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Origin of Angiosperms and Introduction to Taxonomy

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14 views40 pages

Origin of Angiosperms and Introduction to Taxonomy

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Vinod Kumar
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The term taxonomy (Gk.

Taxis = arrangement; nomos = rules or laws that


means "arrangement by rules) was coined by A. P. de Candolle (1813)
for the branch of science concerned with the identification,
nomenclature giving a name) and classification (placing in a particular
systematic position on the basis of their affinities or relationships) of
organisms.
Turril (1938) by taking into account various taxonomical studies recognized three phases of
taxonomy-
(a) Alpha taxonomy: This branch of taxonomy includes collection and identification of
organisms on the basis of gross morphological features leading to compilation of
monographs and floras

(b) Beta taxonomy: This branch includes collection and identification of organisms on
the basis of gross morphology in addition to evidences from genetics, cytology,
anatomy, palynology, embryology. physiology, biochemistry and other related
branches.
(c) Omega taxonomy: This branch is regarded as an ultimate goal of taxonomy which
considers all ocular (visual), microscopic, ultramicroscopic observations and
biochemical evidences in a perfect grouping of the organisms.

The term omega taxonomy has been used by Turril (1938) for the present day
biosystematics or neosystematics.
There are five basic components of plant taxonomy - identification, description,
nomenclature, phylogeny and classification.
1. Identification: It is the determination or recognition of an unknown specimen (or
plant) by comparing its characters with already known plants. That means
identification is the working of finding a name for an unknown specimen. This can be
achieved by comparing it with already identified specimens given in the keys for
identification, stored in the herbarium, described in Floras, Monographs or Manuals.
2. Description: It is listing of maximum possible characteristic features of a taxon,
individual plant or plant part in a semi-technical language. The characters, on the basis of
which a taxon is identified, are called diagnostic characters. These characters are used for
diagnosis of a taxon. The listing of diagnostic characters is done in a set pattern (Le.,
habit, stem, leaves, inflorescence, flower sepals, petals, androecium, gynoecium, etc.).
Some special characteristic features may be mentioned separately such as, colour of
petals, large bracts, smell, texture, etc.
3. Nomenclature. It deals with determination of a correct scientific name
for a taxon. There are set rules and regulations to name different groups of
organisms. Nomenclature of plants (including fungi) is based on rules and
regulations of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

4. Phylogeny. It is evolutionary and genealogical history of a group of


organisms usually represented by its hypothesized ancestor-descendant
relationships). This relationship is depicted through a diagram knows as
phylogram. Phylogram is same as cladogram with a slight difference. Both
are tree like branching diagrams showing phylogenetic ancestor-descendant
relationships.
In case of phylogram the branch lengths are proportional to the
amount of inferred evolutionary change whereas in case of cladogram
the branches are of equal length and do not indicate the amount of
evolutionary time separating taxa.
5. Classification. It is an arrangement of plants in a series of groups or sub-
groups according to particular system of classification (ie., artificial, natural or
phylogenetic) and in accordance with the rules of nomenclature.
 The basic unit of classification is species.
 Species having similar characters are placed in a genus.
 Similar genera are grouped into a family.
 Similar families are placed in an order and similar orders are grouped into a
class.
 The classes having close similarities are grouped into a division.
 Therefore, classification is the grouping of those plants which show more
similarities than differences.
The aims and objectives of plant taxonomy (ie.. systematic botany) are listed below:-

 One of the most important aim of systematic botany is to prepare a scheme of classification of plants
that provides phenetic, natural or phylogenetic relationships among them.

 Plant taxonomy aims to establish a proper method of identification, nomenclature and description
of plant taxa.

 The important aids for plant identification and nomenclature are-

• (a) Properly identified, described and arranged herbarium specimens in different berbarias

• (b) Keys for identification;

• (c) Computer-aided identification keys; and

• (d) International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

 Another important objective of plant taxonomy is to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the plant
kingdom. In phylogenetic classifications, the plants are arranged in such a way as to give an idea about
the sequence of their evolution from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more complex, more
recent and more advanced types.
 Plant taxonomy also aims to provide valuable scientific information regarding distribution.
habit, habitat, economic value and distinct characteristic features of plants and plant
groups to the scientific investigators of other fields of biology.

 Plant taxonomy gives training to the students of plant science regarding the collection and
preservation of specimens, use of identification keys, use of manuals and monographs, and to
understand the diversity of organisms and their relationships with other branches of biology.

 Plant taxonomy provides significant valuable information concerning endangered


species. genetic variations and ecological diversity.
TAXONOMIC
KEYS
 Taxonomic keys- used for identification of plant or animal
 Defined as devices consisting of a series of contrasting /
contradictory statements or propositions requiring the identifier
to make comparisons and decisions based on statements in the
key as related to the material to be identified
 Helps in quick identification of unknown plant
 Always a choice between two contradictory statements is
provided, one can be accepted and the other rejected
 A single pair of contradictory characters is named as a
couplet
 Each statement in the couplet- termed as a
 lead
 By making the correct choice at each level one can arrive at the
name of the correct plant
Proper Use of keys
1. Appropriate keys to be selected from floras, manuals, handbook, monograph,
revision etc.Cultivated plants- not usually given in floras. So for these-
manuals treating such plants to be used

2. Introductory comments to be properly read first

3. Both leads should be read before making a choice. Sometimes the first lead may
seem to be correct, the second lead may be more appropriate.

4. The meaning of unknown terms should be checked using the glossary

5. When measurements are used such as the length of leaf, fruit etc. several materials/
specimens to be measured

6. No decision to be taken based on single observation

7. Results should be verified by reading a description, comparing the specimen with


illustration or an authentic herbarium specimen
Construction of keys
 Always use constant characters, not variables

 Never use terms such as large/small, instead make correct


measurements

 Characters always available are to be used rather than


seasonal characters

 Always use positive terms. Eg. Stipule Is present -

 can be used but not- stipule is not present • eg.


Seeds round
Seeds oblong
 As far as possible both choices of a pair to be started with
the same word-
• If possible different pairs of choices should start with different words
• Flowers white
sepals free sepals fused
Flowers red
corolla 1-2 mm long corolla 3-5mmlong

Types of keys
 Dichotomous keys- choice is made only between 2 alternate couplet
are called dichotomous keys
 Contrasting characters are chosen which divide the full set of sps
into smaller groups
 Each time number of sps are eliminated so that the choice is
narrowed down to the correct sps
 Dichotomous- Greek origin: dich- two; temnein- to cut
Types of dichotomous keys
 Indented key/ yoked key- indents the leads of the couplet a equal
distance from the left margin
 The two choices are labelled 1 and1’ or 1a and 1b
 Bracketed key- both choices are given side by side
 Choices are numbered/lettered

Indented key on Rhododendron


1a.Flowers in shades of red
2a. Flowers blood red, leaves oblong-ovate, leathery and thick
matty texture- R.sikkimense
2b.Fowers crimson red, leaves broad, oval to elliptic
oblong, shiny green above- R.fulgens
1b.Flowers in shades of rose pink
3a. Calyx 3-5 mm long, leaf undersurface covered by brown hair-
R.wallichi
3b. Calyx 1-2 mm long, leaf undersurface glabrous-
R.campanulatum
Bracketed key on Rhododendron
1a. Flowers in shades of red--------go to 2
1b. Flowers in shades of rose pink------go to 3
2a.Flowers blood red, leaves oblong-ovate, leather and thick matty
texture……R.sikkimense
2b.Fowers crimson red, leaves broad, oval to elliptic oblong,shiny green above-
R.fulgens
3a. Calyx 3-5 mm long, leaf undersurface covered by brown hair-
R.wallichi
3b. Calyx 1-2 mm long, leaf undersurface glabrous- R.campanulatum

Drawbacks
 The key may not include all potential variations in the sps
 May rely on features not present in the season
 May not include all sps of interest
 One may misinterpret and make a mistake
MULTIACCESS OR MULTIENTRY KEYS

These keys are prepared by making use of specific cards which are punched at definite
places. Therefore, these keys are also called Punched cards keys. These keys are prepared
by two kinds of punchings in the cards-
(a) Body punched cards and (b) Edge punched cards.
(a) Body punched cards:
 Preparation of such key involves as many number of cards as the attributes (characters
such as plant herbaceous, plant woody, fruit achene, fruit follicle, etc.) selected.
 For example, one card is taken for herbaceous attribute, the other is taken for woody
character, the next is taken for some other attribute and so on.
 Like wise the number of cards taken will be equal to the number of attributes selected for
the purpose of identification.
 Moreover, each such card has all the taxa (for which the key is prepared) printed in a
vertical row. Suppose we have to prepare a key for Ranunculus, Adonis, Anemone
Clematis, Caltha and Delphinium, all the names are printed in each card.
(a) Body punched cards:
 Now write one attribute on the top of one card, second attribute on the top of second card, and so on. Take one
card and punch a hole against each taxa which shows the attribute printed at the top of the card. Suppose the
attribute is herbaceous character, so all the taxa are punched except clematis which is woody. In this way a
complete identification key is prepared.
 Now note down the attributes present in the unknown plant (which has to be identified) and prepare a list. Pick up
one card which shows first attribute of the list. Choose the second card having second attribute and place it over
the first card. Some holes will get closed. Pick up the third card and repeat this process untill only one hole
remains visible.
 Now plant is identified. It is the same plant against which the hole is visible.

PLANTS HERBACEOUS
1. Ranunculus
2. Adonis
3. Anemone
4. Clematis
5. Caltha
6. Delphinium
(b) Edge punched cards:

Edge punched cards are same as body punched cards with the following differences;
I. One card is meant for one taxon.
II. All the attributed are printed in one vertical row on each card.
III. one circular hole is punched for each attribute along the margin of the card.
IV. The circular holes of those attributes which are shown by the particular taxon to
which the card belongs are cut and connected with the edge.
V. Unknown plant is identified with the help of this key by inserting a needle in the
hole.
INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE
(ICBN)

This code is called the International Code of Botanical


Nomenclature Since then, regular modifications and amendments in
the code are made in every International Science Congress which
are published for the use by botanists in all countries.
The code is divided into three
1. Principles.
2. 2. Rules and Recommendations,
3. 3. Provisions of modification of the code.
Principles and Rules of ICBN
The International code of Botanical Nomenclature is based on the following six principles-

1) Botanical Nomenclature is independent of Zoological and Bacteriological


Nomenclature. i.e. There are separate codes for naming plants, animals and micro
organisms. They are International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (for naming
plants); International code of Zoological Nomenclature (for naming animals); and
International code of Bacteriological Nomenclature (for naming bacteria).

2) The application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of


nomenclature types."[i.e. Certain representative of the group is the source of the
name for the group, e.g., Brassica is the type for the family Brassicaceae).
Principles and Rules of ICBN
3) The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of
publication." [e. If more than one legitimate names are available for
a taxonomic group, single correct name is selected on the basis of
earliest date of publication.

4) Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position,


and rank can bear only one correct name, the earliest that is in
accordance with the Rules, except in specific cases."[i.e. The name of
a particular taxonomic group, including generic name, appears only
once whereas specific name may figure many times.
Principles and Rules of ICBN
5. Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin, regardless of
derivation."
[i.e., The name of genus and species should be drawn from Latin. When a name is
derived from some other language, it should be latinized.]
6. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive, unless expressly limited.“

There is a separate code for naming cultivated plants called international code of
Nomenclature for cultivated plants (ICNCP).
The ICBN can only be changed or modified by an International Botanical
Congress, with the International Association for plant taxonomy.
TAXONOMIC RANKS
 In classification, the plants that closely Series of taxonomic ranks and endings provided by
the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature:
resemble one another are placed in a
group, the group which have close
similarities are placed together into larger
groups, and these into still larger groups
various grouping levels are called
taxonomic ranks.
 Species, genus, family, order, class and
division the six main ranks of the
classification of plants in an ascending
order.
 Species is the smallest rank considered
as the basic unit of taxonomy.
1. Species. Species is the lowest taxonomic rank regarded as basic unit of taxonomy,
subordinate to genus. It occupies a key position in classification.
According to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, a species may be defined as It
is a group of similar individuals which resemble with each other in morphology, breed
among themselves but not with others and probably descended from a common ancestor
Name of an individual plant consists of two words (ie., binomial). a generic name and a
specific epithet (L.e. species). Both words are printed in Italics or underlined if typed or
hand written. The initial letter of a specific epithet should always be spelled with a small
initial letter (For example in case of Mangifera indica, the word indica always starts with
small i).
2. Genus. A genus a group of closely resembling species having a common ancestry. As per
the rules of ICBN, a species cannot be without assigning it to a genus. A genus may have
one (monotypic genus) or several species.
3) A Family. A family represents a larger group of closely related genera. It is composed
of one or more genera. The name of a family is a plural adjective and ends in-aceae.
However, the old traditional names of eight families have been sanctioned by the code
because of their traditional usage.
Traditional names and their alternate names of eight families are given below-
Some large families are further divided into subfamilies, tribe and subtribes. The
name of a subfamily ends in-oideae, tribe name ends in-eae and subtribe name
ends in -inae.

4. Order. An order is a group of closely related families. Names of order end in-
ales (Examples, Ranales, Lamiales, Rubiales, etc). Sometimes an order is divided
into suborders which end in – ineae (Example, Rosine)

5. Class. A class is a group of related orders. The names of classes end in - opsida.
Sometimes classes are further divided into subclasses which end in - idae
(Example, Rosidae).
6. Division. A division is a group of related classes. The name of division ends in-
phyta. Sometimes a division is divided into subdivisions which end in-phytina.

7. Kingdom. Kindgom is the highest taxon of classification of plants.


TYPE CONCEPT

Correct name of a new taxonomic group (taxon) or an individual organism is assigned on the
basis of certain representative of the group, called nomenclatural type (or simply the type).
The methodology is called typification .
According to International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the type of a genus is a species and
type of a family and the higher taxa is ultimately a genus,
For example, Aster is the type of the family Asteraceae and Rosa is the type genus of family
Rosaceae and order Rosales; the species Poa pratensis is the type for the genus Poa.
The type of name of a species is a single type specimen. The type specimen may be a herbarium
sheet, a photograph or a drawing along with the description.
The ICBN recognises following kinds of types-

1. Holotype: It is a particular specimen or illustration used by the author in the original


publication Naming and description of new species depends on the holotype.

2. Isotype: A duplicate specimen of holotype collected by the same person from the same place
and same time is called an isotype.
Syntype. It is any one of the two or more specimens cited by the author of a species as
types when no holotype was designated.

Paratypes: If the type exist in the form of two or more specimen cited by the
specimens are called paratypes. It is also called 'co-type.

Lectotypes: It is a specimen or other element selected by competent worker from the


origin material cited by
Neotype. It is a specimen chosen as a replacement of the holotype when all material,
on which the

4. Paratype. If the type exists in the form of two or more specimens, the remaining
cited specimens 5. Lectotype. It is a specimen or other element selected by a
competent worker from the original material cited by the author of the species, when
no holotype was designated or when it is destroyed or

name of taxon was based, is lost or destroyed. 7. Topotype. It is a specimen collected


by a competent worker from the same locality from which

the original holotype was collected.

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