface through evaporation
3. Translocation:
The transport of prepared food (organic solutes) to different parts of the plant through the
phloem tissue is translocation.
4. Micronutrients:
The seven elements are needed in traces or small amounts (less than 0.05% dry weight)
for normal plant growth and development that are known as micronutrients. These
include iron, boron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, chlorine, and zinc.
5. Excretophores:
leaves are generally fallen from plants in autumn season. In this way leaves act as organ
of excretion, therefore, such leaves are also called excretophores.
6. Vascular bundle:
The vascular bundle consists of xylem and phloem which are arranged in the form of ring
in monocot root with central ground tissue called as pith. Whereas, in the dicot roots, the
 vascular bundles are present in the form of star shape in the centre of the root without
the presence of pith.
7. Xylem:
Xylem consists of tracheids and vessel elemects. Xylem are dead cells. They are involved
in conduction of water and minerals from root to aerial parts as well as mechanical
strength to plants.
8. Adhesion:

Adhesion is the attraction between water molecules and other substances. Water is
strongly attracted to the walls of the xylem cells because both water and cellulose (in cell
walls) are polar molecules. This adhesion helps water move upward in the plant against
gravity. It also keeps water in the xylem when transpiration is not happening.

9. Cohesion and Tension:

Cohesion is the attraction between nearby water molecules, which is possible because
water is a polar molecule. Tension refers to the tension created in the water column.
These forces help hold the water molecules together in a continuous column within the
xylem
9) Write the difference between:
 Micronutrients and macronutrients:

Micronutrients Macronutrients
Nine of 16 elements are required in fairly large The remaining seven elements are needed in
quantities (greater than 0.05% dry weights) traces or small amounts (less than 0.05% dry
weight) for normal plant growth and
development that are known as
micronutrients
These include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, iron, boron, manganese, copper, molybdenum,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, chlorine, and zinc
calcium, and magnesium.

 Hydrophytes and Xerophytes:

Hydrophytes Xerophytes
Plants that thrive in water or very moist Plants that thrive in dry or arid environments
environments
Found in aquatic environments, such as ponds, Found in deserts, dry scrublands, or rocky
lakes, or rivers outcrops
Floating leaves or stems Thick cuticles or waxy coatings on leaves
Large air spaces in stems and leaves Small leaves or spines instead of leaves
Small roots or no roots at all Deep roots to access water deep in soil
Stomata on upper surface of leaves store water (succulent stem and leaves) and
open stomata at night
Examples: Water lily, cattail, duckweed Examples: Cactus, succulents, aloe vera,
euphorbia

 Monocot and Dicot root:

Monocot root Dicot root

Fibrous roots (many branching roots of similar Taproot (primary root that grows straight
size) down)
No main taproot, Root hairs are present Few or no root hairs
Xylem and phloem tissues are arranged in a Xylem and phloem tissues are arranged in a
circular pattern vascular cambium (a ring-like structure)
Vascular tissues are scattered throughout the Vascular tissues are organized in a central
root cylinder
Examples: Grasses, wheat, rice, corn Examples: Beans, peas, carrots, potatoes

 Transpiration and translocation:

Transpiration and translocation are two important processes in plants that involve the movement
of water and nutrients, but they differ in their direction, driving force, and function:

Transpiration Translocation
Movement of water and minerals from roots to Movement of sugars, amino acids, and other
leaves through xylem organic compounds from leaves to roots and
other parts of the plant through phloem
Driven by evaporation from leaves Driven by osmotic pressure and active
(transpiration pull) transport
Occurs through the xylem vessels Occurs through the phloem vessels
Function: Regulates temperature, maintains Function: Distributes nutrients and energy-rich
turgor pressure, and supports photosynthesis compounds to support growth, development,
and storage

 Translocation and ascent of sap:

Translocation ascent of sap

Movement of sugars, amino acids, and other Movement of water and minerals from roots to
organic compounds from leaves to roots and leaves through the xylem vessels
other parts of the plant
Occurs through the phloem vessels Driven by transpiration pull (evaporation from
leaves) and root pressure
Driven by osmotic pressure and active Occurs through the xylem vessels
transport
Function: Distributes nutrients and energy-rich Function: Regulates water and mineral
compounds to support growth, development, transport to support photosynthesis and other
and storage cellular processes

 Xylem and phloem:

Xylem and phloem are two types of vascular tissues in plants that play critical roles in
transportation and support. The main differences between xylem and phloem are:

Xylem Phloem
Responsible for water and mineral Responsible for sugar, amino acid, and other
transportation from roots to leaves organic compound transportation from leaves
to roots and other parts
Composed of tracheids, vessels, and xylem Composed of sieve cells, companion cells, and
parenchyma cells phloem parenchyma cells
Dead cells at maturity (no protoplasm) Living cells with protoplasm
Lignin deposition in cell walls provides Cell walls lack lignin, but contain cellulose and
strength and rigidity pectin
Direction of transport: Roots → Leaves Direction of transport: Leaves → Roots and
other parts

 Pattern of gas exchange in leaves and roots:

Pattern of gas exchange in leaves Pattern of gas exchange in roots

Gas exchange occurs through small openings Gas exchange occurs through small projections
called stomata (singular: stoma) called root hairs
Stomata are present on the underside of leaves Root hairs increase the surface area of the root,
and are surrounded by guard cells allowing for greater absorption of oxygen and
release of carbon dioxide
CO2 enters the leaf through stomata and CO2 produced by cellular respiration diffuses
diffuses into mesophyll cells, where it is used out of the root cells and into the soil
for photosynthesis
O2 is produced as a by-product of O2 from the soil enters the root hair and
photosynthesis and diffuses out of the leaf diffuses into the root cells, where it is used for
through stomata cellular respiration
Water vapor also exits the leaf through nill
transpiration

CHAPTER # 8
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
SECTION –C
LONG QUESTIONS
1) State that nitrogen is important in protein synthesis and magnesium for chlorophyll
formation?
In plant body the nitrogenous compounds are used to make amino acids, nucleotides, and
chlorophyll. The amino acids are then utilized in protein synthesis. As the protein is the most
abundant organic constituent of the plant body therefore, nitrogen deficiency in plant can lead to
severe growth retardation. The most obvious symptom of nitrogen deficiency in chlorosis i.e.,
yellowing of plant leaves due to deficiency of minerals, as the deficiency of nitrogen inhibits
chlorophyll formation.

Magnesium is a macronutrient in the plant which is mainly absorbed by the plant from soil
through their roots in the form of inorganic Mg+ ions. The major source of magnesium in the
soil is the decomposition of dead plant debris. However, in the magnesium depleted soils, it can
be added in the form of dolomitic limestone or magnesium fertilizers like Magnesium sulphate
(MgSO4). In plant body, the magnesium is used to make chlorophyll therefore, magnesium
deficiency in plant can also lead to chlorosis.

2) Explain the internal structure of Root And Root Hairs?

Root is an underground part of the plant, which serve as the organ of uptake of mineral nutrients
and water. It possesses large surface area due to extensive branching system and root hairs which
make them favorable for organ of uptake.

Dicot plants have tap root which consists of a thick primary root that bears several secondary
roots. Each secondary root further consists of large number of tertiary roots. On the other hand,
monocot plants have fibrous adventitious roots that show no differentiation of primary,
secondary, and tertiary roots.

Internal structure of root and root hairs

In both monopod and dicot roots, the outermost layer is called epidermis. Many cells of the
epidermis have extensions that are penetrated the spaces among soil particles. These extensions
of the root epidermal cells are called root hairs, which increase approximately 67% surface area
of the root. Inner to the epidermis is a ground issue, the cortex. The inner lining of the cortex is
called the endodermis. The endodermal cells have deposition of a vax, the suberin in their
radial walls. These depositions are in the form of strips called the Casparian Strips. Inner to the
endodermis is the pericycle which surrounds the innermost vascular bundles. The vascular
bundle consists of xylem and phloem which are arranged in the form of ring in monocot root
with central ground tissue called as pith. Whereas, in the dicot roots, the vascular bundles are
present in the form of star shape in the centre of the root without the presence of pith.

3) Explain how roots take up water and minerals salts by active and passive
absorption?

Plant roots serve two vital functions: anchoring the plant in soil and absorbing essential minerals
and water. Most minerals enter the root hairs or epidermal cells of the roots through bulk flow
with water, some are absorbed through diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport.

Mechanism of mineral absorption by root

Plants absorb minerals from water in the soil. When minerals are stuck to soil particles and not
dissolved in water, plants can't use them. Only those minerals can be absorbed that are dissolved
in soil water. Plants take in minerals through root cells using both passive and active processes
that require energy, specifically ATP.

Passive uptake happens through diffusion, as minerals move along their concentration gradient
through plasmodesmata to cells in the root's cortex, endodermis, and pericycle before reaching
the xylem cells. They are then pulled up by transpiration xylem cells. They are then pulled up by
transpiration.
Certain nutrients are transported from the soil into the epidermal cells of roots through their cell
membranes by a process called facilitated diffusion.

Active transport requires energy and allows plants to take in minerals even when their
concentration inside the root cells is higher than in the soil. Active transport is selective and
relies on respiration. Some ions can also move through passive transport.

Water absorption in roots of Plants:

Absorption of water by roots occurs by means of a passive transport mechanism called osmosis.
This is the movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from an area
where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less absorption by root concentrated.
If water moves into a cell through osmosis, it's called endosmosis, and if it moves out of the cell,
it's called exosmosis.

In the epidermal cells of roots, the cell wall allows water and minerals to pass through freely.
However, the cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it only allows certain substances
from the solution to pass through. Water entering the epidermal cells follows the concentration
gradient, moving through the cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and finally into the xylem cells.

4) Describe transpiration and relate this process with cell surface and stomatal
opening and closing?

It is the loss of water (approx. 99%) from plant surface through evaporation.

Occurrence:

 Stomatal transpiration: 90% of this loss occurs through the stomata present mainly in
the leaves and some other aerial parts of the plant. This is called stomatal transpiration.
 Cuticular transpiration: Some water (7-9%) is lost from general body surface through
the cuticle, called as cuticular transpiration.
 Lenticular transpiration: A very little amount of water (less than 3%) is also lost
through lenticels which are scar like regions present in the stem. This is called lenticular
transpiration.
Need of transport in plants:

1. To get materials from environment for metabolism.

2. To dispose some materials in environment.

Relation of transpiration with leaf surface area:

The plants having large surface area of the leaves having more stomata show greater rate of
transpiration as compared to the plants having narrow and reduced surfaces of the leaves having
less stomata.
How stomata work during day and night time:

Opening and closing of stomata:

Plants keep their stomata open during day time and closes at night.
Stomata regulate the rate of transpiration by action of guard cells.
Guard cells:
 The guard cells of stomata are attached to each other by their ends.
 The concave sides of guard cells are thick and convex sides are thin.
 When the guard cells get water they become turgid and get shape of a bean so that
stomata between them open.
 When guard cells loose water they become flaccid and their inner side touches each
other so that stomata closes.
Mechanism
 During day time:
 Concentration of glucose in guard cells is responsible for the opening and closing of
stomata.
 Light causes the movement of potassium ions from epidermal cells into guard cells.
 With these ions water also enters guard cells.
 Turgidity of guard cells increases and stomata opens in them.
 As day progresses guard cells make glucose and become hypertonic so water stays in
them.
During night time:
 Potassium ions flows back to epidermal cells.
 Concentration of glucose also drops.
 Water moves back to epidermal cells.
Guard cells loose turgidity and it causes closure of stomata.

5) Describe temperature, wind and humidity as factors affecting the rate of

transpiration?

The rate of transpiration is influenced by several environmental factors like temperature, wind,
and humility etc. The rate of translation can be measured by using a simple apparatus called the
photometer as shown in the diagram.

Effects of Temperature:

On a sunny day with strong sunlight, the air temperature rises, and this increase in temperature
lowers the humidity in the air. As a result, more water evaporates from the surfaces of plant
mesophyll cells, which leads to a higher rate of transpiration. For every 10°C increase in
temperature, the rate of transpiration roughly doubles. However, when the environmental
temperature becomes very high, around 40-45°C, it causes the stomata on plant leaves to close.
This closure helps the plant conserve its much- needed water because excessive loss can be
detrimental

If these higher temperatures persist for an extended period and the soil doesn't have enough
water, the plants may start to wilt and could eventually die.

Effects of Wind:

Wind is moving air, and it speeds up the diffusion of water molecules. This leads to a higher rate
of evaporation from the surfaces of mesophyll cells. In contrast, when the air is calm and still,
the movement of water molecules (diffusion) slows down, resulting in a decreased rate of
transpiration.

Effect of Humidity

Humidity is the percentage of water vapours in the air. In dry air (low humidity), water
molecules diffuse more rapidly from the surfaces of mesophyll cells, air spaces, and through
stomata to the outside of the leaf. This results in more water being lost, which increases the rate
of transpiration. Conversely, in humid air, the diffusion rate slows down, leading to a significant
decrease in the rate of transpiration.

6) Explain the mechanism of food translocation by the theory of pressure flow

mechanisms?
The most accepted idea for how organic solutes move in plants is the "pressure flow" or
"mass flow" theory. Here's how it works:
1. Sugars produced in source regions, like leaves or storage areas, are loaded into the
phloem's sieve tube elements by companion cells.
2. This active transport raises the sugar concentration and reduces the water concentration
in the phloem. This makes the phloem cells more "sweet."
3. Water moves into the phloem through osmosis from nearby xylem cells, increasing
hydrostatic pressure (pressure from water) in the phloem cells. This pressure pushes the
sugary solution away from the source (usually a leaf).
4. The pressure difference, from the high-pressure source to the lower-pressure sink,
causes translocation. It's like water being pushed through a hose.
5. When the solution reaches a sink, like the roots, root cells actively absorb the organic
solutes. This makes the phloem sap less "sweet."

6. The loss of solutes in phloem sap increases solute potential and water potential,
causing water to flow back into the xylem tubes.
So, it's like a system of moving food and water around the plant, driven by differences in
pressure and the needs of different plant parts.
7) Describe the process of gaseous exchange in plants?

Gas exchange is the type of respiration that occurs at organismic level. Gas exchange is when the
entire organism exchanges gases with the environment.

Cellular respiration: The organism must be provided with oxygen which is needed for cellular
respiration, where complex organic compounds are broken down, and carbon dioxide is
produced which is to be removed in outer environment. Every cell in a plant does its own gas
exchange, depending on what it needs. This exchange mainly happens through two openings:
stomata (tiny openings in leaves) and lenticels (small openings in stems). This exchange happens
through a process called diffusion.

During the day, plants are busy with both photosynthesis (making food) and respiration. The
rate of photosynthesis varies throughout the day as it mainly depends upon light intensity.
Generally, the rate of photosynthesis is greater than rate of respiration, therefore, the
photosynthesis needs more carbon dioxide than what respiration produces, so plants bring in
extra carbon dioxide from the environment. On the other hand, photosynthesis produces more
oxygen than respiration needs, so plants release excess oxygen.

At night, plants act more like animals. They absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide because
there's no photosynthesis happening in the dark.

During dawn and dusk, when light intensity is low, the rates of photosynthesis and respiration
become equal. This means the carbon dioxide produced by respiration is enough for
photosynthesis, and the oxygen released by photosynthesis is used in respiration. At this point,
there's no net exchange of gases with the environment, and we call it the "compensation point of
photosynthesis."

Roots also exchange gases with soil air through root epidermal cells which involves absorption
of oxygen and release carbon dioxide because there's no photosynthesis happening in the roots
and it remains same day and night.
8) Describe the mechanisms of adaptations of plants for excretion?

Unlike animals, excretion in plants is a very broad term, which encompasses the removal of
anything from plant body. Plants have a different way of getting rid of waste compared to
animals. Plants make various organic and inorganic compounds that they store for different
reasons and remove when needed. Following are different ways of excretion in plants.

Excretion of carbon dioxide and oxygen

Carbon dioxide is the waste of respiration which is excreted from plant body at night during gas
exchange process. Similarly, oxygen is the waste of photosynthesis which is excreted in day
during the same gas exchange process.

Excretion of water

Water is produced as waste of both photosynthesis and respiration and it is also absorbed from
soil. The excretion of water occurs through the plant body during the process of transpiration.

Excretion through leaves

Plant cells have large vacuoles that can store useful stuff or waste. Sometimes, these stored
substances can build up and form crystals in the vacuoles. Leaves are key players in this process.
When the leaves are loaded with large amount pigmented compounds, they turn yellow.
Remember, this yellowing is not due to lack of chlorophyll as happens in chlorosis. Such leaves
are generally fallen from plants in autumn season. In this way leaves act as organ of excretion,
therefore, such leaves are also called excretophores. This is why gardeners like using
decomposed autumn leaves as a mineral-rich source for plants.

Excretion through stem and branches

Some trees deposit unusual chemicals in their branches and trunks, especially in old xylem that's
no longer used for water transport. Ebony trees, for instance, produce very dark wood in their
centers. Plant scientists consider these deposits as waste materials. Although, these wastes are
not removed but are dumped in one part of the body as we put the trash in waste bin however, it
is still present in the home.

Excretion through roots

Some plants actively release waste compounds into the soil, almost like using them as chemical
weapons against other plants competing for resources. Conifer trees are known for this tactic.
9) Explain osmotic adjustments in plants?

Osmotic adjustment (Osmoregulation) in plants

Osmotic adjustment, also known as osmoregulation, is like a plant's way of maintaining the right
balance of water and solutes in its body. This balance creates three different situations:
hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic.

Hypotonic Situation

When a cell is in a watery environment with more water and less stuff dissolved in it (solute),
water moves into the cell, making it swell up and firm (we call this "turgid").

Hypertonic Situation

If a cell is in an environment with less water and more dissolved stuff than it has inside (cell
sap), water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink and become limp (we call this "flaccid").

Both of these situations, hypotonic and hypertonic, require the plant to make adjustments to keep
things in balance.

Ideal Situation (Isotonic)

The best scenario for a cell is when the water and solute balance inside and outside the cell is just
right. In this "isotonic" situation, there's no net movement of water in or out of the cell. However,
this balance is rarely found in a plant's natural environment.

Plants are categorized into three groups based on their water availability: hydrophytes (live in
water-rich environments), mesophytes (thrive where water is moderately available), and
xerophytes (adapted to extreme dry conditions). These groups have distinct adaptations:

1. Transpiration rates vary, with hydrophytes having the highest and xerophytes the lowest.

2. Stomatal placement differs, hydrophytes have them on the upper leaf surface, mesophytes on
the lower surface, and xerophytes have sunken stomata.

3. Stomatal behaviour varies, hydrophytes keep stomata open day and night, mesophytes open
them during the day, and xerophytes open them at night.

4. Cuticle thickness on leaves differs, with xerophytes having the thickest, mesophytes a thinner
cuticle, and hydrophytes almost none.

5. Water storage capacity varies, with xerophytes, known as succulents, storing ample water.