Hawassa University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Geography and Environmental
Studies

Geomorphology Lecture Note for BA

Students

Hawassa, Ethiopia
March, 2023
 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Course Description

This course is designed to introduce second year university students of Geography and
Environmental Studies with basic knowledge and skill of Geomorphology. The course focuses on
definition, relevance, scope and branches of geomorphology as well as how geomorphologists
work in its introductory part. The second unit addresses the structure and composition of the earth.
Mineral and rocks are treated in the third unit. Unit four is mainly devoted to the explanation of
major internal forces that shape the surface of the earth and resulting landforms. Unit five tries to
address the major external forces that modify the landforms produced by internal process and
feature associated with it and the sixth chapter tries to elucidate the classification of landforms
produced by internal and external.

Course Objective

At the end of the course, a student will be able to:

 Acquainted with the meaning, scope and branches of geomorphology
 Appreciate geomorphic processes
 Know the different theories of the land form formation
 Understand the major internal and external forces
 Be familiarized with the definition, origins and formation of landforms
 Know the relationship between internal and external forces
 Differentiate landforms based on their formation
 Understand the internal structure and chemical bonding of minerals
 Explain how internal and external processes operate on earth shaping

Geomorphology Lecture Note for BA Students (Compiled by Gebremaryam A.) Page i

 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Table of Contents
Course Description............................................................................................................................................................i

Course Objective ...............................................................................................................................................................i

Unit 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 1

1.1. Meaning and Scope of Geomorphology ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Basic Principles and Processes .......................................................................................................................... 12
1.3. Factors of Landform Development: Structure, Processes and Geological Time Scale ..................................... 14
1.3.1. Forces, Processes and Structures ................................................................................................................ 14

1.3.2. Geomorphic System and its Components ................................................................................................... 14

1.3.3.Geological Time Scale and Dating .............................................................................................................. 17

1.3.3.1. Geological Time Scale ........................................................................................................................ 17
1.3.3.2. Dating Techniques: Relative and Absolute Dating ............................................................................... 20
1.4. . Methods of landform study: Deductive and Inductive Method ....................................................................... 25
1.4.1. Approaches in Geomorphic Study .................................................................................................................. 25
1.5. Models of Landform Evolution ......................................................................................................................... 26
Unit 2: Structure and Composition of the Earth .......................................................................................................... 30

2.1. Overview on the Origin of the Solar System ..................................................................................................... 30

2.2. Structure of the Earth ......................................................................................................................................... 41
2.3. Sources of Knowledge for Interior of the Earth ............................................................................................ 46
2.3.1. Inferred Knowledge (Density, Temperature, Pressure) ........................................................................ 46
2.3.2. Surface Expressions (Seismic Wave Evidences) .................................................................................. 47
2.3.3. Holmes Convection Current Theory ..................................................................................................... 48
2.4. Major Composition of the Earth ................................................................................................................... 48
Unit 3: Minerals and Rocks ........................................................................................................................................... 50

3.1. Rock Forming Minerals ..................................................................................................................................... 50

3.2. Rock Type Origin and Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 55
3.2.1.Igneous Rocks .............................................................................................................................................. 55
3.2.2. Sedimentary Rocks ............................................................................................................................... 60
3.2.3. Metamorphic Rocks .............................................................................................................................. 64
3.3. The Rock Cycle ............................................................................................................................................ 68
Unit 4: Geological process and Resulting Land forms .................................................................................................. 69

4.1. Concept and Definition of Endogenic process................................................................................................... 69

4.2. Basic Concepts of Isostasy, Diastrophism and Neptunism ............................................................................... 69
4.2.1. The Concept of Isostacy........................................................................................................................... 69
4.2.2. Diastrophism ............................................................................................................................................... 70
4.2.3. Neptunism ................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.3. Theories of Continental Formation and Mountain Development ...................................................................... 71
4.3.1. What is Theory? What are the theories related to continental formation? .................................................. 71

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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

4.3.2. Theories of Continental Formation ............................................................................................................. 73

4.3.2.1. Theory of Continental Drifting ............................................................................................................ 73
4.3.2.2. Theory of Seafloor Spreading .............................................................................................................. 77
4.3.2.3. Geosynclinals Orgen Theory ............................................................................................................. 78
4.3.2.4. Theory of Plate Tectonics .................................................................................................................... 78
4.3.2.5. The Earth Expansion Theory ............................................................................................................... 83
4.4. Orogenesis and Resulting Landform ............................................................................................................ 84
4.4.1. Rock Deformation and Related Landforms .......................................................................................... 84

4.4.2. Folding, faulting and Relating Landforms ............................................................................................ 87

4.4.2.1. Folding and Related Landforms.................................................................................................... 87
4.4.2.2. Faulting and Related Landforms ................................................................................................... 99
4.4.2.3. Volcanism and Volcanic Landforms........................................................................................... 104
4.4.3. Tectonic Earthquakes and Related Landforms ................................................................................... 106
4.4.3.1. Forces within Earth that cause Earthquake ........................................................................................ 109
4.4.3.2. Types of Seismic Waves ............................................................................................................. 110
Unit 5: Exogenic Processes and Associated Landforms ............................................................................................. 110
5.1. Concept and Definition of Exogenic Process and Forces ........................................................................... 110
5.1.1. What is the Concept of Exogenic Process?......................................................................................... 110

5.2. Theories of Landform and Slope Development ......................................................................................... 111

5.2.1. Multicyclic and Polygenetic Evolution of Landscapes ....................................................................... 111
5.2.2. Models/Theories of Landscape Evolution (Views of Davis, Penck, King and Hack) ........................ 113
5.2.3. Slope Forms, Processes, and Classification......................................................................................... 117
5.2.4. Slope Failures (Translational, Rotational, Wedge & Compound Failure) ........................................... 121
5.3. Denudational Geomorphologic Process & Resulting landforms ................................................................ 129
5.3.1. Weathering Process and its types ........................................................................................................ 129
5.3.2. Mass Wasting and Related Landforms ............................................................................................... 131
5.4. Fluvial Process and Landform ................................................................................................................... 133
5.4.1. Cycle of Erosion Model ...................................................................................................................... 133
5.4.2. Fluvial Erosional landforms: Streams.................................................................................................. 137
5.4.3. Fluvial Depositional Landforms ......................................................................................................... 139
5.4.4. Types of Drainage Patterns and Structure........................................................................................... 140
5.5. Aeolian Processes and Landforms ............................................................................................................. 147
5.5.1. Wind as geomorphic agent.................................................................................................................. 147
5.5.2. Aeolian Erosional Landforms ................................................................................................................... 147
5.5.3. Transportation by Wind ...................................................................................................................... 147
5.5.4. Aeolian Depositional Landforms ........................................................................................................ 148
5.6. Glacial and Periglacial Processes and Landforms ...................................................................................... 149
5.6.1. Glacier Formation ..................................................................................................................................... 149
5.6.2. Glacier as Geomorphic Agent ................................................................................................................... 149
5.6.3. Glacial Erosion and Depositional Landforms ...................................................................................... 149
5.7.Coastal Processes and Landforms ................................................................................................................. 151
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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

5.7.1. Sea wave as Geomorphic Agent ............................................................................................................... 151

5.7.2.The Work of waves, currents and tides ..................................................................................................... 152
5.7.3. Coastal Erosional and Depositional landforms ......................................................................................... 154
5.8. Karst Topography and Associated Landforms ........................................................................................... 154
5.8.1. Concept of Karst topography .............................................................................................................. 154
5.8.2. Major Landforms Resulted due to Karst Processes ............................................................................ 155
5.9. Broad Landform Regions and their Significance ........................................................................................ 158
5.9.1. Landform Classification Schemes ...................................................................................................... 159
5.9.2. Broad Global Landform Regions ........................................................................................................ 159
5.9.3. Landform Regions of Ethiopia ............................................................................................................ 161

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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Unit 1: Introduction
Over millions of years, the Earth has gone through many changes which have shaped its current form and structure.
From a dust ball according to nebular hypothesis, to the current form, the Earth has transformed a lot that is from
once an inhabitable place, during the Hadean time, our Earth has seen many processes over a long time of more than
4 billion years. Developmental stages which formed the current habitable world include both internal and external
forces. The meteoritic impact, volcanic activities, and erosional activities of rivers, winds, glaciers, oceans, etc. along
with the sea floor spreading and plate tectonic activities have been constantly working to shape the Earth as we see
now. Many of these activities occur during a short interval, while some take millions of years to create various
climatic, geologic, and geomorphic regimes. All of these never-ending processes are still continuously going on and
shaping our Earth even today and will continue for the future. The most notable of all these processes are geomorphic
processes since they create the shape and form of the Earth as we see it now. Hence, the study of these geomorphic
processes is critical to understand the phenomena and process that are occurring in nature since it determines our
activity..

1.1. Meaning and Scope of Geomorphology

1.1.1. Meaning of Geomorphology
Geomorphology is an important branch of physical geography. It is concerned with the scientific study of the origin
and evolution of the relief features of the earth. It is the scientific study of landforms/landscapes and the process that
shape them. It studies form, processes and history about earth.
The word ―Geomorphology‖ comes from the Greek roots ―geo‖, ―morpho‖ and ―logos‖ meaning ―earth‖, ―forms‖
and ―study‖, respectively. Therefore geomorphology is literally ―the study of earth forms‖. In the opinion of
Strahler, physical geographer, geomorphology is an analysis of the origin and evolution of earth features.
Geomorphology does not study merely the physical, chemical and biological processes affecting the evolution of
land forms but also structure of the earth‘s crust, the geological processes as well as the climatic influences, because
it is viewed as a system which combined influence of all these factors that determines the land forms.
According to Thornbury, geomorphology is the science of land forms including the submarine topography. Similarly,
Bloom defines geomorphology as a ‗systematic description and analysis of landscapes and the processes that change
them.‘ Geomorphologists are primarily concerned with the study of earth‘s surficial features, including their origin
and evolution and impact on human activity. Geomorphology is therefore ‗a discourse on Earth forms‘. The term was
scientifically coined sometime in the 1870s and 1880s to describe the morphology of the Earth‘s surface which
originally defined as ‗the genetic study of topographic forms‘ and was used in popular parlance by 1896. Despite the
modern acquisition of its name, geomorphology is a venerable discipline.

Today, geomorphology is the study of Earth‘s physical land-surface features, its land forms – rivers, hills, plains,
beaches, sand dunes, and myriad others. Some workers include submarine landforms within the scope of
geomorphology; and some would add the landforms of other terrestrial-type planets and satellites in the Solar System
– Mars, the Moon, Venus, and so on. Landforms are conspicuous features of the Earth and occur everywhere. They
range in size from molehills to mountains to major tectonic plates, and their ‗lifespans‘ range from days to millennia
to eons. Hence, it is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created
by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earth's surface. Geomorphology is the study of
landforms, their processes, form and sediments at the surface of the Earth (and sometimes on other planets). It is
interdisciplinary study that cross-over with scientific disciplines of sedimentology, soil science, geography,
climatology, hydrology, glaciology, civil engineering, engineering geology and volcanology. Study includes looking
at landscapes to work out how the earth surface processes, such as air, water and ice, can mold the landscape.

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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Landforms are produced by erosion or deposition, as rock and sediment is worn away by these earth-surface
processes and transported and deposited to different localities. The different climatic environments produce different
suites of landforms. The landforms of deserts, such as sand dunes and ergs, are a world apart from the glacial and
periglacial features found in polar and sub-polar regions. Geomorphologists map the distribution of these landforms
so as to understand better their occurrence. Hence, they are concerned primarily with earth‘s surficial features,
including their origin, history, composition, and impact on human activity.

1.1.2. Critical Concepts of Geomorphology

i. Agents:…… ―that which acts or has the power to act‖. E.g. water, ice, wind
ii. Processes: …―progressive steps by which an end is a>ained‖. E.g. Weathering, erosion, transport,
deposition, et.
iii. Energy: .. Solar, geothermal, gravitaConal, chemical
iv. Systems: ―an assemblage of parts forming a whole‖. E.g. Fluvial, glacial, coastal
v. Climate: Determines dominant agents
vi. Time: EvoluCon of landforms/landscapes
vii. Regionality: Physiography
viii. Key Forces: Exogenic versus endogenic processes -- Internal versus external forcing

1.1.3. Scope of Geomorphology

The scope of geomorphology is in dilemma that many earth scientists of the world have difference in perspective that
some scholars argue that It must study about physical configuration, process and history of the earth only. Whareas,
others state that It studies about the forms and shape of the earth as well as other earth like planets like Mars and
Venus. Traditionally the scope of geomorphology was limited to ―terrestrial environment‖ due to its strong man-
terrestrial environment relationship. Due to the advancement in technology in mans recent life history the discipline
has begun to study the ―aquatic environments.
In general, with in its scope there are three major aspects of the study of geomorphology. These are:
 It is the study of the relations between landforms and the underlying rocks i.e. Geological Geomorphology.
Thus, geomorphology is concerned with the interactions between denudation processes and the rock strength.
The precise investigation of the resistance of rocks to denudation, detailed experimental work on rocks must
be carried out.
 Geomorphology is the study of the evolution of landscapes. Such studies have been termed denudation
chronology which attempts to reconstruct succession of pictures of the relief at different times. Alterations of
relief are usually believed to have been caused by changes of base level and climate.
 It is the study of the actual process of erosion which give rise to landforms. Unlike the first two aspects of
Geomorphology, which are essentially regional in approach, this third aspect is systematic which aims to
understand the action of waste movement of water movement, ice, and wind as well as the processes of
weathering.
1.1.4. The Evolution of Geomorphology
Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers wondered how mountains and other surface features in the natural landscape
had formed. They discoursed on topics such as the origin of river valleys and deltas, and the presence of seashells in
mountains.
The Views of the Ancient Thought
There are views of the prehistoric thinkers on the development of landforms starting with the idea of
―uniformitarianism‖ – the present is the key to past- which promoted the understanding of landscapes. Philosophers
like Herodotus, Aristotle, Strabo and Seneca gave the origins to the understanding of geomorphic thinking by
inductive logic.

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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Herodotus (485?-425 B. C.) is deeply remembered for some of his geological observations. E.g., He recognized the
importance of the yearly increments of silt and clay deposited in Nile and credit was given to him on the statement
―Egypt is the gift of the river‖. He is also noted shells in the hills of Egypt and concluded from their presence that the
sea at some time must have extended over Lower Egypt and anticipating to some degree the idea of changing sea
levels a matter of geomorphic significance.

Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) believed that the waters which flowed out of springs consisted of (a) some rainwater which
had percolated downward (b) water which had been formed in the earth by condensation (c) water that had been
condensed within the earth from vapors of uncertain origins. He recognized that streams removed materials from the
land and deposited it as an alluvium and cited examples from the Black sea region where river alluvium had
accumulated.

Strabo (54 B. C. – A.D. 25) noted examples of local sinking and the rise of land. He attributed the Vale of Tempe a
result of earthquakes which, along with volcanic activity, were still attributed to the force of winds within the earth‘s
interior. He also identified and recognized the importance of river alluvium and thought that the delta of a river
varied in size according to the nature of the region drained by the river.

Seneca ( ? B. C. – A. D. 65) invented that the local nature of earthquakes, and believed that they are a resultant effect
of the internal struggle of subterranean winds. He also held the idea that rainfall was insufficient to account for rivers,
although he recognized the power of streams to abrade their valleys. He also believed that earthquakes and volcanoes
were closely related in origins and he attributed earthquakes to the effects of the mingling of moist and dry air within
the earth.

The Dawn of Modern Geomorphic Thought

Avicenna ( lbn- Sina, 980-1037) held views on the origin of mountains which divided them into two classes, those
produced by ―uplifting of the ground such as takes place in earthquakes ― and those which result ―from the effects of
running water and wind in hollowing out valleys in soft rocks. It is clearly visible that some of the ancient
philosophers had the idea of land destruction by erosional processes. Leonardo da Vinci (1425- 1519) is the first
representatives of the formative period in geologic thinking. He recognized that valleys were cut by streams and that
streams carried materials from one part of the earth and deposited them elsewhere.

The French man Buffon (1707- 1788) recognized the powerful erosive ability of streams to destroy the land and
thought that the land would eventually be reduced to sea level. The French man Gutterhard (1715-1786) discussed
the degradation of mountains by streams and recognized that not all of the materials removed by streams were
immediately carried to the sea but that a considerable part of it went as part of materials in floodplain development.

James Hutton (1726- 1797) recognized the evidence for metamorphism of rocks, but his greatest contribution came
in expounding the concept and doctrine of Uniformitarianism (the present is key to the past) in opposition to that of
catastrophism. The concept of a river system and its geomorphic significance was expounded beautifully by Playfair.
James Hutton‘s theory made the understanding of the basic concepts of our modern ideas on the earth sculpture as he
recognized marine as well as fluvial erosion, but gave most attention to the development of valleys by streams.

Developments of Geomorphology in Europe

James Hutton successor, Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) propounded further on the uniformitarianism ideology but
could not accept the full implications of stream erosion conceived by Hutton. Lyell wavered mainly in his belief in
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the efficacy of erosion by running water and in his later publications on the principles attributed increasing
importance to marine denudation. There is also the recognition of the significance of the ice age during which ice
sheets covered much of northern Europe.

Developments of Geomorphology in North America

The period from 1875 – 1900 was regarded as the heroic age in American Geomorphology. The geological surveys in
western America were headed by three Pioneer thinkers in the field of geomorphology. These men along with others
collectively laid the ground bases upon which W. M. Davis later used to build the concept of the geomorphic cycle.
They are: J. W. Powell (1834- 1902), G. K. Gilbert (1843-1918) and C. E. Dutton (1841- 1912) W. D. Thornbury,
(1969) Powel from his studies in Uina Mountains was impressed by the importance of geologic structure as a basis of
classification of landforms. From the results of stream erosion, he proposed two classifications of stream valleys: (1)
based on the relationships between valleys and the strata which they cross. (2) A classification of valleys according to
their origin where he recognized antecedent, consequent and super- imposed valleys. These terms are still being used
to describe valleys. Powel also generalized the concept of the limiting level of land reduction known as
the BASE LEVEL. Here he recognized that the processes of erosion operating undisturbed upon the
land would eventually reduce it to a lowland little above sea level which also brought the idea of the peneplain. He
also noted the geomorphic differences between scarps resulting from erosion and those produced by displacement of
rocks. He recognized that stream divides migrate, but it remained for Gilbert to realize the full implication of this
fact.

G. K. Gilbert was so much indebted for a keen analysis of the processes of subaerial erosion and the many
modifications which valleys undergo as streams erode the land. He particularly recognized the importance of lateral
planetion by streams in the development of valleys. He established the relation between stream load and such factors
as river volume, velocity and gradient.

Gilbert (1877) defined grade as a condition of balance between erosion and deposition maintained by a process later
termed negative feedback. He extended the concept to operate not only in stream channels but also on valley side
slopes and interfluves and so viewed the whole landscape as capable of operating in a steady state with fluvial
processes behaving like engines performing work according to the laws of thermodynamics. Thus, for Gilbert, the
assumption of a tendency to achieve grade was ubiquitous in space and time. This was the core of his theory of
dynamic geomorphology.

Dutton C. E. is chiefly remembered for his in-depth analysis of individual landforms and his recognition of evidence
in the Colorado Plateaus area of a period of land reduction preceding the cutting of the present canyons when the
landscape had been reduced to one of low relief. His examples of how the base level concept applied to the Colorado
Plateaus area undoubtedly contributed to the introduction by W. M. Davis of the idea of peneplanation.

William Morris Davis (1850- 1934) an early popular geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or cycle of
erosion model of broad-scale landscape evolution developed by William Morris Davis. It was an elaboration of the
uniformitarianism theory that had first been proposed by James Hutton (1726–1797). With regard to valley forms,
for example, uniformitarianism posited a sequence in which a river runs through a flat terrain, gradually carving an
increasingly deep valley, until the side valleys eventually erode, flattening the terrain again, though at a lower
elevation. It was thought that tectonic uplift could then start the cycle over. In the decades following Davis's
development of this idea, many of those studying geomorphology sought to fit their findings into this framework,
known today as "Davisian".
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 Hawassa University Department of Geography and Environmental Studies

Davis also introduced the term peneplain to describe the low and gently undulating plain which the processes of sub-
aerial erosion presumably develop at the penultimate stage of the geomorphic cycle. The rise of the German school of
thought under the leadership of Walter Penck during the 1920‟s and 1930‟s was to some degree a challenge to the
peneplain concept, although Penck did not completely negate the existence of peneplains. W. Penck and others
staged a revolt against the Davisian concept and the peneplain and found some adherents. This geographical cycle
after W. M. Davis as affected by running water assumed the relatively rapid initial uplift of the land which might
have been followed by a period of stills and that permitted a cycle to run its course, culminating to the idea of
peneplain. Penck and other followers have maintained that the Davisian Cycle is not normal sequence as attributed to
the normal cycle of erosion rather that more commonly rise of the land at the beginning of a period of uplift is
extremely slow and is followed by an accelerated rate of uplift which would prevent the landscape from passing
through stages of development that would terminate in a region of low relief. In general, the 19th century and first two
decades of 20th century are considered as ―golden age‖ of world geomorphology.

1.1.5. Branches of Geomorphology

i. Historical Geomorphology: It is the study of landform evolution or changes in landforms over medium and
long timescales, usually timescales well beyond the span of an individual human‘s experience – centuries,
millennia, millions and hundreds of millions of years. It brings in the historical dimension of the subject
with all its attendant assumptions and methods, and relies mainly on the form of the land surface and on
the sedimentary record for its databases. Traditionally, historical geomorphologists strove to work out
landscape history by mapping morphological (form) and sedimentary features. Their golden rule was the
dictum that ‗the present is the key to the past‘. This was a warrant to assume that the effects of geomorphic
processes seen in action today may be legitimately used to infer the causes of assumed landscape changes
in the past. Before reliable dating techniques were available, such studies were difficult and largely
educated guess work. However, the brilliant successes of early historical geomorphologists should not be
overlooked.
II. Process Geomorphology: It is the study of the processes responsible for landform development. In the
modern era, the first process geomorphologist, caring on the tradition started by Leonardo da Vinci was
Grove Karl Gilbert. He discussed the mechanics of fluvial processes and later he investigated the transport of
debris by running water. After 1950, several ‗big players‘ emerged that set process geomorphology moving
apace. Arthur N. Strahler was instrumental in establishing process geomorphology, his 1952 paper called
‗Dynamic basis of geomorphology‘ being a landmark publication. Although process and historical studies
dominate much modern geomorphological enquiry, particularly in English-speaking nations, other types of
study exist. For example, structural geomorphologists, who were once a very influential group, argued that
underlying geological structures are the key to understanding many landforms. Today, other
geomorphologies include applied geomorphology, tectonic geomorphology, submarine geomorphology,
climatic geomorphology, and planetary geomorphology.
III. Structural Geomorphology:
Structure refers to the nature, arrangement, and orientation of the materials making up the feature being
studied. Structure is essentially the geologic underpinning of the landform. It is a dominant control factor in
the evolution of landforms. It is the overall relationship between rocks together with their large scale
arrangements and dispositions. Structure includes faults, folds, rock massiveness, rock harness, constituent
minerals, permeability or impermeability and the like. According to W.M.Davis ―Landforms are a function
of structure, process and stage‖. Structural geomorphology is concerned with landforms which owe their
character to properties of, or activity within, the earth‘s crust. In the geomorphological sense, the term
structure embraces not only passive factors of rock type (lithology) and the arrangement of strata
(stratigraphy and tectonics), but also active or continuing changes in these properties. Thus, for the purposes
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of geomorphology, the geologists‘ struc ture and tectonics are conveniently subsumed under the one heading
of structure.

IV. Geomorphometry: A branch of geomorphology – landform morphometry or geomorphometry – studies

quantitatively the form of the land surface. Geomorphometry in the modern era is traceable to the work of
Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter in the early and mid-nineteenth century. It had a strong post-war
tradition in North America and the UK, and it has been ‗reinvented‘ with the advent of remotely sensed
images and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software. The contributions of geomorphometry to
geomorphology and cognate fields are legion. Geomorphometry is an important component of terrain
analysis and surface modelling. Its specific applications include measuring the morphometry of continental
ice surfaces, characterizing glacial troughs, mapping sea-floor terrain types, guiding missiles, assessing soil
erosion, analyzing wildfire propagation, and mapping eco-regions. It also contributes to engineering,
transportation, public works, and military operations.
V. Applied Geomorphology: Applied geomorphology, which is largely an extension of process
geomorphology, tackles the manner in which geomorphic processes affect, and are affected by, human
activities. Process geomorphologists, armed with their models, have contributed to the investigation of
worrying problems associated with the human impacts on landscapes. They have studied coastal erosion and
beach management. Applied geomorphology studies the interactions of humans with landscapes and
landforms. Process geomorphologists, armed with their models, have contributed to the investigation of
worrying problems associated with the human impacts on landscapes. They have studied coastal erosion and
beach management, soil erosion, the weathering of buildings, land slide protection, river management and
river channel, and the planning and design of landfill sites. Other process geomorphologists have tackled
general applied issues.
 Geomorphology in Environmental Planning, considered the interaction between geomorphology and public
policies, with contribution on rural land – use and soil erosion, urban land use, slope management, river
management, coastal management, and policy formulation.
 Geomorphology in Environmental Management, as its title suggests, looked at the role played by
geomorphology in management aspect of the environment.
 Geomorphology and Land Management in a changing environment, focused upon problems of managing
land against a background of environmental change. The conservation of ancient and modern landforms is an
expanding aspect of applied geomorphology.
Three aspects of applied geomorphology have been brought into a sharp focus by the impending environmental
change associated with global warming and illustrate the value of geomorphological know-how. First, applied
geomorphologists are ideally placed to work on the mitigation of natural hazards of geomorphic origin, which may
well increase in magnitude and frequency during the twenty-first century and beyond. Landslides and debris flows
may become more common, soil erosion may become more severe and the sediment load of some rivers increase,
some beaches and cliffs may erode faster, coastal lowlands may become submerged, and frozen ground in the tundra
environments may thaw. Applied geomorphologists can address all these potentially damaging changes. Second, a
worrying aspect of global warming is its effect on natural resources – water, vegetation, crops, and so on. Applied
geomorphologists, equipped with such techniques as terrain mapping, remote sensing, and geographical information
systems, can contribute to environmental management programmes. Third, applied geomorphologists are able to
translate the predictions of global and regional temperature rises into predictions of critical boundary changes, such
as the pole ward shift of the permafrost line and the tree-line, which can then guide decisions about tailoring
economic activity to minimize the effects of global environmental change.
VI. Tectonic Geomorphology: This studies the interaction between tectonic and geomorphic processes in
regions where the Earth‘s crust actively deforms. Advances in the measurement of rates and in the

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understanding of the physical basis of tectonic and geomorphic processes have revitalized it as a field of
enquiry. It is a stimulating and highly integrative field that uses techniques and data drawn from studies of
geomorphology, seismology, geochronology, structure, geodesy, and quaternary climate change.
VII. Submarine Geomorphology: This deals with the form, origin, and development of features of the sea floor.
Submarine landforms cover about 71 percent of the Earth‘s surface, but are mostly less well studied than
their terrestrial counterparts are. In shallow marine environments, landforms include ripples, dunes, sand
waves, sand ridges, shorelines, and subsurface channels. In the continental slope transition zone are
submarine canyons and gullies, inter-canyon areas, intra slope basins, and slump and slide scars. The deep
marine environment contains varied land - forms, including trench and basin plains, trench fans, sediment
wedges, abyssal plains, distributary channels, and submarine canyons.
VIII. Planetary Geomorphology: This is the study of landforms on planets and large moons with a solid crust, for
example Venus, Mars, and some moons of Jupiter and Saturn. It is a thriving branch of geomorphology.
Surface processes on other planets and their satellites depend materially on their mean distance from the Sun,
which dictates the annual receipt of solar energy, on their rotational period, and on the nature of the planetary
atmosphere. Observed processes include weathering aeolian activity, fluvial activity, glacial activity, and
mass movements.
IX. Climatic Geomorphology: The chief climatic geomorphologist exponents are French and German. Their
arguments rest on the not universally accepted observation that each climatic zone (tropical, arid, temperate,
for example) engenders a distinctive suite of landforms. Climate does strongly influence geomorphic
processes, but it is doubtful that the set of geomorphic processes within each climatic zone creates
characteristic landforms. The current consensus is that, owing to climatic and tectonic change, the climatic
factor in landform development is more complicated than climatic geomorphologists have suggested on
occasions.
X. Anthropogenic Geomorphology: is the study of the role of humans in creating landforms and modifying the
operation of geomorphological processes such as weathering, erosion, transport and deposition. As the
human population rises, new lands and resources are exploited, and new technologies are adopted, the impact
of humans grows ever greater. Some landforms are produced by direct anthropogenic actions. These tend to
be relatively obvious in form and are frequently created deliberately and knowingly. They include landforms
produced by construction spoil tips from mines), excavation (e.g. mining and quarrying), hydrological
interference the building of dams, farming (including cultivation, grazing and horticulture) and military
activities (e.g. craters).

On the other hand, landforms produced by indirect anthropogenic actions are often more difficult to
recognise, because they tend to involve the acceleration of natural processes rather than the operation of new
ones. They result from environmental changes brought about inadvertently by human actions. By removing
or modifying land cover – through cutting, bulldozing, burning and grazing – humans have accelerated rates
of erosion and sedimentation. Sometimes the results of inadvertent actions are spectacular, as for example
when major gully systems develop following deforestation, extreme floods are generated by impermeable
urban surfaces, subsidence features open up when groundwater is mined, lakes become desiccated as a result
of inter-basin water transfers, and mass movements like landslides are triggered by loading of slopes. Rates
of rock weathering may be modified because of the acidification of precipitation caused by accelerated
sulphate and nitrate emissions or because of accelerated salinisation in areas of irrigation and vegetation
clearance.

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1.1.6. Importance and Application Areas of Geomorphology

Why study geomorphology?
We live on Earth‘s surface and its dynamic nature shaped the landscapes we call home and
from which we derive our living.
Geomorphology, the science of landforms is a pivotal branch of earth sciences as it provides the necessary base for
various investigations leading to reconstruction of paleo-climatic and environmental conditions, evaluation of the
soil, water and mineral resources and a host of other studies towards land use planning and analysis.
Geomorphology is important:
 To understand geomorphological processes of various environment
 To detect natural and environmental hazards efficiently, e.g. earthquake, flooding, landslide, tsunami,
volcanism etc.
 To identify various landform features and landscapes
 To identify various landform features from satellite images
 Coastal and river research
 Vulnerability studies
 To apply in Geology, Geography, Archeology, Engineering, Planning, Mining, Construction, Urbanization
 Environmental management and land use planning
 Etc.
Geomorphology and Hydrology
Water either on the surface of the earth or groundwater used by human is available from different sources like
streams, lakes and rivers. The lithological zones present different conditions of surface as well as groundwater.
a. Hydrology of limestone terrains: Comprehensive understanding of geomorphology is key to understand the
hydrological problem of the limestone terrain. Limestone region yield more water than other due to its rock
formation.
b. Glaciated areas and groundwater: Preglacial and glacial time history, types of deposits and landforms
determine the possibilities of large supplies of groundwater potentials in glaciated regions. Yield of large
volume of water obtained from Outwash plains, valley trains, and intertill gravels or buried outwash. Due to
clay content most of the aquifers are poor, but containing local strata of sand and gravel may hold and supply
enough water for domestic needs. The study of preglacial topography and geomorphic history of the area
could detect the presence and absence of underground water.
Geomorphology and Mineral Exploitation
There is a close association of geological structure and minerals deposits. Characteristic of
landscapes of specific areas could indicate these geological structures. Economic geologist has not appreciated
the exploration of some minerals in the name of understanding of the geomorphic features and history of a
region. In search for mineral deposits, these three points may serve for Geomorphic features as:
a. Some mineral have direct topographic expression for its deposits;
b. The geologic structure and topography of an area have correlation which clue the accumulation of
minerals
c. Geomorphic history clearly indicates the physical condition under which the minerals accumulated or
were enriched of a particular area.

Geomorphology and Engineering Works

Evaluation of geologic factors of one type or another often involve in most of the engineering projects, among all the
factors terrain characteristics is most common. A detailed study of the geomorphic history of an area may support the
proper evaluation of surficial materials and the bedrock profile configuration. opographic features of an area
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determined the most feasible highway route. Road engineering faces a number of problems by different types of
terrain that includes geologic structure, geomorphic history of the area, lithological and stratigraphic characteristics
and strength of the surficial deposits. Area like karst plain required repeated cut and fill, if not done then the road will
be flooded after heavy rains with surface runoff from the sinkholes. Landslides and different types of mass-wasting
present problems not only in different phases of engineering but in highway construction also. Subgrade or the soil
beneath a road surface has become more significant because of its control over the drainage beneath a highway,
therefore construction design of highway should be in such a way to carry heavy traffic. Two factors largely
determine the lifetime of a highway under moderate loads is the quality of the aggregate used in the highway and the
soil texture and subgrade drainage. The type of parent material and the relationships of soils to its varying
topographic conditions are more essential in modern road construction. A synthesis of knowledge concerning the
geomorphology, lithology, and geologic structure of terrains has greatly helped while selecting sites for dam
construction.

Geomorphology and Military Operations

In military operation, it is important to know the kind of hill, plain, river or lake, and so on, because by knowing this
it is quite possible to reconstruct the geology of that region. Aerial photographs are useful for the preparation of
terrain intelligence as they provide information on the geology of the area. Terrain has been an important factor in the
Korean War and in the fighting in Vietnam region. With the development of atomic bomb and ballistic missiles,
topography would no longer play an important role in wars but its confine to the local areas for war purpose.

Geomorphology and Regional Planning

Geomorphologic information can be utilized at various levels of planning. Combination of topographic information,
soils, hydrology, lithology, terrain characteristics and engineering included on terrain maps make suitable for
regional planning. Applied geomorphology has distinct place in regional planning. At broadest scale it can be used as
delineate areas for forest, mountain, plateau, recreational, rural and urban areas. A balanced growth of a country‘s
economy requires a careful understanding of its natural resources and human resources. Rural or underdeveloped
terrain fulfills a variety of recreational needs. There is a transformation from a terrain maps into land-use suitability
maps to develop rural and urban areas. Detailed information on topography enlightened regional planners who may
then advise development projects best suited for separate region.
Geomorphology and Urbanization
There is a separate branch known as urban geomorphology applied to urban development. According to R.U. Cooke,
this branch of geomorphology is concerned with ―the study of landforms and their related processes, materials and
hazards, ways that are beneficial to planning, development and management of urbanized areas where urban growth
is expected‖. Geomorphic features decide the stability, safety, basic needs and even its expansion. That means city or
towns entirely depends on lithological and topographical features, hydrological conditions and geomorphic features.
Urban geomorphologist commence even before urban development through field survey, terrain classification,
identification and selection of alternative sites for settlements irrespective of plain or hilly areas. These urban
geomorphologists would be concerned with impact of natural events on the urban community and that of urban
development on the environment.

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Fig. - Urban morphology

When geomorphological problems not understood by the planners and engineers then it leads to destruction and
damage to urban settlements in different environmental regions. Settling of foundation material in dry or glacial
region, weathering process, damages of roads and buildings through floods in many parts of the world are not a
recent phenomenon. These problems arise due to misunderstanding of the geomorphological conditions.

Geomorphology and Coastal Zone Management

Coastal zones are not in linear as a boundary between land and water rather viewed as dynamic region of interface of
land and water. The major threat to the fragile coastal zone is its deteriorating coastal environment through shoreline
erosion, loss of natural beauty, pollution and extinction of species coastal zone management requires an integrated
approach. The most widespread material is beach sand, found mainly in low latitudes. Beach sand and gravel is
widely used for construction industry. Geomorphologists have made some significant contribution towards an
understanding of shoreline equilibrium in Eastern Australia where it considerable development of sand mining for
heavy minerals has been done. Some measures have been designed or coast protection includes sea-defence
structures such as seawalls, breakwaters, jetties and groynes. To protect the sea backshore zone from direct erosion
cut, sea walls are designed since these walls are impermeable they increase the backwash and produce a destructive
wave effect. Breakwaters can be built either normal or parallel to the coast. It is necessary to monitor and quantify
wave conditions, tidal currents and sediment movement in the nearshore zone to evaluate how sea defenses and other
man-made structures affect shoreline equilibrium.

In context of coastal zone management Hails emphasizes that applied geomorphology must be concerned with
quantitative and not descriptive research in order to obtain relevant and accurate data on
(i) natural erosion and deposition rate
(ii) at what rates and amount the sediment transport from river catchments to the near shore zone;
(iii) variations in sediment composition and offshore distribution;
(iv) sand supply sources and shoreline equilibrium;
(v) interchange rate of sand between beaches and dune systems;
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(vi) the effects of constructing sea defences;

(vii) offshore sediment dispersal and the dredging effects of seabed morphology, sediment transport and
wave refraction; and
(viii) analysis of landform including topography of the near- shore zone, form of the continental shelf and of
relict coast lines, particularly in terms of rock outcrops. Above investigation provides relevant baseline
data needed for systematic planning process and monitoring programmes but also for land use scheme.

Geomorphology and Hazard Management

Hazards can be put in natural or man-induced where tolerable level or unexpected nature exceeds. According to
Chorley, geomorphic hazard may be defined as ―any change, natural or man- made, that may affect the geomorphic
stability of a landform to the adversity of living things‖. These hazards may arise from immediate and sudden
movements like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, floods, etc. Faulting, folding, warping,
uplifting, subsidence, or vegetation changes and hydrologic regime due to climatic change arise from the long term
factors. Areas having past case histories of volcanism and seismic events help in making predictions of possible
eruptions and earthquakes respectively. Regular monitoring of seismic waves, measurement of temperature of craters
lake, hot springs, geysers and changes in the configuration of volcanoes whether dormant or extinct can reduce the
hazard to some extent. A detailed knowledge of topography can predict the path of lava flow and its eruptions points
in advance. The behavior of a river system can be well understood by its geomorphic knowledge through its channel,
morphology, flow pattern, river metamorphosis and so on. It may help controlling excess water in river and control
measures during flood season. Prior knowledge of erosion in the upper catchment area and carrying sediments to its
proportion may help in understand the gradual rise in river bed, which may lead to levee breached and cause sudden
floods. Earthquakes may be man induced or natural geomorphic hazards. Detailed study of seismic waves region
would help in identifying and mapping the zones of high to low intensity to reduce the risk of human life.

1.1.7. Subject Matter of Geomorphology

The subject matter of geomorphic study can be grouped into three categories:
 Topografic features of the first order- Continents and Oceans
 Topografic features of the first order -Mountains, Plateaus, lakes, faults, riftvalleys etc.
 Topografic features of the first order- Micro-level landforms are given more importance in geomorphic
studies (core subject matter of geomorphology)
The subject matter of geomorphology may also be organized on the basis of geomorphic processes (both endogenous
and exgeneous) that shape the landforms and approaches to the study of landforms. Most geomorphic processes
operate at a slow rate, but sometimes a large event, such as a landslide or flood, occurs causing rapid change to the
environment, and sometimes threatening humans. So, geological hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
tsunamis and landslides, fall within the interests of geomorphologists. Advancements in remote sensing from
satellites and GIS mapping has benefited geomorphologists greatly over the past few decades, allowing them to
understand global distributions. Therefore, Geomorphologists are ―landscape-detectives‖ working out the history of a
landscape.
In general, the subject matter of geomorphology incorporates structure, process and systematic analysis and evolution
of landforms.
1. Structure: Structure is an arrangement of interrelated elements in a material object or system. It is determined
by internal forces which include plate tectonic, diastrophism and volcanic action. It includes the study of
geomaterials (lithology, deposition of rock beds and composition of rocks, etc.)
2. Process: Processes are mainly related to external or exogenic forces. These forces contribute to shape a
landscape. They are also called destructional processes or denudational processes.
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3. Systematic Analysis and Evolution of Landforms ( Time factor)

What is the difference among the terms topography, landform, Relief, Slope and geomorphology?
 Topography: It refers to the elevation and relief of the Earth‟s surface. The surface features of the Earth‘s
surface, including the relief, the terrain, the vegetation, the soils and all the features created in the landscape
by human endeavour. It is not synonymous merely with relief.
 Landform: Landforms in geomorphological sense are the Earth surface features having definite
characteristics reflecting the material that compose them, and the process, or set of processes that created
them. It is an individual topographic feature, of whatever size; thus the term could refer to something as
minor as a cliff or a sand dune, as well as to something as major as a peninsula or a mountain range. The
plural-landforms-is less restrictive and is generally considered synonymous with topography.
 Landscape: Landforms of varying sizes and shapes, when taken together,
are referred to as a landscape. There are many different types of landscapes, including but not limited to:
 coastal landscapes
 riverine landscapes
 arid landscapes
 mountain landscapes
 karst landscapes.
The landforms have relationships with each other, which means they form distinctive groupings in these different
landscapes. In downstream riverine landscapes, for example, landforms will include a channel, possibly a levee, and
a flood plain or terrace. Some landforms are extensive, like arid zone dunes that continue for many kilometres. When
numerous dunes have formed, as in the Arabian Peninsula or Central Australia, they make up a dune field that can
extend for hundreds of kilometres. Other landforms are small, such as individual pedestal rocks that may be shaped
like an anvil or mushroom, and reach only a metre or so in height.
 Relief: It is the character of the land surface of the earth. It comprises a wide variety of landforms, which can
be grouped into different types of terrain.
 Slope: An inclined surface, the gradient of which is determined by the amount of
the inclination from the horizontal, and the length of which is determined by the inclined distance between its
crest and its foot. A slope may be concave, straight or convex when seen in profile.
 Geomorphology is the study of earth surface processes and landforms.

1.2. Basic Principles and Processes

1.2.1. Uniformitarianism
Uniformitarianism is a common theory held by earth scientists that states ―the present is the key to the past‖. This
means that the processes that formed the topography of the past are the same ones that have shaped contemporary
topography; these processes are still functioning in the same fashion and, barring unforeseen cataclysm, will be
responsible for the topography of the future. The processes involved are not temporary and, with only a few
exception, not abrupt. They are mostly permanent and slow acting. The development of landforms is a virtually
endless event, with the topography at any given time simply representing a temporary balance in a continuum of
change. Uniformitarianism implies that the processes currently shaping the Earth‟s topography and landforms are
the same processes as those which occurred in the past. By studying geomorphology, we are better able to interpret
the origin of landforms and infer their future evolution within the landscape. Such applications are especially
important for predicting, preventing, and mitigating natural hazards impact to humans, and managing our natural
resources for future generations. Uniformitarianism supports evolutionary theories.

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1.2.2. Catastrophism
Catastrophism is the theory that the Earth has largely been shaped by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly
worldwide in scope‖. Catastrophism was a theory developed by Georges Cuvier based on paleontological evidence in
the Paris Basin. Cuvier was there when he observed something peculiar about the fossil record. Instead of finding a
continuous succession of fossils, Cuvier noticed several gaps where all evidence of life would disappear and then
abruptly reappear again after a notable amount of time. Cuvier recognized these gaps in the fossil succession as mass
extinction events. This led Cuvier to develop a theory called catastrophism. Catastrophism states that natural history
has been punctuated by catastrophic events that altered that way life developed and rocks were deposited. Although
Cuvier hypothesized that the flooding of lowland areas could have been the cause of mass extinctions, he never really
explained any force that could cause the flooding to occur in the first place. Therefore, an implication of Cuvier‘s
theory is that the forces acting on the earth must have changed periodically throughout earth‘s history. Because
Cuvier never identified these forces, many individuals believed these extinctions could have been the result of
biblical floods or acts of god. An avid supporter of catastrophism was Abraham Werner, the leading geologist of the
18th century.

1.2.3. Constructive and Destructive Processes

Constructive processes build landforms through tectonic and depositional processes. Tectonic processes include
movements at plate boundaries, earthquakes, orogeny, deformation, and volcanic activity. Deposition is the
accumulation or accretion of weathered and eroded materials.
Destructive processes break down landforms through weathering, erosion, and mass wasting. Weathering is the
disintegration of rocks by mechanical, chemical, and biological agents. Erosion is the removal and transportation of
weathered material by water, wind, ice, or gravity. Mass wasting is the rapid down-slope movement of materials by
gravity.

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1.3. Factors of Landform Development: Structure, Processes and Geological Time Scale

1.3.1. Forces, Processes and Structures

A landform is a feature on the Earth's surface that is part of the terrain. Each landform has its own
physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s).
Actions of most of the geomorphic processes and agents are slow, and hence the results take a long time
to take shape. Every landform has a beginning and landforms once formed may change in their shape, size
and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents.
As defined above, geomorphology is in large part the study of the formation of terrain or topography.
Terrain is formed by concurrent processes operating on the underlying geological structures over geological
time:
 Geological processes: migration of tectonic plates, faulting and folding, mountain
formation, volcanic eruptions, etc. Hence, Earth's crust is a dynamic entity, it moves vertically and
horizontally .Due to the geothermal gradient, the internal energy generated within the earth is not
uniform, because these internal forces create different types of high and low land surfaces called
landforms.
 Erosional processes: glacial, water, wind, chemical and gravitational (mass movement); such
as landslides, downhill creep, flows, slumps, and rock falls. Earth's surface is affected by external
forces, it basically comes from sunlight. From time to time, external forces such as weathering,
erosion, and mass movement change the structure of landforms to other types of landforms. For
example, due to external force overtime, large mountains turn into small hills, and finally, it turns
into the plain.
 Extraterrestrial: meteorite impacts.
Tectonic processes such as orogenies and uplifts cause land to be elevated, whereas erosional
and weathering processes wear the land away by smoothing and reducing topographic features.
In general, the factors determining landform development are:
 Rock composition or parent rocks.
 Relief
 Geological structure
 Climate
 Exogenous agent
 Energy
 Biological activities
 Human
Those factors are broadly categorize in to endogenic and exogenic forces.

1.3.2. Geomorphic System and its Components

As explained above, landform, whether large or small is resulted from the interaction of certain forces, they
accomplish their work by various means of processes, which may be described as geologic, climatic and biologic in a
system approach and processes and these processes bring about the changes in the Earth‘s surface which may be
classified as (I) Long Period Changes (Man is unable to notice this change) and (II) short period Changes. The forces
which affect the crust of the earth are broadly classified in to internal and external forces. Process geomorphologists
commonly adopt a systems approach to their subject. To illustrate what this approach entails, take the example of a

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hill slope system. A hill slope extends from an interfluve crest, along a valley side, to a sloping valley floor. It is a
system insofar as it consists of things (rock waste, organic matter, and so forth) arranged in a particular way. The
arrangement is seemingly meaningful, rather than haphazard, because it is explicable in terms of physical processes.
The ‗things‘ of which a hill slope is composed may be described by such variables as particle size, soil moisture
content, vegetation cover, and slope angle. These variables, and many others, interact to form a regular and
connected whole: a hill slope, and the mantle of debris on it, records a propensity towards reciprocal adjustment
among a complex set of variables. The complex set of variables includes rock type, which influences weathering
rates, the geotechnical properties of the soil, and rates of infiltration; climate, which influences slope hydrology and
so the routing of water over and through the hill slope mantle; tectonic activity, which may alter base level; and the
geometry of the hill slope, which, acting mainly through slope angle and distance from the divide, influences the
rates of processes such as land sliding, creep, solifluction, and wash. Change in any of the variables will tend to cause
a readjustment of hill slope form and process.

1.3.2.1. Internal and External System Variables

Any geomorphic system has internal and external variables. Take a drainage basin. Soil wetness, stream flow, and
other variables lying inside the system are endogenous or internal variables. Precipitation, solar radiation, tectonic
uplift, and other such variables originating outside the system and affecting drainage basin dynamics are exogenous
or external variables to the drainage system. Interestingly, all geomorphic systems can be thought of as resulting from
a basic antagonism between endogenic (tectonic and volcanic) processes driven by geological forces and exogenic
(geomorphic) processes driven by climatic forces. In short, tectonic processes create land, and climatically influenced
weathering and erosion destroy it. The events between the creation and the final destruction are what fascinate
geomorphologists.

1.3.2.2. Classifying Geomorphic Systems

Two conceptions of systems are important in geomorphology: systems as process and form structures, and systems as
simple and complex structures. Geomorphic systems as form and process structures in turn can be classified in to
four kinds: form systems, process systems, form and process systems, and control systems.
1. Form systems: Form or morphological systems are sets of form variables deemed to interrelate in a
meaningful way in terms of system origin or system function. Several measurements could be made to
describe the form of a hill slope system. Form elements would include measures of anything on a hill slope
that has size, shape, or physical properties. A simple characterization of hill slope form depicts a cliff with a
talus slope at its base. All that could be learnt from this ‗form system‘ is that the talus lies below the cliff; no
causal connections between the processes linking the cliff and talus slope are inferred. Sophisticated
characterizations of hill slope and land-surface forms may be made using digital terrain models.
2. Process systems: Process systems, which are also called cascading or flow systems, are defined as
‗interconnected pathways of transport of energy or matter or both, together with such storages of energy and
matter as may be required‘. An example is a hill slope represented as a store of materials: weathering of
bedrock and wind deposition add materials to the store, and erosion by wind and fluvial erosion at the slope
base removes materials from the store. The materials pass through the system and in doing so link the
morphological components. In the case of the cliff and talus slope, it could be assumed that rocks and debris
fall from the cliff and deliver energy and rock debris to the talus.
3. Form and process systems: Process–form systems, also styled process–response systems, comprise an
energy-flow system linked to a form system in such a way that system processes may alter the system form
and, in turn, the changed system form alters the system processes. A hill slope may be viewed in this way
with slope form variables and slope process variables interacting. In the cliff-and-talus example, rock falling
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off the cliff builds up the talus store. However, as the talus store increases in size, so it begins to bury the
cliff face, reducing the area that supplies debris. In consequence, the rate of talus growth diminishes and the
system changes at an ever-decreasing rate. The process described is an example of negative feedback, which
is an important facet of many process–form systems.
4. Control systems: Control systems are process–form systems that interact with humans. They include
managed rivers, coasts with sea defences, and some caves.
1.3.2.3. Geomorphic Systems as Simple or Complex Structures
Usually, most of the topographic details have been produced during the current cycle of erosion, but there may exist
within an area remnants of features produced during prior cycles, and, although there are many individual landforms
which can be said to be the product of some single geomorphic process. Horberg (1952) classified landforms into
five major categories:
i. Simple: Simple landscapes are the product of a single dominant geomorphic process
ii. Compound: Compound landscapes are those in which two or more geomorphic processes have played major
roles in the development of the existing topography.
iii. Monocyclic: Monocyclic landscapes have been produced during more than one cycle of
erosion. Monocyclic landscapes are less common than multicyclic and are in general restricted to such
newly created land surfaces as a recently uplifted portion of the ocean floor, the surface of a volcanic
cone, lava plain or plateau, or areas buried beneath a cover of Pleistocene glacial deposits.
iv. Multicyclic: Polyclimatic landscapes it has become evident in recent years that many landscapes have
evolved under more than one set of climatic conditions with accompanying variation in the dominant
geomorphic processes. Many of these varying climatic conditions were associated with the fluctuating
climates of Pleistocene time, but are some areas certain aspects of the topography reflect climatic
conditions that existed during Tertiary times.
v. exhumed or resurrected landscapes: Exhumed or resurrected landscapes are those which were formed during
some past period of geologic time, then buried beneath a cover of igneous or sedimentary origin, then
still later exposed through removal of the cover. Topographic features now being exhumed may date
back as far as the Precambrian or they may be as recent as the Pleistocene.
Based on complexity and organization, there are three main types of system: simple systems, complex but
disorganized systems, and complex and organized systems.
1. Simple systems: Since at least the seventeenth-century revolution in science, astronomers have referred to a
set of heavenly bodies connected together and acting upon each other according to certain laws as a system.
The Solar System is the Sun and its planets. The Uranian system is Uranus and its moons. These structures
may be thought of as simple systems. In geomorphology, a few boulders resting on a talus slope is a simple
system. The conditions needed to dislodge the boulders, and their fate after dislodgement, is predictable from
mechanical laws involving forces, resistances, and equations of motion, in much the same way that the
motion of the planets around the Sun can be predicted from Newtonian laws.
2. Complex but disorganized system, a vast number of objects interacts in a weak and haphazard way. An
example is a gas in a jar. This system might comprise upward of 1023 molecules colliding with each other. In
the same way, the countless individual particles in a hill slope mantle could be regarded as a complex but
rather disorganized system. In both the gas and the hill slope mantle, the interactions are somewhat
haphazard and far too numerous to study individually, so aggregate measures must be employed.
3. Complex and organized nature: In a third and later conception of systems, objects are seen to interact
strongly with one another to form systems of a complex and organized nature. Most biological and ecological
systems are of this kind. Many structures in geomorphology display high degrees of regularity and rich

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connections, and may be thought of as complexly organized systems. A hill slope represented as a process–
form system could be placed into this category. Other examples include soils, rivers, and beaches.

1.3.3.Geological Time Scale and Dating

1.3.3.1. Geological Time Scale

The geologic time scale is the framework for deciphering the history of the Earth. Since the time scale is the tool ―par
excellence‖ of the geological trade, insight in its construction, strengths, and limitations greatly enhances its function
and its utility. All earth scientists should understand how the evolving
time scales are constructed and calibrated, rather than merely using the numbers in them. This calibration to linear
time of the succession of events recorded in the rock record has three components:
i. The international stratigraphic divisions and their correlation in the global rock record,
ii. The means of measuring linear time or elapsed durations from the rock record, and
iii. The methods of effectively joining the two scales.
For convenience in international communication, the rock record of Earth‘s history is subdivided into a
―chronostratigraphic‖ scale of standardized global stratigraphic units, such as ―Jurassic,‖ ―Eocene,‖ etc. Unlike the
continuous ticking clock of the ―chronometric‖ scale (measured in years before present), the chronostratigraphic
scale is based on relative time units, in which global reference points at boundary stratotypes define the limits of the
main formalized units, such as ―Devonian.‖ The chronostratigraphic scale is an agreed convention, whereas its
calibration to linear time is a matter for discovery.

By studying rock layers and the fossils within them, geologists can reconstruct aspects of Earth‘s history and
interpret ancient environments. To help in the analysis of Earth‘s rocks, geologists have divided the history of Earth
into time units. These time units are based largely on the fossils contained within the rocks. The time units are part of
the geologic time scale, a record of Earth‘s history from its origin 4.6 billion years ago (bya) to the present. Since the
naming of the first geologic time unit, the Jurassic (joo RA sihk), in 1795, development of the time scale has

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continued to the present day. Some of the units have remained unchanged for centuries, while others have been
reorganized as scientists have gained new knowledge. The geologic time scale is shown as following.

Geologic time and the observed rock record are separate but related concepts. A geologic time unit (geochronologic
unit) is an abstract concept measured from the rock record by radioactive decay, Milankovitch cycles, or other
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means. A ―rock-time‖ or chronostratigraphic unit consists of the total rocks formed globally during a specified
interval of geologic time. The chronostratigraphic units are grouped into a hierarchy to subdivide the geologic record
on Earth progressively. This chronostratigraphic scale was originally established from a combination of regional
lithologic units (e.g. the Chalk of England defined the ―Cretaceous,‖ and the ―Triassic‖ was assigned to a trio of
distinctive formations in Germany) and of unique, non-recurring events provided by biological evolution.

Hence, the geologic time scale is a breakdown of major events that have happened on Earth since its creation about
4.5 billion years ago. The scale has been broken down into different "blocks" of history where conditions had the
same overall characteristics. The geologic time scale enables scientists to find relationships among the geological
events, environmental conditions, and fossilized life-forms that are preserved in the rock record. The oldest division
of time is at the bottom of the scale. Moving upward, each division is more recent, just as the rock layers in the rock
record are generally younger toward the surface.

Eons: The time scale is divided into units called eons, eras, periods, and epochs. An eon is the largest of these time
units and encompasses the others. They consist of the Hadean (HAY dee un), the Archean (ar KEE un), Proterozoic
(pro tuh ruh ZOH ihk), and Phanerozoic (fa nuh ruh ZOH ihk) Eons. The three earliest eons make up 90 percent of
geologic time, known together as the Precambrian (pree KAM bree un). During the Precambrian, Earth was formed
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and became hospitable to modern life. Fossil evidence suggests that simple life-forms began in the Archean Eon and
that by the end of the Proterozoic Eon, life had evolved to the point that some organisms might have been able to
move in complex ways. Most of these fossils were soft-bodied organisms, many of which resembled modern
animals. Others had bodies with rigid parts. All life-forms until then had soft bodies without shells or skeletons.
Fossils dating from the most recent eon, the Phanerozoic, are the best-preserved, not only because they are younger,
but because they represent organisms with hard parts, which are more easily preserved. All eons are made up of eras,
the next-largest unit of time.
Eras: Eras are usually tens to hundreds of millions of years in duration. Like all other time units, they are defined by
the different lifeforms found in the rocks; the names of the eras are based on the relative ages of these life-forms. For
example, in Greek, paleo means old, meso means middle, and ceno means recent. Zoic means of life in Greek; thus,
Mesozoic means middle life and Cenozoic means recent life. All eras are divided into periods. Periods are generally
tens of millions of years in duration, though some periods of the Precambrian are considerably longer. Some periods
are named for the geographic region in which the rocks or fossils characterizing the age were first observed and
described. Consider, for example, the Ediacaran (ee dee A kuh run) Period at the end of the Precambrian. It is named
for the Ediacara Hills in Australia. It was here that fossils typical of the period were first found. The Ediacaran
Period was added to the geologic time scale in 2004. Epochs are smaller divisions of geologic time. Epochs are
generally hundreds of thousands to millions of years in duration. Rocks and sediments from the epochs of the
Cenozoic Era are the most complete because there has been less time for weathering and erosion to remove evidence
of this part of Earth‘s history. For this reason, the epochs of the Cenozoic are relatively short in duration. For
example, the Holocene (HOH luh seen) Epoch, which includes modern time, began only about 11,000 years ago.

1.3.3.2. Dating Techniques: Relative and Absolute Dating

1.3.3.2.1. Relative-Age Dating
Early ideas about Earth‘s age were generally placed in the context of time spans that a person could understand
relative to his or her own life. This changed as people began to explore Earth and Earth processes in scientific ways.
James Hutton, a Scottish geologist who lived in the late 1700s, was one of the first scientists to think of Earth as very
old. He attempted to explain Earth‘s history in terms of geologic forces, such as erosion and sea-level changes, that
operate over long stretches of time. His work helped set the stage for the development of the geologic time scale.
Hutton‘s work lies at the foundation of uniformitarianism, which states that geologic processes occurring today
have been occurring since Earth formed. For example, if you stand on the shore of an ocean and watch the waves
come in, you are observing a process that has not changed since the oceans were formed. The waves crashing on a
shore in the Jurassic Period were much like the waves crashing on a shore today.

Principles for Determining Relative Age

Because of uniformitarianism, scientists can learn about the past by studying the present. One way to do this is by
studying the order in which geologic events occurred using a method called relative-age dating. This does not allow
scientists to determine exactly how many years ago an event occurred, but it gives scientists a clearer understanding
about geologic events in Earth‘s history. Scientists use several ways to determine relative ages, called the principles
of relative dating. They include original horizontality, superposition, cross cutting relationships, and inclusions.

Original horizontality is the principle that sedimentary rocks are deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers.
Sediment is deposited in horizontal layers for the same reason that layers of sand on a beach are mostly flat; that is,
gravity combined with wind and water spreads them evenly.

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Superposition
Geologists cannot determine the numeric ages of most rock layers in the Grand Canyon using relative-age dating
methods. However, they can assume that the oldest rocks are at the bottom and that each successive layer above is
younger. Thus, they can infer that the Kaibab Limestone at the top of the canyon is much younger than the Vishnu
Group, which is at the bottom. This is an application of superposition, the principle that in an undisturbed rock
sequence, the oldest rocks are at the bottom and each consecutive layer is younger than the layer beneath it.
Cross-cutting relationships
Rocks exposed in the deepest part of the Grand Canyon are mostly igneous and metamorphic.
Within the metamorphic schist of the Vishnu Group in the bottom sequence are intrusions -also called dikes -of
granite. The principle of cross-cutting relationships states that an intrusion is younger than the rock it cuts across.
Therefore, the granite intrusion in the Grand Canyon is younger than the schist because the granite cuts across the
schist. The principle of cross-cutting relationships also applies to faults. Many faults exist in earthquake-prone areas,
such as California, and in ancient, mountainous regions, such as the Adirondacks of New York. A fault is younger
than the strata and surrounding geologic features because the fault cuts across them.

Inclusions
Relative age can also be determined where one rock layer contains pieces of rock from the layer next to it. This might
occur after an exposed layer has eroded and the loose material on the surface has become incorporated into the layer
deposited on top of it. The principle of inclusions states that the fragments, called inclusions, in a rock layer must be
older than the rock layer that contains them.

Unconformities
Earth‘s surface is constantly changing as a result of weathering, erosion, earthquakes, volcanism, and other
processes. This makes it difficult to find a sequence of rock layers in the geologic record in which a layer has not
been disturbed. Sometimes, the record of a past event or time period is missing entirely. For example, if rocks from a
volcanic eruption erode, the record of that eruption is lost. If an eroded area is covered at a later time by a new layer
of sediment, the eroded surface represents a gap in the rock record. Buried surfaces of erosion are called
unconformities. The rock layer immediately above an unconformity is sometimes considerably younger than the
rock layer immediately below it.
Key beds
Distinctive rock layers are sometimes deposited over wide geographic areas as a result of
a large meteorite strike, volcanic eruption, or other brief event. Because these layers are easy to recognize, they help
geologists correlate rock formations in different geographic areas where the layers are exposed. A rock or sediment
layer used as a marker in this way is called a key bed. Geologists know that the layers above a key bed are younger
than the layers below it. The key-bed ash layer that marks the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens deposited volcanic
ash over many states.
Fossil correlation
Geologists also use fossils to correlate rock formations in locations that are geographically distant. Fossils can
indicate similar times of deposition even though the layers might be made of entirely different material. The
correlation of fossils and rock layers aids in the relative dating of rock sequences and helps geologists understand the
history of larger geographic regions. Petroleum geologists also use correlation to help them locate reserves of oil and
gas. For example, if a sandstone layer in one area contains oil, it is possible that the same layer in other areas also
contains oil. It is largely through correlation that geologists have constructed the geologic time scale.

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1.3.3.2.2.Absolute-Age Dating (Radioactive Isotopes)

As it is discussed above, relative-age dating is a method of comparing past geologic events based on the order of
strata in the rock record. In contrast, absolute-age dating enables scientists to determine the numerical age of rocks
and other objects. In one type of absolute age dating method, scientists measure the decay of the radioactive isotopes
in igneous and metamorphic rocks in addition to some remains of organisms preserved in sediments.

Radioactive decay
Radioactive isotopes emit nuclear particles at a constant rate. An element is defined by the number of protons it
contains. As the number of protons changes with each emission, the original radioactive isotope, called the parent, is
gradually converted to a different element, called the daughter. For example, a radioactive isotope of uranium, U-
238, will decay into the daughter isotope lead-206 (Pb-206) over a specific span of time as following.

Eventually, enough of the parent decays that traces of it are undetectable, and only the daughter product is
measurable. The emission of radioactive particles and the resulting change into other isotopes over time is called
radioactive decay. Because the rate of radioactive decay is constant regardless of pressure, temperature, or any other
physical changes, scientists use it to determine the absolute age of the rock or object in which it occurs.
Radiometric Dating: As the number of parent atoms decreases during radioactive decay, the number of daughter
atoms increases. The ratio of parent isotope to daughter product in a mineral indicates the amount of time that has
passed since the object formed. For example, by measuring this ratio in the minerals of an igneous rock, geologists
pinpoint when the minerals first crystallized from magma. When scientists date an object using radioactive isotopes,
they are using a method called radiometric dating.
Half-life : Scientists measure the length of time it takes for one half of the original isotope to decay, called its half-
life. After one half-life, 50 percent of the parent remains, resulting in a 1:1 ratio of parent-to-daughter product. After
two half-lives, one-half of the remaining 50 percent of the parent decays. The result is 25:75 percent ratio of the
original parent to the daughter product-a 1:3 ratio.
Half-Lives of Selected Radioactive Isotopes
Radioactive Parent Isotope Approximate Half-life Daughter Product
Rubidium-87 (Rb-87) 48.6 billion years strontium-87 (Sr-87)
Thorium-232 (Th-232) 14.0 billion years lead-208 (Pb-208)
Potassium-40 (K-40) 1.3 billion years argon-40 (Ar-40)
Uranium-238 (U-238) 4.5 billion years lead-206 (Pb-206)
Uranium-235 (U-235) 0.7 billion years lead-207 (Pb-207)
Carbon-14 (C-14) 5730 years nitrogen-14 (N-14)

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Dating rocks : To date an igneous or metamorphic rock using radiometric dating, scientists examine the parent-
daughter ratios of the radioactive isotopes in the minerals that comprise the rock. For example, scientists might use
uranium-235 (U-235), which has a half-life of 700 million years, to date a rock that is a few tens of millions of years
old. Conversely, to date a rock that is hundreds of millions of years old, scientists might use U-238, which has a
longer half-life. If an isotope with a shorter half-life is used for an ancient rock, there might be a point when the
parent-daughter ratio becomes too small to measure. Radiometric dating is not useful for dating sedimentary rocks
because, the minerals in most sedimentary rocks were formed from pre-existing rocks.

Radiocarbon Dating: The half-life of carbon-14 (C-14) is much shorter than the half-lives of other isotopes.
Scientists use C-14 to determine the age of organic materials, which contain abundant carbon, in a process called
radiocarbon dating. Organic materials used in radiocarbon dating include plant and animal material such as bones,
charcoal, and amber. The tissues of all living organisms, including humans, contain small amounts of C-14. During
an organism‘s life the C-14 decays, but is continually replenished by the process of respiration. When the organism
dies, it no longer takes in C-14, so over time, the amount of C-14 decreases. Scientists can measure the amount of C-
14 in organic material to determine how much time has passed since the organism‘s death. This method is
particularly useful for dating recent geologic events for which organic remains exist.

Other Ways to Determine Absolute Age

Radiometric dating is one of the most common ways for geologists to date geologic material. Many other dating
methods are available. Geologists can also use other materials, such as tree rings, ice cores, and lake-bottom and
ocean-bottom sediments, to help determine the ages of some objects or events.

Tree rings: Many trees contain a record of time in the rings of their trunks. These rings are called annual tree rings.
Each annual tree ring consists of a pair of early season and late season growth rings. The width of the rings depends
on certain conditions in the environment. For example, when rain is plentiful, trees grow fast and rings are wide. The
harsh conditions of drought result in narrow rings. Trees from the same geographic region tend to have the same
patterns of ring widths for a given time span. By matching the rings in these trees, scientists established tree-ring
chronologies that can span time periods up to 10,000 years.
The science of using tree rings to determine absolute age is called dendrochronology and has helped geologists date
relatively recent geologic events that toppled trees, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and glaciation.
Dendrochronology is also useful in archaeological studies. In Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado, archaeologists
used dendrochronology to determine the age of the wooden rafters in the pueblos of the Anasazi, an ancient group of
Native Americans. Also, dendrochronology provides a reliable way for geologists to confirm the results from
radiocarbon dating.

Ice cores: Ice cores are analogous to tree rings. Like tree rings, they contain a record of past environmental
conditions in annual layers of snow deposition; summer ice tends to have more bubbles and larger crystals than
winter ice. Geologists use ice-core chronologies to study glacial cycles through geologic history. The National Ice
Core Facility in Colorado is one of several facilities around the world that store thousands of meters of ice cores from
ice sheets, Because ice cores contain information about past environmental conditions, many scientists also use them
to study climate change.

Varves: Bands of alternating light- and dark-colored sediments of sand, clay, and silt are called varves. Varves
represent the seasonal deposition of sediments, usually in lakes. Summer deposits are generally sand-sized particles
with traces of living matter, compared to the thinner, fine-grained sediments of winter. Varves are typical of lake
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deposits near glaciers, where summer meltwaters actively carry sand into the lake, and little to no sedimentation
occurs in the winter. Using varved cores, scientists can date cycles of glacial sedimentation over periods as long as
120,000 years.

The Fossil Record: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of once-living organisms. They provide evidence of
the past existence of a wide variety of life-forms, most of which are now extinct. The diverse fossil record also
provides evidence that species - groups of closely related organisms-have evolved. Evolution (eh vuh LEW shun) is
the change in species over time. When geologists find fossils in rocks, they know that the rocks are about the same
age as the fossils, and they can infer that the same fossils found elsewhere are also of the same age. Radiolarians are
unicellular organisms with hard shells that have populated the oceans since the Cambrian Period. When they die,
their shells are deposited in large quantities in ocean sediment called radiolarian ooze. Petroleum geologists use
radiolarians and other microfossils to determine the age of rocks that might produce oil. Microfossils provide
information about the ages of rocks and can indicate whether the rocks had ever been subjected to the temperatures
and pressures necessary to form oil or gas.

Original preservation: Fossils with original preservation are the remains of plants and animals that have been
altered very little since the organisms‘ deaths. Such fossils are uncommon because their preservation requires
extraordinary circumstances, such as freezing, arid, or oxygen-free environments. For example, soft parts of
mammoths are preserved in the sticky ooze of California‘s La Brea Tar Pit. Original woody parts of plants are
embedded in the permafrost of 10,000-year-old Alaskan bogs. Tree sap from prehistoric trees sometimes hardens into
amber that contains insects. Soft parts are also preserved when plants or animals are dried and their remains are
mummified. Original preservation fossils can be surprisingly old. For example, in 2005, a scientist from North
Carolina discovered soft tissue in a 70-million-year-old dinosaur bone excavated in Montana. Scientists have since
found preserved tissue in other dinosaur bones.

Altered Hard Parts: Under most circumstances, the soft organic material of plants and animals decays quickly.
However, over time, the remaining hard parts, such as shells, bones, or cell walls, can become fossils with altered
hard parts. These fossils are the most common type of fossil, and can form from two processes. Mineral
replacement In the process of mineral replacement, the pore spaces of an organism‘s buried hard parts are filled in
with minerals from groundwater. The groundwater comes in contact with the hard part and gradually replaces the
hard part‘s original mineral material with a different mineral. A shell‘s calcite (CaCO3), for example, might be
replaced by silica (SiO2). Mineral replacement can occur in trees that are buried by volcanic ash. Over time, minerals
dissolved from the ash solidify into microscopic spaces within the wood. The result is a fossil called petrified wood.
Molds and casts: Some fossils do not contain any original or altered material of the original organism. These fossils
might instead be molds or casts. A mold forms when sediments cover the original hard part of an organism, such as a
shell, and the hard part is later removed by erosion or weathering.

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1.4. . Methods of landform study: Deductive and Inductive Method

1.4.1. Approaches in Geomorphic Study
Geomorphologic studies comprise a spectrum of approaches between two major interrelated conceptual bases,
namely: historical studies and functional studies. To these two may be added a third, the Climatic geomorphology
approach.
i. Historical Approach: Historical studies attempts to deduce from the erosion and depositional features of the
landscape evidence relating to the sequence of historical events. For example, tectonic, sea level, climatic
through which it has passed. Such studies explain the existing landform assemblages as a combination of
effects resulting from the vicissitudes (changes) through which it has passed. Historical explanation is
reserved for landforms whose features have evolved slowly and which bear witness to the super imposed
effects of climatic and tectonic changes. It relies retro diction, the derivation of chronology of a sequence
of past landscape forming events. Historical approaches comprise of two related approaches namely the
cyclic approach and the denudation chronology approach.

ii. Modern Functional Approaches: Modern functional approaches generally aim at explaining the existence
of landforms in terms of the circumstances which surround them and allow them to be produced,
sustained, or transformed such that the landforms function in a manner which reflect these
circumstances. Such studies usually involve reasonably contemporary processes and the behaviour of
earth materials which can be directly observed, measured and analysed to enable the geomorphologist
understands the maintenance and changes of landforms. Most functional explanations of landforms are
directed towards prediction, the deducing of effects produced by causative factors. Modern functional
approaches are therefore, process-form oriented. However, an understanding of the erosional and
depositional processes that fashion the landform, their mechanics and their rates of operation are
obtained in order that the past evolution can be explained and the future evolution predicted. The
modern-functional approach to geomorphology comprise of two related methods, namely: Direct field
observation and measurement and simulation modelling. Both involve the observation, measurement and
mathematical/statistics analyses of both process and form in order to objectively explain landform
evolution.
1.4.2. Method of Landform Studies: Iductive and Deductive
There have always been controversy and confusion about the nature of Geomorphology, these reflects the fact that
historically, Geomorphologists have at one time or another attempted to answer three basic sorts of questions about
the Earths landforms and landscapes, the questions are:
1. How can these features and processes be described?
2. How can they form and changed through time?
3. What processes are responsible for them and how do these processes work?
To answer these and related questions, Geomorphologists follow deductive and inductive methods of reasoning. The
reasoning process (inference) that an argument involves is expressed either with certainty or with probability. If the
conclusion is claimed to follow with strict certainty or necessity, the argument is said to be deductive reasoning; but
if it is claimed to follow only probably, the argument is said to be inductive reasoning. In practicing their study, all
scientists, including geomorphologists, follow rules or principles. Scientific practitioners established these rules, or
guidelines. They advise scientists how to go about the business of making scientific enquiries. In other words, they
are guidelines concerned with scientific methodology or procedures. The foremost guideline or principle– the
uniformity of law – is the premise from which all scientists work. It is the presupposition that natural laws are
invariant in time and space. In simple terms, this means that, throughout Earth history, the laws of physics,

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chemistry, and biology have always been the same. Water has always flowed downhill, carbon dioxide has always
been a greenhouse gas, and most living things have always depended upon carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Unlike the
uniformity of law, which is a universally accepted basis for scientific investigation deductively, inductive methods
are substantial claims or suppositions about how the Earth works and are open to interpretation.

1.5. Models of Landform Evolution

1.5.1. What is Model?
A ―Model is an object or a concept which is used to represent something else. It is reality scaled down and converted
to a form which we can comprehend. A model may have a few specific purposes such as prediction and control, etc.,
in which case, the model only needs to have just enough significant detail to satisfy these purposes. The model may
be used to represent the original situation (system or phenomenon) or it may be used to represent some proposed or
predicted situation. Thus, the word model usually means a representation and in many situations it is used to describe
the system at hand. Consequently, there are strong differences of opinion as to the appropriate use of the word model.
For example, it may be applied to a photogrammetric replication of a piece of the terrain surface which has been
photographed or it may suggest a perspective view of the piece of terrain.

1.5.2. Types of Models

Generally speaking, there are three types of models:
 Conceptual Model
 Physical Model and
 Mathematical Model
The conceptual model is the model borne in a person‘s mind about a situation or an object based on his knowledge or
experience. Often this particular type of model forms the primary stage of modeling and will be followed later by a
physical or mathematical model. However, if the situation or object is too difficult to represent in any other way, then
the model will remain conceptual. A physical model is usually an analogue model. An example of this kind of model
would be a terrain model made of rubber, plastic, or clay. A stereo model of terrain based on optical or mechanical
projection principles, which is widely used in photogrammetry, would also fall into this category. A physical model
is usually smaller than the real object in geosciences. A mathematical model represents a situation, object, or
phenomenon in mathematical terms. In other words, a mathematical model is a model whose components are
mathematical concepts, such as constants, variables, functions, equations, inequalities, etc.
Mathematical models may be divided into two types:
i. Quantitative models, based on a number system
ii. Qualitative models, based on set theory, etc., and not reducible to numbers.
Based on the nature of a problem that can be either deterministic or subject to changes and therefore probabilistic
mathematical models can further divide in to:
i. Functional models, which are those intended to solve deterministic problems
ii. Stochastic models, which are those used to solve probabilistic problems.

1.5.3. Geomorphic Models

In trying to single out the components and interrelations of geomorphic systems, some degree of abstraction or
simplification is necessary: the landscape is too rich a mix of objects and interactions to account for all components
and relationships in them. The process of simplifying real landscapes to manageable proportions is model building.
Defined in a general way, a geomorphic model is a simplified representation of some aspect of a real landscape that
happens to interest a geomorphologist. It is an attempt to describe, analyze, simplify, or display a geomorphic

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system. Geomorphologists, like all scientists, build models at different levels of abstraction. The simplest level
involves a change of scale. In this case, a hardware model represents the system. There are two chief kinds of
hardware model: scale models and analogue models. Scale (or iconic) models are miniature, or sometimes gigantic,
copies of systems. They differ from the systems they represent only in size. Relief models, fashioned out of a suitable
material such as plaster of Paris, have been used to represent topography as a three dimensional surface. Scale
models need not be static: models made using materials identical to those found in Nature, but with the dimensions of
the system scaled down, can be used to simulate dynamic behaviour. In practice, scale models of this kind imitate a
portion of the real world so closely that they are, in effect, ‗controlled‘ natural systems
The great advantage of this type of scale model, in which the geometry and dynamics of the model and system are
virtually identical, is that the investigator wields a high degree of control over the simplified experimental conditions.
Other scale models use natural materials, but the geometry of the model is dissimilar to the geometry of the system it
imitates – the investigator scales down the size of the system. Scale models are used to mimic the behavior of a
variety of geomorphic systems. For example, scale models have assisted studies of the dynamics of rivers and river
systems using waterproof troughs. Indeed, the process of reducing the size of a system may create a number of
awkward problems associated with scaling. Analogue models are more abstract scale models. The most commonly
used analogue models are maps and remotely sensed images. On a map, the surface features of a landscape are
reduced in scale and represented by symbols: rivers by lines, relief by contours, and spot heights by points, for
instance. Remotely sensed images represent, at a reduced scale, certain properties of the landscape systems. Maps
and remotely sensed images are, except where a series of them is available for different times, static analogue
models.

Dynamic analogue models may also be built. They are hardware models in which the system size is changed, and in
which the materials used are analogous to, but not the same as, the natural materials of the system. The analogous
materials simulate the dynamics of the real system. In a laboratory, the clay kaolin can be used in place of ice to
model the behavior of a valley glacier. Under carefully controlled conditions, many features of valley glaciers,
including crevasses and step faults, develop in the clay. Conceptual models are initial attempts to clarify loose
thoughts about the structure and function of a geomorphic system. They often form the basis for the construction of
mathematical models. Mathematical models translate the ideas encapsulated in a conceptual model into the formal,
symbolic logic of mathematics. The language of mathematics offers a powerful tool of investigation limited only by
the creativity of the human mind. Of all modes of argument, mathematics is the most rigorous. Nonetheless, the act
of quantification, of translating ideas and observations into symbols and numbers, is in itself nothing unless validated

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by explanation and prediction. The art and science of using mathematics to study geomorphic systems is to discover
expressions with explanatory and predictive powers. These powers set mathematical models apart from conceptual
models. Un quantified conceptual model is not susceptible of formal proof; it is simply a body of ideas. A
mathematical model, on the other hand, is testable by matching predictions against the yardstick of observation.
The two main approaches to form in geomorphology are description (field description and morphological mapping)
and mathematical representation (geomorphometry).

1.5.3.1. Field Description and Morphological Mapping

The only way fully to appreciate landforms is to go into the field and see them. Much can be learnt from the now
seemingly old-fashioned techniques of field description, field sketching, and map reading and map making. The
mapping of landforms is an art. Landforms vary enormously in shape and size. Some, such as karst depressions and
volcanoes, may be represented as points. Others, such as faults and rivers, are linear features that are best depicted as
lines. In other cases, areal properties may be of prime concern and suitable means of spatial representation must be
employed. Morphological maps capture areal properties. Morphological mapping attempts to identify basic landform
units in the field, on aerial photographs, or on maps. It sees the ground surface as an assemblage of landform
elements. Landform elements are recognized as simply curved geometric surfaces lacking inflections (complicated
kinks) and are considered in relation to upslope, downslope, and lateral elements.

They go by a plethora of names – facets, sites, land elements, terrain components, and facies. The ‗site‘ was an
elaboration of the ‗facet‘, and involved altitude, extent, slope, curvature, ruggedness, and relation to the water table.
The other terms were coined in the 1960s represented as a morphological map. The map combines landform elements
derived from a nine-unit land-surface model with depictions of deep-seated mass movements and superficial mass
movements. Digital elevation models lie within the ambits of landform morphometry and are dealt with below. They
have greatly extended, but by no means replaced, the classic work on landform elements and their descriptors as
prosecuted by the morphological mappers.

1.5.3.2. Digital Elevation Models

The renaissance of geomorphometry since the 1970s is in large measure due to two developments. First is the light-
speed development and use of GIS, which allow input, storage, and manipulation of digital data representing spatial
and aspatial features of the Earth‘s surface. The digital representation of topography has probably attracted greater
attention than that of any other surface feature. Second is the development of Electronic Distance Measurement
(EDM) in surveying and, more recently, the Global Positioning System (GPS), which made the very time-consuming
process of making large-scale maps much quicker and more fun. The spatial form of surface topography is modelled
in several ways. Digital representations are referred to as either Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) or Digital Terrain
Models (DTMs). A DEM is ‗an ordered array of numbers that represent the spatial distribution of elevations above
some arbitrary datum in a landscape‘. DTMs are ‗ordered arrays of numbers that represent the spatial distribution of
terrain attributes. DEMs are, therefore, a subset of DTMs. Topographic elements of a landscape can be computed
directly from a DEM. Further details of DEMs and their applications are given in several recent books.

1.5.3.3. Remote Sensing Models

Modern digital terrain representations derived from remotely sensed data greatly aid the understanding of Earth
surface processes. Applications of remote sensing to geomorphology (and to the environmental sciences in general)
fall into four periods. Before 1950, the initial applications of aerial photography were made. From 1950 to 1970 was
a transition period from photographic applications to unconventional imagery systems (such as thermal infra-red
scanners and side looking airborne radars), and from low-altitude aircraft to satellite platforms. From 1972 to 2000,
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the application of multispectral scanners and radiometer data obtained from operational satellite platforms
predominated. Since about 2000, a range of new remote sensing techniques has led to a proliferation of information
on terrain. Raw elevation data for DEMs are derivable from photogrammetric methods, including stereo aerial
photographs, satellite imagery, and airborne laser interferometry, or from field surveys using GPS or total stations (a
total station is an electronic theodolite integrated with an electronic distance meter that reads distances from the
instrument to a particular point; it is usually linked to a data logger and automated mapping software). If stereo aerial
photographs and satellite images are the sources for elevation data, there will be a complete coverage of the
landscape at the resolution of the image or photographs. An advantage of using satellite images is that they are
already in digital format. Airborne laser interferometry uses scanners to provide high-resolution surface
measurements. An example is Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR). Although LiDAR is a relatively young and
complex technology, it provides a technique that is accurate, that is suitable for areas of rugged and difficult terrain,
and that is increasingly affordable. LiDAR works by measuring the laser-pulse travel time from a transmitter to a
target and back to the receiver. The laser pulse travels at the speed of light, so very accurate timing is required to
obtain fine vertical resolutions. As the aircraft flies over an area, a scanning mirror directs the laser pulses back and
forth across-track. The collected data is a set of points arranged across the flight-line. The combination of multiple
flight-line data provides coverage for an area. An extremely useful characteristic of LiDAR is its ability to penetrate
the vegetation canopy and map the ground beneath. Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS) and Airborne Laser Swath
Mapping (ALSM) technology, using LiDAR technology, now provide high-resolution topographic data with
advantages over traditional survey techniques, including the capability of producing sub-metre resolution DTMs, and
high quality land-cover information (Digital Surface Models or DSMs) over large areas. New topographic data has
aided geomorphic studies, including the analysis of land-surface form, land sliding, channel network structure, river
morphology and bathymetry, the recognition of palaeosurfaces, and tectonics. Since the 1960s and 1970s,
geomorphologists have tended to direct process studies towards the construction of models for predicting short-term
changes in landforms, that is, changes happening over human timescales. Such models have drawn heavily on soil
engineering, for example in the case of slope stability, and hydraulic engineering in the cases of flow and sediment
entrainment and deposition in rivers. Nonetheless, some geomorphologists, including Michael J. Kirkby and
Jonathan D. Phillips, have carved out a niche for themselves in the modelling department. These groundbreaking
endeavours led to the modelling of long-term landscape evolution, which now lies at the forefront of geomorphic
research. The spur to these advances in landscape modelling was huge advances in computational technology,
coupled with the establishment of a set of process equations designated ‗geomorphic transport laws‘. As Yvonne
Martin and Michael Church (2004, 334) put it, ‗The modelling of landscape evolution has been made quantitatively
feasible by the advent of high speed computers that permit the effects of multiple processes to be integrated together
over complex topographic surfaces and extended periods of time‘.

Mathematical models of landscapes predict what happens if a particular combination of slope and river processes is
allowed to run for millions of years, given assumptions about the initial topography, tectonic uplift and subsidence,
and conditions at the boundaries (the removal of sediment, for example). Some geomorphologists would argue that
these models are of limited worth because environmental conditions will not stay constant, or approximately
constant, for millions or even hundreds of thousands of years. Nonetheless, the models do show the broad patterns of
hill slope and land-surface change that occur under particular process regimes.

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Unit 2: Structure and Composition of the Earth

2.1. Overview on the Origin of the Solar System
2.1.1. A few things about the Universe
Though the intention of Geomorphology is about the Lithospheric Earth, it is better to have a broad view through
addressing the Universe and the solar system. Hence, it is vital to deal with the origin of the Universe. People have
always been interested in the structure(Cosmology) and origin (Cosmogony) of the universe. Regarding this, most
models have been static- either an Earth or sun centered machine that repeats its cycle annualy and endlessly. These
models gave no clue to the univers‘s origin; the univers‘s they portrayed was the same yesterday, today and
tomorrow. Only in the 20th century has a dynamic view emerged. The Big Bang model involves cosmogony which
states that the universe began with a singularity as well as dynamic cosmology which states that the universe is
expanding. According to the big bang theory, the universe blinked violently into existence 13.8 billion years ago. The
big bang is often described as an explosion, but imagining it as an enormous fireball isn‘t accurate. The big bang
started with a sudden expansion of energy and space from a single point. The kind of Hollywood explosion that
might come to mind involves expansion of matter and energy within space, but during the big bang, energy, space,
and matter were created.

Scientists now have tools that are powerful enough to look deep into space and see the arrival of light from early in
the universe‘s history. Astronomers can detect light from approximately 380,000 years after the big bang is thought
to have occurred. Physicists tell us that if the big bang happened, then particles within the universe would still be
very close together at this time. They would be so close that light wouldn‘t be able to travel far without bumping into
another particle and getting scattered in another direction. The effect would be to fill the sky with glowing fog, the
―afterglow‖ from the formation of the universe. In fact, this is exactly what we see when we look at light from

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380,000 years after the big bang. The fog is referred to as the cosmic microwave background (or CMB), and it has
been carefully mapped throughout the sky. In the above figure, the colourful patch at the base of the diagram
represents the fog that is measured today as the CMB. It is a CMB map of the universe in Mollweide projection.
This is a projection that is used to show Earth's geography on a flat surface. In this case, the map of the CMB
represents a sphere surrounding Earth rather than what‘s beneath our feet. Colour variations in the CMB map
represent temperature variations. These variations translate to differences in the density at which matter was
distributed in the early universe. The red patches are the highest density regions and the blue patches are the lowest
density. Higher density regions represent the eventual beginnings of stars and planets. The CMB map in the above
has been likened to a baby picture of the universe. Hence, the "contents" of the vessel/universe change as time
progresses. A few minutes after the big bang, the universe was still too hot and dense to be anything but a sizzle of
particles smaller than atoms. But as it expanded, it also cooled. Eventually particles that collided were able to stick
together to form atoms, rather than being smashed apart again when other particles crashed into them. Those
collisions produced hydrogen and helium, the most common elements in the universe. For a long time after the big
bang, clouds of hydrogen and helium atoms drifted about a dark universe. The "dark ages" (bottom of the above
figure were a time when the ingredients for stars existed, but stars themselves did not. It took approximately 500
million years for enough hydrogen atoms to clump together in clouds to allow the first stars to form and begin to
shine. The expansion that started with the big bang never stopped. It continues today, and we can see it happen by
observing that large clusters of billions of stars, called galaxies, are moving away from us.

2.1.2. Theories Advanced for the Origin of the Solar System and the Earth

A solar system consists of a collection of objects orbiting one or more central stars. All solar systems
start out the same way. They begin in a cloud of gas and dust called a nebula. Nebulae are some of the
most beautiful objects that have been photographed in space. They have vibrant colours from the gases and
dust they contain, and brilliant twinkling from the many stars that have formed within them. Earth is one of the 9
planets (8 excluding Pluto) orbiting the SUN in the Solar System. The Universe is composed of several Galaxies. Our
solar system is part of Milky way galaxy which is disk shaped with about 1, 00,000 million stars of varying sizes.
Our solar system consists of 8 planets and 31 satellites, a belt of asteroids.

Figure: Super Nebula

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According to the different theories discussed below, there are three steps in the origination and formation of the solar
system. These steps are:
i. Collapse a Nebula
ii. Rotation and Make a Disk with a Star at Its Centre
iii. Build Some Planets
Step 1: Collapse a Nebula
The gas consists largely of hydrogen and helium, and the dust consists of tiny mineral grains, ice crystals,
and organic particles. A solar system begins to form when a small patch within a nebula (small by the standards of
the universe, that is) begins to collapse upon itself. Exactly how this starts isn‘t clear, although it might be triggered
by the violent behaviour of nearby stars as they progress through their life cycles. Energy and matter released by
these stars might compress the gas and dust in nearby neighbourhoods within the nebula. Once it is triggered, the
collapse of gas and dust within that patch continues for two reasons. One of those reasons is that gravitational force
pulls gas molecules and dust particles together. But early in the process, those particles are very small, so the
gravitational force between them isn‘t strong. So how do they come together? The answer is that dust first
accumulates in loose clumps for the same reason dust bunnies form under the bed: static electricity. Given the role of
dust bunnies in the early history of the solar system, one might speculate that an accumulation of dust bunnies poses
a substantial risk to one‘s home. In practice, however, this is rarely the case.

Step 2: Make a Disk with a Star at Its Centre

As the small patch within a nebula condenses, a star begins to form from material drawn into the centre of
the patch, and the remaining dust and gas settle into a protoplanetary disk that rotates around the star.
The disk is where planets will eventually form. These are gaps formed by the collection of dust and debris by
incipient planets, called protoplanets, as they orbit the star. There is an analogy for this in our own solar system,
because the dark rings are akin to the gaps in the rings of Saturn.

Figure: Disk Type formation of Planets

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Step 3: Build Some Planets

In general, planets can be classified into three categories based on what they are made of. These are:
i. Terrestrial planets
ii. Jovian planets
iii. Ice giant planets
Terrestrial planets are those planets like Earth, Mercury, Venus, and Mars that have a core of metal
surrounded by rock. Jovian planets (also called gas giants) are those planets like Jupiter and Saturn
that consist predominantly of hydrogen and helium. Ice giants are planets such as Uranus and Neptune
that consist largely of water ice, methane (CH 4 ) ice, and ammonia (NH 3 ) ice, and have rocky cores. Often, the ice
giant planets Uranus and Neptune are grouped with Jupiter and Saturn as gas giants; however, Uranus and Neptune
are very different from Jupiter and Saturn.
These three types of planets are not mixed together randomly within our solar system. Instead they occur in
a systematic way, with terrestrial planets closest to the sun, followed by the Jovian planets and then the ice
giants.

Smaller solar system objects follow this arrangement as well. The asteroid belt contains bodies of rock and metal.
Bodies ranging from metres to hundreds of metres in diameter are classified as asteroids, and smaller bodies are
referred to as meteoroids. In contrast, the Kuiper belt (Kuiper rhymes with piper), and the Oort cloud (Oort rhymes
with sort), which are at the outer edge of the solar system, contain bodies composed of large amounts of ice in
addition to rocky fragments and dust. Part of the reason for this arrangement is the frost line (also referred to as the
snow line). The frost line marks the division between the inner part of the protoplanetary disk closer to the sun,
where it was too hot to permit anything but silicate minerals and metal to crystalize, and the outer part of the disk
farther from the sun, where it was cool enough to allow ice to form. As a result, the objects that formed in the inner
part of the protoplanetary disk consist largely of rock and metal, while the objects that formed in the outer part
consist largely of gas and ice. The young sun blasted the solar system with raging solar winds (winds made up of
energetic particles), which helped to drive lighter molecules toward the outer part of the protoplanetary disk.
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The Earth, together with the other eight planets – Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune – and
their moons form the planetary system. Together with the Sun, they form the solar system.
Physical Data of the Planets
Planet Diameter Relative Average Atmosphere Distance from Moons
(km) Mass Density the Sun (AU)
(Earth = 1) (g/cm3)
Mercury 4880 0.06 5.43 none 0.39 0
Venus 12104 0.821 5.20 CO2, N2 0.72 0

Earth 12742 1.00 5.52 N2, O2, H2O 1.00 1

Mars 6778 0.21 3.93 CO2, N2, Ar 1.52 2
Jupiter 139822 317.8 1.33 H2, He 5.2 63
Saturn 116464 95.2 0.69 H2, He 9.58 47
Uranus 50724 14.5 1.27 H2, He, CH4 19.2 27

Neptune 49248 17.1 1.64 H2, He, CH4 30.04 13

Therefore, in order to understand the origin of the Earth, we must first understand the origin of the solar system.
What do you understand about the solar system?
Our solar system is a group of objects in space. These objects are kept in place by the sun‘s gravitation and is
basically made up of the sun, the nine planets with their moons, and smaller bodies such as asteroids and comets.
There are two main theories advanced for the origin of the solar system. These are:
i. The Evolutionary / Uniformitarian Nebular Theory, and
ii. The Catastrophic-Event Theory.

The Evolutionary / Uniformitarian Nebular Theory

Its essential idea is that of a flat disc-shaped rotating cloud of gas and dust – referred to as Nebular – that gradually
contracted and condensed under its own gravitational force to form the Sun. The variants of this theory include the
development of several regularly spaced rings each of which aggregated to form a planet. In its formation, the earth
went through a molten period as the material contracted under its own gravitational force. Modern methods of dating
rock material have shown the oldest fragments of meteorites and moon rocks to be close to 4.6 billion years old. The
formation of the solar system is thus believed to have been substantially complete more than 4.5 billion years ago.

Significance of The Nebular Theory

The major merit of this theory is that it is widely accepted in explaining the distribution of planets along one plane
through the Sun and the regular spacing among planets. However this theory came into some problems in the 19th
Century when more data about the sizes, masses and spins of all the planets were determined. The major problem
was about the period of spins. It is argued that if the Sun and its inner planets – Mercury, Venus and the Earth –
which are relatively small, dense and rocky resulted from the contraction of the rotating nebular, they should be
spinning faster than the outer planets – Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto- which are usually large, lighter and
gaseous, and not the other way round. This is not the case.

Catastrophic-Event Theory

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This theory suggests the close approach of another condensed star to the Sun. The gravitational forces involved
would cause huge tides to be raised on the star and the Sun until a cigar-shaped filament of stellar material became
torn away from one or both and condensed between the two stars to form planets.
Significance of the Catastrophic-Event Theory
The merit of this theory is that it overcame the problem of the variation of the planetary spin rates. However its major
demerits came about when:
(i). It was later realized through scientific studies that stellar material at temperatures exceeding a million degrees
centigrade would rather disperse than condense into planets.
(ii). Statistical arguments advanced by astronomers showed that the chances of a close encounter between two stars
are rather remote.

2.1.3. Theories Related to the Origin of the Solar System and the Earth
Numerous theories have been advanced with regard to the origin, composition, rotation and condensation of the
spiral nebulae and the Earth. In terms of time passage and applicability, those theories can be broadly categorized in
to two groups: Classical and Modern theories.
A. Classical Theories
Geocentric Theory
Heliocentric Theory
B. Modern Theories
 BUFFON‘S HYPOTHESIS
 THE GASEOUS MASS THEORY
 NEBULAR THEORY:
 METEORITE THEORY
 PLANETESIMAL THEORY
 TIDAL HYPOTHESIS
 INTER STELLER DUST HYPOTHESIS:
 BINARY STAR THEORY
 Etc.
Geocentric Theory: The earliest systematic theory of the earth was the ― Geocentric theory‖
According to this theory, the earth was the unmoving centre of the universe, round which the sun and the
stars and all other heavenly bodies revolved. One of the earliest proponents of this theory was Euodoxius
of Cnidos. The Final Formulation of the theory was made by Claudius Ptolemy.

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Heliocentric Theory: This theory was first advanced by Nicolous Koppernigk. A polish astronomer, better known
by his latinised name Copernicus. In 1543 he set out the theory that the sun was the centre of the universe and the
earth and other planets revolve around it. The theory faced stormy weather. It was then Galileo Galilei save the
Copernican theory from extinction. Finally Sir Issac Newton dealth the last blow at Geocentric theory.

BUFFON‟S HYPOTHESIS: In 1749, the French naturalist Comte De Buffon argued that the Planetary
system orginated as a result of a collision between the sun and a huge cometi that come out from the depths of space.
Due to this collision lot of matter was freed from the sun and this matter, on condensation, formed planets and sub-
planets.
THE GASEOUS MASS THEORY: In 1755 the German Philospher Immune kant suggested that the
Earth and the other planets were condensed from a rotating nebular of gas centred in the sun. According to him,
primordial matter was evenly distributed in the shape of small and cold particles. Due to gravitational attraction
between them. They were pulled towards one another. This resulted into a collision which increased their
―temperature‖ and produced ―angular velocity‖ The temprature and the speed rose so high that the mass of the
particles became gaseous, and began to emit light. Due to angular velocity ―centrifugal force‖ (a force which pulls
things away from its centre) increased so much that rings began to separate from the gaseous mass. These rings on
cooling became planets. Some rings also separated from the gaseous mass of the planet and revolved around them as
sub-plants. The remaining part of the original gaseous mass became the sun.

NEBULAR THEORY: The French mathematician Marquis De Laplace supported the nebular hypothesis
in 1796. He stated that primordial matter in the beginning existed in the form of intensely hot and rotating
gaseous mass called Nebula. Due to rotation of Nebula the rings moved away and broke into many smaller
rings. These rings, on cooling took the forms of planets and sub planets. The centre part of the nebula
which remained behind became the sun.

METEORITE THEORY: Lockyer, a British scientist adopted the laplace‘s theory in another way.
According to him there were two meteors in the beginning. Tremendous heat was generated when these

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meteors collided with each other. The matter of the meteors melted into liquid. Many scattered bodies
assembled on account of the gravitational pull between them and took the form of a spiral nebula. The rest
of the hypothesis runs according to the laplace‘s hypothesis.

PLANETESIMAL THEORY: In 1904 two American astronomers, T.C. Chamberlain and F.R. Moulton
offered an altered version of Buffon‘s theory. They argued that a star (not a comet) passed by the sun and
drew out the material that later condensed into planets.
TIDAL HYPOTHESIS: This hypothesis was advocated by James Jeans and Jeffreys. According to this hypothesis,
in the distant past a big star approached the sun so near that it raised tides in it. These tides gradually became so great
that just under that approaching star the tidal matter shot off toward it. The matter that had already left the sun
formed a long filament of gaseous matter which was set into motion by the gravitational pull of the receding star.
This matter could not fall back into the sun, but rotates around the parent body or sun. As time passed the gaseous
matter cooled down and formed the various planets. This theory is also known as ―Hit and run theory‖ or
―catastrophic theory‖ or ―Tidal action theory‖.

INTER STELLER DUST HYPOTHESIS: Otto Schmidst, a Russian Scientist ( 1943) believed that there was lot of
dust particles in the space in addition to stars, planets etc. The dust particles being attracted by the sun about 6 billion
years ago, began to revolve round the sun. In the beginning, these particles revolved in different and uncertain orbit
but later they collided with one another and assumed the form of a saucer. Due to collision their speed decreased and
the particles united to form planetesimals which later produced large planets. Some matter remained unconsolidated
even after the planets were born. Sub planets were formed from this unconsolidated material and began to revolve
round the planets. This theory is also called as gas-dust-cloud theory and is one of the most favoured.

BINARY STAR THEORY: Russel and Lyttleton (1936) regarded the sun as a Binary star. At some time
in the past there was another star called Compound star at a distance of 2900 million km from the present
star. Both the stars revolved round the same centre. Due to some accident a third star happened to come
as close as 5.5 to 4.5 million km to the companion star. As it was far away from the sun, it did not affect it,
but it produced tides in the companion star. A lot of matter of the companion star in the form of tide was
attracted towards the stars and began to revolve around it. The planets were formed from this matter. Tides
must have been produced when the planets were in the liquid state.

2.1.4. The Earth‟s Evolution and its System

Questions about the origins and nature of the Earth have long preoccupied human thought and the scientific
endeavor. Deciphering the planet‘s history and processes could improve the ability to predict catastrophes like
earthquakes and volcanoes, to manage Earth‘s resources, and to anticipate changes in climate and geologic processes.
As different studies show, the early Earth was very different from what it is today. It lacked the modern oceans and
atmosphere and had a different surface from the present one. The primitive Earth was heated by several processes.
Immediately after the Earth formed, the energy released by the decay of radioactive elements coupled with the heat
from the colliding particles and the heat generated by the compression of the interior due to gravity produced some
melting on the earth‘s interior. Melting allowed the heavier elements – Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni) – to sink while the
lighter rocky fragments floated upwards. This segregation of materials which began early in the earth‘s history is
believed to be still occurring but on a smaller scale. Hence the earth‘s interior is not homogenous but consists of
shells or spheres of materials having different properties. The heating and subsequent differentiation of the early
earth led to another important result: formation of the atmosphere and oceans. Many minerals that had contained

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water or gases in their crystals released them during the heating and melting, and as the earth‘s surface cooled, the
water could condense to form the oceans. Without this abundant surface water, which in the solar system is unique to
earth, most life as we know it could not exist. The earth‘s early atmosphere was quite different from the modern one.
The first atmosphere had little or no free oxygen in it. It probably consisted dominantly of carbon dioxide, the gas
most commonly released from volcanoes (aside from water). Oxygen-breathing life of any kind could not exist
before the first simple plants – the single-celled blue green algae-appeared in large numbers to modify the
atmosphere. The remains are found in rocks several billion years old. They manufactured food by photosynthesis,
using sunlight for energy, consuming carbon dioxide, and releasing oxygen as a by- product. In time, enough oxygen
accumulated that the atmosphere could support oxygen-breathing organisms.

Hence, the earth in the present form has reached through several hlases. From a ball of whirling dust and clouds, it
passed through a molten stage. Light substances floated up from deep inside then they changed into hard rock‘s after
cooling. These solid rocks make up most of the earth‘s crust. As the earth‘s interior continued to cool, it contracted
and the outer crust wrinkled forming ridges and basins. Meanwhile, still lighter substances swarmed up above the
earth‘s surface forming an atmosphere of gases. As the gaseous substance cooled in the atmosphere, enormous clouds
emerged. They brought heavy rains for thousands years. This rain water collected in great basins and thus oceans
came into being. For a long span of time, the planet earth remained life less. Then life took its shape in ocean. It is
difficult to say what formed life but through some agency some molecules acquired the ability to duplicate emerged
the wonderful world of plants and animals.

2.1.5. System Nature of the Earth

2.1.5.1. The Concept of System
A system is a group of related objects or processes that work together to form a whole. Systems can be as small as an
atom or as large as the whole universe. In the social context, systems are mental constructs (political system, cultural
system, legal system, etc. ) and defined in various ways.The Earth system is made up of many smaller systems. Each
smaller system is made up of even smaller systems. The parts of a system interact, or affect one another. Systems can
also interact with other systems. Systems can interact by exchanging matter or energy. Matter is anything that has
mass and takes up space. Energy is the ability to do work. Heat, light, and vibrations are examples of energy.
There are a number of systems in this planet. Based on the nature of exchanging matter and energy those different
systems can broadly categorized in to three types:
i. Open System: An open system is a system that exchanges both matter and energy with the surroundings.
ii. Closed System: A closed system is a system that exchanges energy but not matter with the surroundings.
Earth is almost a closed system. Energy enters the Earth system in the form of sunlight. Energy leaves the
system in the form of heat. Only tiny amounts of matter enter and leave the system. Therefore, scientists
often model Earth as a closed system.
iii. Isolated System: An isolated system is a system that cannot exchange both energy and matter with its
surroundings. Such a system is not exit in the natural world. It is common in laboratories.

2.1.5.2. Types of System: Isolated, Closed, Open, and Dissipative Systems

Systems of all kinds are open, closed, or isolated according to how they interact, or do not interact, with their
surroundings. Traditionally, an isolated system is a system that is completely cut off from its surroundings and that
cannot therefore import or export matter or energy. A closed system has boundaries open to the passage of energy but
not of matter. An open system has boundaries across which energy and materials may move. All geomorphic
systems, including hill slopes, are open systems as they exchange energy and matter with their surroundings. They

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are also dissipative systems, which means that irreversible processes resulting in the dissipation of energy (generally
in form of friction or turbulence) govern them. Thus, to maintain itself, a geomorphic system dissipates energy from
such external sources as solar energy, tectonic uplift, and precipitation.

2.1.5.3. Earth as a System and its Effect on Landforms

Physical geographers examine the lithosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and the linkage among them as a
system. Hence, Earth systems involves looking at Earth as a set of systems. These systems are all connected and
influence one another, as well as, the Earth as a whole. Each individual system consists of features that together play
a role in keeping our Earth in balance. A change within one system will cause a change in another. The past, present,
and future of our planet is based on the constant interaction among these systems. The Earth system may be divided
into a number of zones, with each traditionally studied by a separate scientific discipline. The part of the solid Earth
nearest to the surface (to a depth of perhaps 100 km) is called the lithosphere and is studied by geologists,
geophysicists, geomorphologists, soil scientists, mineralogists, volcanologists, and other practitioners of the
environmental and agricultural sciences. The part of the system that is covered by liquid water is termed the
hydrosphere; it is considered by those in the fields of oceanography, hydrology, and limnology (the study of lakes).
The region comprising frozen water in all its forms (glaciers, sea ice, surface and subsurface ice, and snow) is known
as the cryosphere and is studied by those specializing in glaciology, as well as specialized physical geographers,
geologists, and oceanographers. The biosphere, which crosscuts the lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and
atmosphere, includes the zone containing all life forms on the planet, including humans. The biosphere is examined
by specialists in the wide array of life sciences, along with physical geographers, geologists, and other environmental
scientists. The atmosphere is the component of the system studied by climatologists and meteorologists.

Each component of the earth system determines directly or indirectly the geomorphic process and related landforms.
Hence, it is better to look things in holistic/ geomorphic system approach in investigating landforms.

2.1.5.4. The Gaia Hypothesis/Theory

The Gaia theory posits that the Earth is a self-regulating complex system involving the biosphere, the atmosphere, the
hydrospheres and the pedosphere, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The theory sustains that this system as a
whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life. Gaia evolves through a
cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of

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habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on
the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements.

These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition
and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic desequilibrium state of the Earth system. The existence of
a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of biogeochemistry, and
it is being investigated also in other fields like Earth system science. The originality of the Gaia theory relies on the
assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life,
even when terrestrial or external events menace them. The Gaia hypothesis, also known as Gaia theory or Gaia
principle, proposes that all organisms and their inorganic surroundings on Earth are closely integrated to form a
single and self-regulating complex system, maintaining the conditions for life on the planet. The scientific
investigation of the Gaia hypothesis focuses on observing how the biosphere and the evolution of life forms
contribute to the stability of global temperature, ocean salinity, oxygen in the atmosphere and other factors of
habitability in a preferred homeostasis. The Gaia hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock and co-
developed by the microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s. Initially received with hostility by the scientific
community, it is now studied in the disciplines of geophysiology and Earth system science, and some of its principles
have been adopted in fields like biogeochemistry and systems ecology. This ecological hypothesis has also inspired
analogies and various interpretations in social sciences, politics, and religion under a vague philosophy and
movement.
2.1.6. The Nature of the Early Earth
The Early Earth was very different from what it is today. It lacked the modern oceans and atmosphere and had a
different surface from the present one. The primitive Earth was heated by several processes. Immediately after the
Earth formed, the energy released by the decay of radioactive elements coupled with the heat from the colliding
particles and the heat generated by the compression of the interior due to gravity produced some melting on the
earth‘s interior. Melting allowed the heavier elements – Iron (Fe) and Nickel (Ni) – to sink while the lighter rocky
fragments floated upwards. This segregation of materials which began early in the earth‘s history is believed to be
still occurring but on a smaller scale. Hence the earth‘s interior is not homogenous but consists of shells or spheres of
materials having different properties. Using the science of seismology, scientists have established that the Earth
consists of three basic layers, namely the large iron rich core, the mantle, and a thin crust at the surface each with its
own characteristics.
How were the Earth‟s Atmosphere and Oceans Formed?
The heating and subsequent differentiation of the early earth led to another important result: formation of the
atmosphere and oceans. Many minerals that had contained water or gases in their crystals released them during the
heating and melting, and as the earth‘s surface cooled, the water could condense to form the oceans. Without this
abundant surface water, which in the solar system is unique to earth, most life as we know it could not exist.
The earth‘s early atmosphere was quite different from the modern one. The first atmosphere had little or no free
oxygen in it. It probably consisted dominantly of carbon dioxide, the gas most commonly released from volcanoes
(aside from water). Oxygen- breathing life of any kind could not exist before the first simple plants – the single-
celledblue-green algae- appeared in large numbers to modify the atmosphere. The remains are found in rocks several
billion years old. They manufactured food by photosynthesis, using sunlight for energy, consuming carbon dioxide,
and releasing oxygen as a by- product. In time, enough oxygen accumulated that the atmosphere could support
oxygen- breathing organisms.

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2.2. Structure of the Earth

Before directly proceding to structure of the earth, it is fundamental to deal with the evolution and systemic nature of
the earth. Hence, the following subtopics addresses the evolution and system nature of the planet earth. The area from
the surface of Earth down to its center is called the geosphere. The geosphere is divided into three main parts: the
crust, mantle, and core. These three parts are illustrated in the following figure.
The inner core and crust are solid, but the outer core is liquid and the mantle layers are semi-liquid.

Earth has layered structure. Layering can be viewed in two different ways:
1. Layers of different chemical composition
2. Layers of differing physical properties.

1. Compositional Layering
The core is made up of mostly iron and nickel, and the upper mantle of minerals such as olivine and pyroxene. Crust
- variable thickness and composition Its thickness varies 10 - 80 km thick - "granitic" (made mostly of Oxygen and
Silicon) in composition. The continental crust consists of granitic rocks (enriched with silicon and Aluminium
elements - SIAL) and the oceanic crust consists mainly of basaltic rocks (SIMA); and its thickness varies 2 - 10 km
thick - "basaltic" (less Silicon than in continental crust, more Magnesium)

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Figure. Diagram showing the structure and composition of the Earth‟s interior

Table: Layer, nature and composition of the Earth‘s interior

Layers Thickness of Sub-Layers Nature Thickness of sub- Composition
Layers layers
Inner Core Solid 1, 250 Km 85% Iron (Fe) & some
Core 2883Km nickel (Ni)
Outer Core Liquid 2, 320 Km Nickel – Iron
3,488Km Inner Mantle Semi-liquid 2, 895 Km Peridotite – Olivine,
Mantle Outer Mantle pyroxene
80Km Continental Crust Solid 10-80Km Granitic rocks (SiAl)
Crust Oceanic Crust Solid 2-10Km Basaltic rocks (SiMa)

2. Layers of Differing Physical Properties

The rigid outer shell of Earth is called the crust. There are two kinds of crust-continental crust and oceanic crust. Just
below the crust is Earth‘s mantle. The mantle differs from the crust both in composition and behaviour. The mantle
ranges in temperature from 100°C to 4000°C - much warmer than the temperatures found in Earth‘s crust. Below the
mantle is Earth‘s core.
i. Core:
 It is 1/3rd of mass of the earth
 1/6th of the earth‘s volume
 It is 2883 km radius, made up of Iron (Fe) and small amount of Nickel (Ni)
 Pressure: millions of times that of atmospheric pressure at the surface.
 Temperature 4000oC - 5000oC
 Relative Density at the center 13.5 relative density.
 Can be divided in to inner and outer core
 The inner core is Solid and predominantly Fe; also Nickel
 The outer core is 2250 km thick, Fe and Ni, liquid
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 The pressure in the outer core is comparatively lesser, to allow the hot iron to melt. Addition of lighter
elements, which when mixed with iron, lower its melting point. There is a gradual flow of molten iron in
the outer core and is very important for maintaining earth‘s magnetism.
 The core behaves like a self sustaining dynamo.
 The driving forces- Earth‘s rotation and unequal distribution of heat in the earth‘s interiors.
 The existence of a liquid outer core when the inner core, which must be hotter, is solid. Most probably in
its formative stage the entire core was liquid. Further, this liquid iron alloy was in a state of vigorous
mixing . However, during the last 3.5 billion year‘s the material of the core has been slowly segregating.
As the core cooled, a portion of the iron components gradually migrated downward while some of the
lighter components floated upward toward the outer edge of the core. The sinking iron rich components,
depleted of the lighter elements which act to depress the melting point, began to solidity.

ii. Mantle:
 80% of the earth‘s volume is contained within the mantle.
 Mantle is described as a solid rocky layer, and the most common rock is peridotite.
 Peridotite – ultra basic rock, consisting largely of olivine, hence its
 made up of a rock called peridotite. Solid but can deform so that it confects (moves in response to
temperature differences).
 predominantly dark green colour (olivine – silicate of magnesium mg2SiO4 to silicates of iron Fe2SiO4).
 The crust increases its temperature with depth, but this trend does not continue downward into the mantle.
This means mantle has an effective method to transmit heat outward i.e., some form of convection.
 Material in this zone exhibit plastic behaviour, i.e., when the material encounters short lived stresses, such
as seismic waves, the material behaves like an elastic solid. However, in response to long term stresses,
this same rocky material will flow. So S waves can penetrate through mantle, yet, this layer is not able to
store elastic energy like a brittle solid and is thus incapable of generating earthquakes
 It can be categorized as outer and inner mantle.

 Outer Mantle: After about 400 kms, the velocity of seismic waves increases as a result of
phase change. A phase change occurs when the crystalline structure of a mineral changes in
response to change in temperature and pressure. The mineral olivine (Mg,Fe)SiO4 , which is one of the
main constituents of the rock peridotite, will collapse to a more compact high pressure mineral – spinel.
This structural change to a denser crystal form could explain the increased
seismic velocities observed.
 Inner Mantle: Another boundary at a depth of around 700 kms because, mineral Spinel,
undergoes transformation to the mineral Perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO4. Since Perovskite is the predominant
mineral of lower mantle, it is the most abundant mineral in the earth.
iii. Mesosphere - about 2500 km thick, solid rock, but still capable of flowing.
iv. Asthenosphere
 Asthenosphere is about 250 km thick to depth of 350 km - solid rock, but soft and flows easily.
 P and S waves show a marked decrease in velocity one. The most probable explanation for the observed
slowing of seismic energy is that this zone contains a small percentage of melt. But Asthenosphere is not
continuous and is absent below the older shield areas.

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 .It was first named in 1914 by the British geologist J. Barrel, who divided Earth‘s overall structure into
three major sections: the lithosphere, or outer layer of rock like material; the asthenosphere; and the
centrosphere, or central part of the planet.
 The asthenosphere gets its name from the Greek word for weak, asthenis, because of the relatively fragile
nature of the materials of which it is made. It lies in the upper portion of Earth‘s structure traditionally
known as the mantle.
 The material of which the asthenosphere is composed can be described as plastic-like, with much less
rigidity than the lithosphere above it. This property is caused by the interaction of temperature and
pressure on asthenospheric materials.
 Any rock will melt if its temperature is raised to a high enough temperature. However, the melting point
of any rock is also a function of the pressure exerted on the rock. In general, as the pressure is increased
on a material, its melting point increases.
 The temperature of the materials that makeup the asthenosphere tends to be just below their melting point.
This gives them a plastic-like quality that can be compared to glass. As the temperature of the material
increases or as the pressure exerted on the material increases, the material tends to deform and flow. If the
pressure on the material is sharply reduced, so will be its melting point, and the material may begin to
melt quickly. The fragile melting point pressure balance in the asthenosphere is reflected in the estimate
made by some geologists that up to 10% of the asthenospheric material may actually be molten. The rest
is so close to being molten that relatively modest changes in pressure or temperature may cause further
melting.
 In addition to loss of pressure on the asthenosphere, another factor that can bring about melting is an
increase in temperature. The asthenosphere is heated by contact with hot materials that make up the rest of
the mantle beneath it. In order for plate tectonic theory to seem sensible, some mechanism must be
available for permitting the flow of plate. That mechanism is the semi-fluid character of the asthenosphere
itself. Some observers have described the asthenosphere as the lubricating oil that permits the movement
of plates in the lithosphere.

v. Lithosphere:
 Situated above the asthenosphere is the cool brittle layer about 100km thick called the lithosphere.
 Lithosphere included the entire crust as well as the uppermost mantle and is defined as the layer of the
earth cool enough to behave like a brittle solid
 But it is not a single layer. A density discontinuity is there in the lithosphere.
 It is broken/fractured along several lines. The different segments are known as plates.
 So plates are essentially lithospheric plates are capable of sliding or, moving over the plastic
asthenosphere. Thus plates move from one point to another.

Starting at a depth of about 100 km below the earth‘s surface, rocks in the mantle usually reach high temperatures
and they lose much of their strength. This region of the upper mantle where rocks become easily deformed is called
the Asthenosphere (or weak sphere). In the approximate outer 100 km of the earth, is a region where rocks are harder
and more rigid than those in the asthenosphere. This hard outer layer is called the Lithosphere (or rock sphere), which
is rigid, cool and brittle. The atmosphere is the outermost layer. It has the lowest density and consists mostly of
Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%).

All the above points are known through observations that have been made from the surface of the Earth, in
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particular, the way seismic (earthquake waves) pass through the Earth.

Figure: Diagram Showing the Structural Relationship of Lithosphere and Asthenosphere

The bulk chemical composition of the Earth is mostly Iron (Fe, 34.6%), Oxygen (O 2, 29.5%), Silicon (Si,15.2%),
and Magnesium (Mg, 12.7%), with other elements making up the other 8%. These elements are distributed unevenly
due to the layering, with Fe being concentrated in the core, Si, O2 , and Mg being concentrated in the mantle, and Si,
O2, and the other elements being concentrated in the thin veneer of the crust.

Taken as a whole, the abundance of chemical elements in the Earth‘s crust are as tabulated in the following table.
Table: Average chemical composition of the Earth‘s crust.
No Element % by Weight
1 Oxygen 46.71
2 Silicon 27.69
3 Aluminium 8.07
4 Iron 5.05
5 Calcium 3.65
6 Magnesium 2.74
7 Potassium 2.58
8 Sodium 2.50
9 Titanium 0.62
10 Hydrogen 0.14

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From the above table, it can be seen that silicon and oxygen are two most abundant elements in the Earth‘s crust. It
is for this reason that the most abundant minerals of the earth‘s crust are the silicate minerals – consisting essentially
of silicon-oxygen tetrahedral, that are linked in a variety of ways.
What elements are most abundant?

Astronomers have identified the two most abundant elements in the universe as hydrogen and helium. All other
elements account for less than 1 percent of all atoms in the universe as shown in the following figure. Analyses of the
composition of rocks and minerals on Earth indicate that the percentages of elements in Earth‘s crust differ from the
percentages in the universe. As shown in the following figure, 98.5 percent of Earth‘s crust is made up of only eight
elements. Two of these elements oxygen and silicon account for almost 75 percent of the crust‘s composition. This
means that most of the rocks and minerals on Earth‘s crust contain oxygen and silicon.

2.3. Sources of Knowledge for Interior of the Earth

Centuries of studying Earth, its neighboring planets, and meteorites have enabled the development of models of the
birth of the Solar System. Astronomical observations from increasingly powerful telescopes have added a new
dimension to these models, as have studies of asteroids, comets, and other planets via spacecraft, as well as
geochemical studies of stardust and meteorites.
How do geologists know what the Earth‟s interior is made of?.

2.3.1. Inferred Knowledge (Density, Temperature, Pressure)

Geologists study the formation and composition of the Earth. It is the study of rocks and minerals in the context of
the Earth we live on and the different processes taking place on the earth. Geology is an applied science with many
branches of study, for example: Historical Geology – establishes the orderly arrangement of the many physical and
biological processes occurring on Earth; Mineralogy - the study of the science of minerals; Petrology – the study of
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rocks in terms of their mineral composition, occurrences, etc. Paleontology - the study of past lives of fossils. First,
scientists can estimate the starting composition of the whole solar nebula from analyses of stars. Experiments and
theoretical calculations can be combined to show what solids would condense out of such a cloud and at what
temperatures. Geologists can also infer aspects of the earth‘s bulk composition from analyses of certain meteorites
believed to have formed at the same time as, and under the conditions similar to, the earth. Geophysical data (e.g.
from seismic studies) demonstrate that the earth‘s interior is zoned and also provide information on the different
densities of the different layers. These and other kinds of data indicate that the earth layers are of different
composition. Hence, in order to understand the Earth, we must use the scientific method. This first involves making
observations concerning what it there, what it is made of and what processes are operating. These observations are
then used to develop hypotheses or theories to explain what we see. These hypotheses or theories are then tested by
making further observations, doing experiments, or doing some kind of modeling, either physically or theoretically.
An idea proposed early in the history of human study of the Earth was the principle of Uniformitarianism. The main
principle of Uniformitarianism is that the processes that are operating during the present are the same processes that
have operated in the past. i.e. the present is the key to the past. If we look at processes that occur today, we can infer
that the same processes operated in the past. However, this principle is with two major limitations/problems. These
are:
i. Rates Problem: The rates of processes may change over time for example a river might deposit 1mm of
sediment /year if we look at it today. but, a storm could produce higher runoff and carry more sediment
tomorrow. Another example: the internal heat of the Earth may have been greater in the past than in the
present -- rates of processes that depend on the amount of heat available may have changed through time.
ii. Observations Problem: we may not have observed in human history all possible processes especially in the
absence of accurate satellite images. Examples: Mt. St. Helens, Size of earthquakes.
Perhaps a better way of stating the Principle of Uniformitarianism is that the laws of nature have not changed through
time. Thus, if we understand the physical and chemical laws of nature, these should govern all processes that have
taken place in the past, are taking place in the present, and will take place in the future. How does Earth‟s interior
work, and how does it affect the surface?

2.3.2. Surface Expressions (Seismic Wave Evidences)

As planets age and cool off, their internal and surface processes gradually change. Manifestations of
changes within Earth‘s interior—such as the develop- ment of mountains and volcanoes—have a huge influence on
the nature of Earth‘s surface and atmosphere. Scientists know that much of the rock in the
Earth‘s mantle (the thick layer between the core and crust), which is under extreme pressure and very high
temperature, behaves like a viscous liquid. This vast interior, however, is largely inaccessible to direct study. For
over a century, seismic wave, geomagnetic, and gravity measurements made at the surface have
been improving understanding of Earth‘s internal structure. In general, using the science of seismology, scientists
have established that the Earth consists of three basic layers, namely the large iron rich core, the mantle, and a thin
crust at the surface each with its own characteristics. Despite continuing advances, however, scientists are only
beginning to explore the connections between Earth‘s core, magnetic field, mantle, and surface and to investigate
why Earth differs from other planets, or how it may change in the future. Why does Earth have plate tectonics and
continents?

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2.3.3. Holmes Convection Current Theory

A major focus of Earth science has been on deciphering the nature of the continents—the features that make Earth
habitable for land-dwelling life. How and when did the continents form? How have they changed? Why do the
Atlantic coastlines of South America and Africa look like pieces of a puzzle? Plate tectonics—the description of
Earth‘s outermost layers in terms of a small number of large rigid plates in relative motion—has offered many
breakthrough insights since it became a central paradigm for geology nearly 40 years ago. The motion of tectonic
plates and interactions at their boundaries are now known to be a driving force behind earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, the formation of mountains, and the slow drift of continents over Earth‘s surface. Although plate tectonic
theory explains many of Earth‘s surface features, it is not known why Earth has plates or what the relationships are
between plate tectonics and Earth‘s abundant water, continents, and the existence of life. Answering such questions
will require improved models, studies of modern plate boundaries, and comparisons with other planets. How are
Earth processes controlled by materialproperties? It‘s the little things that make all the difference. Scientists now
recognize that large-scale processes on Earth, such as plate tectonics, are driven by the nature of the materials that
make up the planet—down to the smallest details of their atomic structures.

2.4. Major Composition of the Earth

To start with the introduction to the composition and structure of the earth, look around you wherever you
are. Take a look at all the things that you see around you every day. For example, the pencil in your hand, where does
the lead in the pencil come from? The room you are probably in is made up of bricks, metal and glass; all of these
things come from the Earth. Just about everything around you that you use and see has some connection to the Earth.
The Earth beneath your feet as you stand is made up of soil, rocks and minerals. Without the soil we would have no
plants, no animals and hence no food! Many types of useful rocks and minerals are mined from the Earth to make

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products that we use all the time. Clearly, without the earth and its soils, rocks and minerals there would be no life.
Do you find what I am saying hard to believe? Well, in this lecture topic we shall introduce the science of geology
and discuss the important theories advanced for the origin of our planet earth. You will be able to illustrate and
contrast the different structural components and composition of the earth right from its inner core to the outer surface.
Only four elements account for 95% of Earth's mass: oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si), and iron
(Fe). Most of the remaining 5% comes from aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), nickel (Ni), hydrogen (H), and
sulphur (S). We know that the big bang made hydrogen, but where did the rest of the elements come from?
The answer is that the other elements were made by stars. Sometimes stars are said to ―burn‖ their fuel, but
burning is not what is going on within stars. The burning that happens when wood in a campfire is turned to
ash and smoke is a chemical reaction — heat causes the atoms that were in the wood and in the surrounding
atmosphere to exchange partners. Atoms group in different ways, but the atoms themselves do not change.
What stars do is change the atoms.

The heat and pressure within stars cause smaller atoms to smash together and fuse into new, larger atoms. For
example, when hydrogen atoms smash together and fuse, helium is formed. Large amounts of energy are released
when atoms fuse within stars, and this is what causes stars to shine. Stars can form large quantities of elements as
heavy as iron during their normal burning process. Side reactions can form heavier elements in small amounts.
It takes larger stars to make elements as heavy as iron in large quantities. Our sun is an average star. After it
uses up its hydrogen fuel to make helium, and some of that helium is fused to make small amounts of other
elements, it will be at the end of its life. It will stop making new elements and will cool down and bloat
until its middle reaches the orbit of Mars. In contrast, large stars end their lives in spectacular fashion. They
explode as supernovae, casting off newly formed atoms into space, and triggering side reactions to make
even more heavy atoms. It took many generations of stars creating heavier elements and casting them into space
before heavier elements were abundant enough for planets like Earth to form.

Until recently, astronomers have only been able to see stars that already contain heavier elements in small
amounts, but not the first-generation stars that started out before any of the heavier elements were
produced. That changed in 2015 when it was announced that a distant galaxy called CR7 had been found
that contained stars made only of hydrogen and helium. The galaxy is so far away that it shows us a view of
the universe from approximately 800 million years after the big bang. Since then, more galaxies like CR7
have been discovered.

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Unit 3: Minerals and Rocks

3.1. Rock Forming Minerals
3.1.1.Change of Matter
Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter. Matter is anything that has volume and mass. Everything in the
physical world that surrounds you is composed of matter. On Earth, matter usually occurs as a solid, a liquid, or a
gas. All matter is made of substances called elements. An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into
simpler substances by physical or chemical means. For example, gold is still gold whether it is a gold brick, coins, or
a statue. Each element has distinct characteristics. You have learned some of the characteristics of the element gold.
Although aluminum has different characteristics than gold, both aluminum and gold are elements that are made up of
atoms. All atoms consist of even smaller particles-protons, neutrons, and electrons. The centre of an atom is called
the nucleus (NEW klee us) (plural, nuclei). The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neutrons. A proton is
a tiny particle that has mass and a positive electric charge. A neutron is a particle with approximately the same mass
as a proton, but it is electrically neutral; that is, it has no electric charge. All atomic nuclei have a positive charge
because they are composed of protons with positive electric charges and neutrons with no electric charges.
Surrounding the nucleus of an atom are smaller particles called electrons. An electron (e‒) has little mass, but it has
a negative electric charge that is exactly the same magnitude as the positive charge of a proton. An atom has an equal
number of protons and electrons; thus, the electric charge of an electron cancels the positive charge of a proton to
produce an atom that has no overall charge. Notice that the electrons are shown as a cloudlike region surrounding the
nucleus. This is because electrons are in constant motion around an atom‘s nucleus, and their exact positions at any
given moment cannot be determined.

Symbols for elements: There are 92 elements that occur naturally on Earth and in the stars. Other elements have
been produced in laboratory experiments. Generally, each element is identified by a one-, two-, or three-letter
abbreviation known as a chemical symbol. For example, the symbol H represents the element hydrogen, C represents
carbon, and O represents oxygen. Elements identified in ancient times, such as gold and mercury, have symbols of
Latin origin. For example, gold is identified by the symbol Au for its Latin name, aurum. All elements are classified
and arranged according to their chemical properties.
Mass number: The number of protons and neutrons in atoms of different elements varies widely. The lightest of all
atoms is hydrogen, which has only one proton in its nucleus. The heaviest naturally occurring atom is uranium.
Uranium-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons in its nucleus. The number of protons in an atom‘s nucleus is its
atomic number. The sum of the protons and neutrons is its mass number. Because electrons have little mass, they
are not included in determining mass number. For example, the atomic number of uranium is 92, and its mass
number is 238 (92 protons + 146 neutrons). Electrons in Energy Levels: Although the exact position of an electron
cannot be determined, scientists have discovered that electrons occupy areas called energy levels. The volume of an
atom is mostly empty space. However, the size of an atom depends on the number and arrangement of its electrons.
Note that electrons are distributed over one or more energy levels in a predictable pattern. Keep in mind that the
electrons are not sitting still in one place. Each energy level can hold only a limited number of electrons. For
example, the smallest, innermost energy level can hold only two electrons. The second energy level is larger, and it
can hold up to eight electrons. The third energy level can hold up to 18 electrons and the fourth energy level can hold
up to 32 electrons. Depending on the element, an atom might have electrons in as many as seven energy levels
surrounding its nucleus.

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Valence electrons: The electrons in the outermost energy level determine the chemical behaviour of the different
elements. These outermost electrons are called valence electrons. Elements with the same number of valence
electrons have similar chemical properties. For example, both a sodium atom, with the atomic number 11, and a
potassium atom, with the atomic number 19, has one valence electron. Thus both sodium and potassium exhibit
similar chemical behaviour. These elements are highly reactive metals, which mean that they combine easily with
many other elements. Elements such as helium and argon have full outermost energy levels. For example, an argon
atom has 18 electrons, with two electrons in the first energy level and eight electrons in the second and outermost
energy levels. Elements that have full outermost energy levels are highly un reactive. The gases helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon, and radon have full outer energy levels.

Ions: Sometimes atoms gain or lose electrons from their outermost energy levels. Recall that atoms are electrically
neutral because the number of electrons, which have negative charges, balances the number of protons, which have
positive charges. Atoms that gains or lose an electron has a net electric charge and is called an ion. In general, an
atom in which the outermost energy level is less than half-full- that is, it has fewer than four valence electrons - tends
to lose its valence electrons. When an atom loses valence electrons, it becomes positively charged. In chemistry, a
positive ion is indicated by a superscript plus sign. For example, a sodium ion is represented by Na+. If more than one
electron is lost, that number is placed before the plus sign. For example, a magnesium ion, which forms when a
magnesium atom has lost two electrons, is represented by Mg2+. An atom in which the outermost energy level is
more than half-full - that is, it has more than four valence electrons - tends to fill its outermost energy level. Such an
atom forms a negatively charged ion. Negative ions are indicated by a superscript minus sign. For example, a
nitrogen atom that has gained three electrons is represented by N3‒. Some substances contain ions that are made up of
groups of atoms—for example, silicate ions. These complex ions are important constituents of most rocks and
minerals.

Combining Matter: Atoms combine through electric forces forming molecules and compounds. A compound is a
substance that is composed of atoms of two or more different elements that are chemically combined. Water is an
example of a compound which is composed of two elements of hydrogen and oxygen. Most compounds have
different properties from the elements of which they are composed. For example, both oxygen and hydrogen are
highly flammable gases at room temperature, but in combination they form water- a liquid. Compounds are
represented by chemical formulas. These formulas include the symbol for each element followed by a subscript
number that stands for the number of atoms of that element in the compound. If there is only one atom of an element,
no subscript number follows the symbol. Thus, the chemical formula for table salt is NaCl. The chemical formula for
water is H2O. Recall that an atom is chemically stable when its outermost energy level is full. A state of stability is
achieved by some elements by forming chemical bonds.

A chemical bond is the force that holds together the elements in a compound. One way in which atoms fill their
outermost energy levels is by sharing electrons. For example, individual atoms of hydrogen each have just one
electron. Each atom becomes more stable when it shares its electron with another hydrogen atom so that each atom
has two electrons in its outermost energy level. How do these two atoms stay together? The nucleus of each atom has
one proton with a positive charge, and the two positively charged protons attract the two negatively charged
electrons. This attraction of two atoms for a shared pair of electrons that holds the atoms together is called a covalent
bond.

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Molecules: A molecule is composed of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. Molecules have no
overall electric charge because the total number of electrons equals the total number of protons. Water is an example
of a compound whose atoms are held together by covalent bonds. The chemical formula for a water molecule is H2O
because, in this molecule, two atoms of hydrogen, each of which need to gain an electron to become stable are
combined with one atom of oxygen which needs to gain two electrons to become stable. A compound comprised of
molecules is called a molecular compound.. Although water molecules are held together by covalent bonds, the
atoms do not share the electrons equally. The shared electrons in a water molecule are attracted more strongly by the
oxygen atom than by the hydrogen atoms. As a result, the electrons spend more time near the oxygen atom than they
do near the hydrogen atoms. This unequal sharing of electrons results in polar molecules. A polar molecule has a
slightly positive end and a slightly negative end.

Ionic Bonds: An ionic bond is the attractive force between two ions of opposite charge.
Positive ions are always written first in chemical formulas. Within the compound NaCl, there are as many positive
ions as negative ions; therefore, the positive charge on the sodium ion equals the negative charge on the chloride ion,
and the net electric charge of the compound NaCl is zero. Magnesium and oxygen ions combine in a similar manner
to form the compound magnesium oxide (MgO) - one of the most common compounds on Earth. Compounds formed
by ionic bonding are called ionic compounds. Other ionic compounds have different proportions of ions. For
example, oxygen and sodium ions combine in the ratio shown by the chemical formula for sodium oxide (Na 2O), in
which there are two sodium ions to each oxygen ion.

Metallic Bonding: In metals, the valence electrons are shared by all the atoms, not just by adjacent atoms as they are
in covalent compounds. The positive ions of the metal are held together by the attraction to the negative electrons
between them. This type of bond, known as a metallic bond, allows metals to conduct electricity because the
electrons can move freely throughout the entire solid metal. Metallic bonding also explains why metals are so easily
deformed. When a force is applied to a metal, such as the blow of a hammer, the electrons are pushed aside. This
allows the metal ions to move past each other, thus deforming or changing the shape of the metal.

Chemical Reactions: The change of one or more substances into other substances is called a chemical reaction.
Chemical reactions are described by chemical equations. For example, water (H2O) is formed by the chemical
reaction between hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2). The formation of water can be described by the following
chemical equation. 2H2 + O2 ➞ 2H2O; You can read this chemical equation as ―two molecules of hydrogen and one
molecule of oxygen react to yield two molecules of water.‖ In this reaction, hydrogen and oxygen are the reactants
and water is the product. When you write a chemical equation, you must balance the equation by showing an equal
number of atoms for each element on each side of the equation. Therefore, the same amount of matter is present both
before and after the reaction. Note that there are four hydrogen atoms on each side of the above equation (2 × 2 = 4).
There are also two oxygen atoms on each side of the equation. Another example of a chemical reaction, one that
takes place between iron (Fe) and oxygen (O), is represented by the following chemical equation: 4Fe + 3O 2 ➞
2Fe2O3.
Mixtures and Solutions: Unlike a compound, in which the atoms combine and lose their identities, a mixture is a
combination of two or more components that retain their identities. When a mixture‘s components are easily
recognizable, it is called a heterogeneous mixture. For example, beach sand is a heterogeneous mixture because its
components are still recognizable-shells, small pieces of broken shells, grains of minerals, and so on. In a
homogeneous mixture, which is also called a solution, the component particles cannot be distinguished, even though
they still retain their original properties. A solution can be liquid, gaseous, or solid. Seawater is a solution consisting

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of water molecules and ions of many elements that exist on Earth. Molten rock is also a liquid solution; it is
composed of ions representing all atoms that were present in the crystals of the rock before it melted. Air is a solution
of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen molecules together with other atoms and molecules. Metal alloys, such as
bronze and brass, are also solutions. Bronze is a homogeneous mixture of copper and tin atoms; brass is a similar
mixture of copper and zinc atoms. Such solid homogeneous mixtures are called solid solutions.

3.1.2. Minerals and their Properties

3.1.2.1. The Concept and Characteristics of a Mineral
Earth‘s crust is composed of about 3000 minerals. Minerals play important roles in forming rocks and in shaping
Earth‘s surface. A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid, with a specific chemical composition and a
definite crystalline structure. This crystalline structure is often exhibited by the crystal shape itself. Minerals are
naturally occurring, meaning that they are formed by natural processes. All minerals are inorganic. They are not alive
and never were alive. Based on these criteria, salt is a mineral, but sugar, which is harvested from plants, is not. What
about coal? According to the scientific definition of minerals, coal is not a mineral because millions of years ago, it
formed from organic materials. The atoms in minerals are arranged in regular geometric patterns that are repeated.
This regular pattern results in the formation of a crystal. A crystal is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in
repeating patterns. The other characteristic of minerals is that they are solids. Solids have definite shapes and
volumes, while liquids and gases do not. Therefore, no gas or liquid can be considered a mineral. Each type of
mineral has a chemical composition unique to that mineral. This composition might be specific, or it might vary
within a set range of compositions. A few minerals, such as copper, silver, and sulfur, are composed of single
elements. The vast majority, however, are made from compounds. The mineral quartz (SiO 2), for example, is a
combination of two atoms of oxygen and one atom of silicon. Although other minerals might contain silicon and
oxygen, the arrangement and proportion of these elements in quartz are unique to quartz. In some minerals, chemical
composition can vary within a certain range depending on the temperature at which the mineral crystallizes. For
example, plagioclase feldspar ranges from white albite (AHL bite) to gray anorthite (ah NOR thite). This color
difference is due to a slight change in the mineral‘s chemical composition from sodium-rich to calcium-rich. At high
temperatures, calcium is primarily incorporated, and at low temperatures sodium is primarily incorporated. At inter
mediate temperatures, a mixture of calcium and sodium is incorporated in the crystal structure producing.

3.1.2.2. Major Types of Minerals

You have learned that elements combine in many different ways and proportions. One result is the thousands of
different minerals present on Earth. In order to study these minerals and understand their properties, geologists have
classified them into groups. Each group has a distinct chemical nature and specific characteristics.
i. Silicates: Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earth‘s crust, followed by silicon. Minerals that contain silicon
and oxygen, and usually one or more other elements, are known as silicates. Silicates make up approximately 96
percent of the minerals present in Earth‘s crust. The two most common minerals, feldspar and quartz, are silicates.
The basic building block of the silicates is the silica tetrahedron. Recall from the previous subtopic that the electrons
in the outermost energy level of an atom are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines
the type and number of chemical bonds an atom will form. Because silicon atoms have four valence electrons, silicon
has the ability to bond with four oxygen atoms. This structure allows tetrahedra to combine in a number of ways,
which accounts for the large diversity of structures and properties of silicate minerals. Individual tetrahedron ions are
strong. They can bond together to form sheets, chains, and complex three-dimensional structures. The bonds between
the atoms help determine several mineral properties, including a mineral‘s cleavage or fracture. For example, mica is
a sheet silicate, also called a phyllosilicate, where positive potassium or aluminum ions bond the negatively charged

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sheets of tetrahedra together. Mica separates easily into sheets because the attraction between the tetrahedra and the
aluminum or potassium ions is weak. Asbestos consists of double chains of tetrahedra that are weakly bonded
together.
ii. Carbonates: Oxygen combines easily with many other elements, and thus forms other mineral groups, such as
carbonates. Carbonates are minerals composed of one or more metallic elements and the carbonate ion CO 32–.
Examples of carbonates are calcite, dolomite, and rhodochrosite. Carbonates are the primary minerals found in rocks
such as limestone and marble. Some carbonates have distinctive colorations, such as the colorful varieties of calcite
and the pink of rhodochrosite.
iii. Oxides: Oxides are compounds of oxygen and a metal. Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4) are common iron
oxides and good sources of iron. The mineral uraninite (UO2) is valuable because it is the major source of uranium,
which is used to generate nuclear power.
iv. Other groups: Other major mineral groups are sulfides, sulfates, halides, and native elements. Sulfides, such as
pyrite (FeS2), are compounds of sulfur and one or more elements. Sulfates, such as anhydrite (CaSO4), are composed
of elements with the sulfate ion SO42–. Halides, such as halite (NaCl), are made up of chloride or fluoride along with
calcium, sodium, or potassium. A native element such as silver (Ag) or copper (Cu), is made up of one element only.

3.1.2.3. Sources of Minerals

i. Minerals from magma
Molten material that forms and accumulates below Earth‘s surface is called magma. Magma is less dense than the
surrounding solid rock, so it can rise upward into cooler layers of Earth‘s interior. Here, the magma cools and
crystallizes. The type and number of elements present in the magma determine which minerals will form. The rate at
which the magma cools determines the size of the mineral crystals. If the magma cools slowly within Earth‘s heated
interior, the atoms have time to arrange themselves into large crystals. If the magma reaches Earth‘s surface, comes
in contact with air or water, and cools quickly, the atoms do not have time to arrange themselves into large crystals.
Thus, small crystals form from rapidly cooling magma, and large crystals form from slowly cooling magma. The
mineral crystals in the granite are the result of cooling magma.

ii. Minerals from solutions : Minerals are often dissolved in water. For example, the salts that are dissolved in
ocean water make it salty.
When a liquid becomes full of a dissolved substance and it can dissolve no more of that substance, the liquid is
saturated. If the solution then becomes overfilled, it is called supersaturated and conditions are right for minerals to
form. At this point, individual atoms bond together and mineral crystals precipitate, which means that they form into
solids from the solution. Minerals also crystallize when the solution in which they are dissolved evaporates. You
might have experienced this if you have ever gone swimming in the ocean. As the water evaporated off your skin, the
salts were left behind as mineral crystals. Minerals that form from the evaporation of liquid are called evaporites. The
rock salt was formed from evaporation.

3.1.2.4. Rock Forming Minerals:

Although about 3000 minerals occur in Earth‘s crust, only about 30 of these are common. Eight to ten of these
minerals are referred to as rock-forming minerals because they make up most of the rocks in Earth‘s crust. They are
primarily composed of the eight most common elements in Earth‘s crust.

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Most Common Rock-Forming Minerals

Quartz Feldspar Mica Pyroxene*
SiO2 NaAlSi3O8 – K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 MgSiO3
CaAl2Si2O8 KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 CaMgSi2O6
& KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi2O6
Amphibole* Olivine Garnet* Calcite
Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2 (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Mg3Al2Si3O12 CaCO3
Fe7Si8O22(OH)2 Fe3Al2Si3O12
Ca3Al2Si3O12

3.2. Rock Type Origin and Characteristics

Rock is a stuff which the earth is made up off. A more acceptable scientific definition of rocks is that; a rock is a
natural occurring solid cohesive aggregate of one or more mineral or mineral materials. Generally rocks can be
divided into three major types based on the process of their formation. These are; Igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic rocks. Sedimentary rocks makes up to 66% of the earth‘s crust, with 34 % being the igneous and
the metamorphics. Igneous rocks however, forms the majority of 34 %. The reason why sedimentary rocks accounts
for most of the rocks on the earth‘s surface is because they are mainly found ocean floor basins which accounts to
70% of total area of the earth. The three rock types are further classified based on chemistry, environment of
formation and how they are formed. There are three major types of rocks. These are:
i. Igneous Rock
ii. Sedementary Rock and
iii. Metamorphic Rock

3.2.1.Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are the rocks that form when molten material cools and crystallizes. A hot, molten mass of rock
can solidify into solid rock overnight. Lava is magma that flows out onto Earth‘s surface. Igneous rocks form when
lava or magma cools and minerals crystallize. In the laboratory, most rocks must be heated to temperatures of 800°C
to 1200°C before they melt. In nature, these temperatures are present in the upper mantle and lower crust. Where
does this heat come from? Scientists theorize that the remaining energy from Earth‘s molten formation and the heat
generated from the decay of radioactive elements are the sources of Earth‘s thermal energy. Hence, this magma can
be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks
is caused by one or more of three processes namely; an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a
change in composition. Igneous comes from word ―ignis‖ meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising that igneous
rocks are associated with volcanic activity and their distribution is controlled by plate tectonics. One of the
appealing aspects of the plate tectonics is that it accounts for reasonably well for the variety of igneous rocks and
their distribution (Carlson et al, 2008). Divergent plates are usually associated with creation of basalts and gabbros
especially in the oceanic crust e.g. in the mid-Atlantic ridges. While in the intra continental areas you can have wide
aray of rocks from basic, intermediate to the acidic rocks. In the convergent plates usually granites and andesites
magmas are produced.

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Based on its position, igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Plutonic (intrusive) rock and volcanic
(extrusive). Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A
common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either
as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as pumice or basalt. The chemical abundance and the rate of
cooling of magma typically form a sequence known as Bowen's reaction series, after the Canadian petrologist
Norman L. Bowen. The Bowens reaction series explain sequences of crustal formation. The Bowens series is
important because it forms basis for explaining igneous mineral and textures.

Composition of magma
The type of igneous rock that forms depends on the composition of the magma. Magma is often a slushy mix of
molten rock, dissolved gases, and mineral crystals. The common elements present in magma are the same major
elements that are in Earth‘s crust: oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca),
potassium (K), and sodium (Na). Of all the compounds present in magma, silica is the most abundant and has the
greatest effect on magma characteristics. As the following table summarized magma is classified as basaltic,
andesitic, or rhyolitic, based on the amount of silica it contains. Silica content affects melting temperature and
impacts how quickly magma flows.
Types of Magma
No Group Silica content Example Location
1 Basaltic 42-52% Hawaiian Islands
2 Andesitic 52-66% Cascade Mountain and Andes Mountain
3 Rhyolitic More than 66% Yellowstone National Park

Once magma is free of the overlying pressure of the rock layers around it, dissolved gases are able to escape into the
atmosphere. Thus, the chemical composition of lava is slightly different from the chemical composition of the
magma from which it developed. Magma can be formed either by melting of Earth‘s crust or by melting within the
mantle. The four main factors involved in the formation of magma are temperature, pressure, water content, and the
mineral content of the crust or mantle. Temperature generally increases with depth in Earth‘s crust. This temperature
increase, known as the geothermal gradient. Pressure also increases with depth. This is a result of the weight of
overlying rock. Laboratory experiments show that as pressure on a rock increases, its melting point also increases.

The third factor that affects the formation of magma is water content. Rocks and minerals often contain small
percentages of water, which changes the melting point of the rocks. As water content increases, the melting point
decreases. In order to better understand how the types of elements and compounds present give magma its overall
character, it is helpful to discuss this fourth factor that is mineral content in more detail. Different minerals have
different melting points. For example, rocks such as basalt, which are formed of olivine, calcium feldspar, and
pyroxene (pi RAHK seen), melt at higher temperatures than rocks such as granite, which contain quartz and
potassium feldspar. Granite has a melting point that is lower than basalt‘s melting point because granite contains
more water and minerals that melt at lower temperatures. In general, rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium melt
at higher temperatures than rocks that contain higher levels of silicon.

Bowen‟s Reaction Series

In the early 1900s, Canadian geologist N. L. Bowen demonstrated that as magma cools and crystallizes, minerals
form in predictable patterns in a process now known as the Bowen‟s reaction series.

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This figure illustrates the relationship between cooling magma and the formation of minerals that make up igneous
rock. Bowen discovered two main patterns, or branches, of crystallization. The right-hand branch is characterized by
a continuous, gradual change of mineral compositions in the feldspar group. An abrupt change of mineral type in the
iron-magnesium groups characterizes the left-hand branch. The left branch of Bowen‘s reaction series represents the
iron-rich minerals. These minerals undergo abrupt changes as magma cools and crystallizes. For example, olivine is
the first mineral to crystallize when magma that is rich in iron and magnesium begins to cool. When the temperature
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decreases enough for a completely new mineral, pyroxene, to form, the olivine that previously formed reacts with the
magma and is converted to pyroxene. As the temperature decreases further, similar reactions produce the minerals
amphibole and biotite mica. In Bowen‘s reaction series, the right branch represents the plagioclase feldspars, which
undergo a continuous change of composition. As magma cools, the first feldspars to form are rich in calcium. As
cooling continues, these feldspars react with magma, and their calcium-rich compositions change to sodium rich
compositions. In some instances, such as when magma cools rapidly, the calcium-rich cores are unable to react
completely with the magma. The result is a zoned crystal. As is often the case with scientific inquiry, the discovery of
Bowen‘s reaction series led to more questions. For example, if olivine converts to pyroxene during cooling, why is
olivine found in rock? Geologists hypothesize that, under certain conditions, newly formed crystals are separated
from magma, and the chemical reactions between the magma and the minerals stop. This can occur when crystals
settle to the bottom of the magma body, and when liquid magma is squeezed from the crystal mush to form two
distinct igneous bodies with different compositions.

3.2.1.1. Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks can be differentiated according to their texture, colour and composition. The difference
in these three parameters depends on environment of deposition and chemistry of magmas. Below is an
explanation on of each parameter as mentioned above.
i. Texture
When magma cools slowly large crystals form and rock forms phaneritic texture on the other hand if magma cools
fast then small crystals form sometime a glassy texture where no minerals form can be achieved this way. It is based
on the textural difference that igneous rocks can be divided into either extrusive or intrusive rocks. Examples of both
extrusive and extrusive rocks are given in the following figure.

Figure: Types of igneous rocks based on texture, colour, and chemistry (Ehlers and Blatt, 1997).

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Intrusive are rocks that form by magma solidifying before reaching the surface hence forming coarse grained texture
while extrusive are those that magma solidify on surface forming fine grained rocks.

ii. Colour
A rock with majorly dark minerals form mafic rocks but with more fractionation during magma cooling lighter
coloured mineral are able to form based on Bowens series. Based on this colour difference the rocks can be either
mafic or felsic as the above figure shows, as you move from right to left you have more ultra-mafic due to
fractionation.

iii. Composition
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemistry. This is mainly based on silica content as highlighted in the
figure below .When silica is above 75% main minerals that form are feldspars while
with reduction of silica more mafic minerals form, hence basis for rock difference.

3.2.1.2. Textures of Igneous Rocks

i. Phaneritic Texture
Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are clearly visible to the eye with or without a hand lens
or binocular microscope. The entire rock is made up of large crystals, which are generally 1/2 mm to several
centimetres in size; no fine matrix material is present. This texture forms by slow cooling of magma deep
underground in the plutonic environment.

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ii. Aphanitic Texture

Aphanitic texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand lens. The entire rock is made
up of small crystals, which are generally less than 1/2 mm in size. This texture results from rapid cooling in volcanic
or hypabyssal (shallow subsurface) environments.

iii. Porphyritic Texture

Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a conspicuous (large) difference in grain size. The
larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either matrix or groundmass (see the drawing below and
image to the left). Porphyritic rocks are thought to have undergone two stages of cooling; one at depth where the
larger phenocrysts formed and a second at or near the surface where the matrix grains crystallized.

iv. Glassy Texture

Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains no mineral grains. Glass results from
cooling that is so fast that minerals do not have a chance to crystallize. This may happen when magma or lava comes
into quick contact with much cooler materials near the Earth's surface. Pure volcanic glass is known as obsidian.
v. Vesicular Texture
This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of gas expansion (bubbles),
which often occurs during volcanic eruptions. Pumice and scoria are common types of vesicular rocks.

vi. Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture

Pyroclastic are rocks blown out into the atmosphere during violent volcanic eruptions. These rocks are collectively
termed fragmental. If you examine a fragmental volcanic rock closely you can see why. You will note that it is
comprised of numerous grains or fragments that have been welded together by the heat of volcanic eruption. If you
run your fingers over the rock it will often feel grainy like sandpaper or a sedimentary rock. You might also spot
shards of glass embedded in the rock.

3.2.2. Sedimentary Rocks

Sediments produced by weathering and erosion form ignius rock, metamorphic rock and sedimentary rocks through
the process of lithification.

3.2.2.1. Weathering and Erosion

Wherever rock is exposed at Earth‘s surface, it is continuously being broken down by weathering -a set of physical
and chemical processes that breaks rock into smaller pieces. Sediments are small pieces of rock that are moved and
deposited by water, wind, and gravity. When sediments become glued together, they form sedimentary rocks. The
formation of sedimentary rocks begins when weathering and erosion produce sediments. Weathering produces rock
and mineral fragments known as sediments. These sediments range in size from huge boulders to microscopic
particles. Chemical weathering occurs when the minerals in a rock are dissolved or otherwise chemically changed.
What happens to more-resistant minerals during weathering? While the less-stable minerals are chemically broken
down, the more resistant grains are broken off of the rock as smaller grains. During physical weathering, however,
minerals remain chemically unchanged. Rock fragments break off of the solid rock along fractures or grain
boundaries. The removal and transport of sediment is called erosion. The four main agents of erosion: wind, moving
water, gravity, and glaciers. Glaciers are large masses of ice that move across land. Visible signs of erosion are all
around you. For example, water in streams becomes muddy after a storm because eroded silt and clay-sized particles
have been mixed in it. You can observe erosion in action when a gust of wind blows soil across the infield at a

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baseball park. The force of the wind removes the soil and carries it away. After rock fragments and sediments have
been weathered out of the rock, they often are transported to new locations through the process of erosion. Eroded
material is almost always carried downhill.

Although wind can sometimes carry fine sand and dust to higher elevations, particles transported by water are almost
always moved downhill. Eventually, even windblown dust and fine sand are pulled downhill by gravity. When
transported sediments are deposited on the ground or sink to the bottom of a body of water, deposition occurs.
Sediments in nature are deposited when transport stops. Perhaps the wind stops blowing or a river enters a quiet lake
or an ocean. In each case, the particles being carried will settle out, forming layers of sediment with the largest grains
at the bottom. Fast-moving water can transport larger particles better than slow moving water. As water slows down,
the largest particles settle out first, then the next largest, and so on, so that different-sized particles are sorted into
layers. Such deposits are characteristic of sediment transported by water and wind. Wind, however, can move only
small grains. For this reason, sand dunes are commonly made of fine, well-sorted sand. Not all sediment deposits are
sorted. Glaciers, for example, move all materials with equal ease. Large boulders, sand, and mud are all carried along
by the ice and dumped in an unsorted pile as the glacier melts. Landslides create similar deposits when sediment
moves downhill in a jumbled mass. Most sediments are ultimately deposited on Earth in low areas such as valleys
and ocean basins. As more sediment is deposited in an area, the bottom layers are subjected to increasing pressure
and temperature. These conditions cause lithification, the physical and chemical processes that transform sediments
into sedimentary rocks. Lithify comes from the Greek word lithos, which means stone. Lithification begins with
compaction. The weight of overlying sediments forces the sediment grains closer together, causing the physical
changes Layers of mud can contain up to 60 percent water, and these shrink as excess water is squeezed out. Sand
does not compact as much as mud during burial. One reason is that individual sand grains, usually composed of
quartz, do not deform under normal burial conditions. Grain-to-grain contacts in sand form a supporting framework
that helps maintain open spaces between the grains. Groundwater, oil, and natural gas are commonly found in these
spaces in sedimentary rocks. Compaction is not the only force that binds the grains together. Cementation occurs
when mineral growth glues sediment grains together into solid rock. This occurs when a new mineral, such as calcite
(CaCO3) or iron oxide (Fe2O3), grows between sediment grains as dissolved minerals precipitate out of groundwater.

3.2.2.2. Features of Sedimentary Rocks

Just as igneous rocks contain information about the history of their formation, sedimentary rocks also have features
and characteristics that help geologists interpret how they formed and the history of the area in which they formed.
The primary feature of sedimentary rocks is horizontal layering called bedding. This feature results from the way
sediment settles out of water or wind. Individual beds can range in thickness from a few millimetres to several
meters. There are two different types of bedding, each dependent upon the method of transport. However, the size of
the grains and the material within the bedding depend upon many other factors. Bedding in which the particle sizes
become progressively heavier and coarser toward the bottom layers is called graded bedding. Graded bedding is
often observed in marine sedimentary rocks that were deposited by underwater landslides. As the sliding material
slowly came to rest underwater, the largest and heaviest material settled out first and was followed by progressively
finer material. Another characteristic feature of sedimentary rocks is cross-bedding. Cross-bedding is formed as
inclined layers of sediment are deposited across a horizontal surface. When these deposits become lithified, the cross-
beds are preserved in the rock. Small-scale cross-bedding forms on sandy beaches and along sandbars in streams and
rivers. Most large-scale cross bedding is formed by migrating sand dunes. When sediment is moved into small ridges
by wind or wave action or by a river current, ripple marks form. The back-and-forth movement of waves forms
ripples that are symmetrical, while a current flowing in one direction, such as in a river or stream, produces

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asymmetrical ripples. If a rippled surface is buried gently by more sediment without being disturbed, it might later be
preserved in solid rock. Close examination of individual sediment grains reveals that some have jagged edges and
some are rounded. When a rock breaks apart, the pieces are angular in shape.

As the sediment is transported, individual pieces knock into each other. The edges are broken off and, over time, the
pieces become rounded. The amount of rounding is influenced by how far the sediment has traveled. Additionally,
the harder the mineral, the better chance it has of becoming rounded before it breaks apart and becomes microscopic
in size. For example, the quartz sand on beaches is nearly round while carbonate sand, which is made up of seashells
and calcite, is usually angular. Probably the best-known features of sedimentary rocks are fossils. Fossils are the
preserved remains, impressions, or any other evidence of once-living organisms. When an organism dies, it
sometimes is buried before it decomposes. If its remains are buried without being disturbed, it might be preserved as
a fossil. During lithification, parts of the organism can be replaced by minerals and turned into rock, such as shells
that have been turned into stone. Fossils are of great interest to Earth scientists because fossils provide evidence of
the types of organisms that lived in the distant past, the environments that existed in the past, and how organisms
have changed over time.

3.2.2.3. Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are classified by their mode of formation in clastic, biochemical and chemical products of
sedimentary rocks..
i. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
The most common sedimentary rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks, are formed from the abundant deposits of loose
sediments that accumulate on Earth‘s surface. The word clastic comes from the Greek word klastos, meaning broken.
These rocks are further classified according to the sizes of their particles. As you read about each rock type the
following table summarizes the classification of sedimentary rocks based on grain size, mode of formation, and
mineral content. Sedimentary rocks consisting of gravel sized rock and mineral fragments are classified as coarse-
grained rocks. Conglomerates have rounded, gravel-sized particles. Because of its relatively large mass, gravel is
transported by high-energy flows of water, such as those generated by mountain streams, flooding rivers, some ocean
waves, and glacial melt water. During transport, gravel becomes abraded and rounded as the particles scrape against
one another. This is why beach and river gravels are often well rounded. Lithification turns these sediments into
conglomerates. In contrast, breccias are composed of angular, gravel-sized particles. The angularity indicates that the
sediments from which they formed did not have time to become rounded. This suggests that the particles were
transported only a short distance and deposited close to their source.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Classification Texture/Grain Size Composition Rock Name
coarse (> 2 mm) Fragments of any rock type -quartz, conglomerate
chert and quartzite common (rounded breccia
Clastic angular)
medium (1/16 mm to 2 mm) quartz and rock fragments sandstone
quartz, k-spar and rock fragments arkose
fine (1/256 mm–1/16 mm) quartz and clay siltstone
very fine (< 1/256 mm) quartz and clay shale
Biochemical microcrystalline with calcite (CaCO3) micrite
conchoidal fracture
abundant fossils in micrite calcite (CaCO3) fossiliferous
matrix limestone
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oolites (small spheres of calcite (CaCO3) oolitic limestone

calcium carbonate)
shells and shell fragments calcite (CaCO3) coquina
loosely cemented
microscopic shells and clay calcite (CaCO3) chalk
variously sized fragments highly altered plant remains, some coal
plant fossils
Chemical fine to coarsely crystalline calcite (CaCO3) crystalline
limestone
fine to coarsely crystalline dolomite (Ca,Mg)CO3 (will effervesce dolostone
if powdered)
very finely crystalline quartz (SiO2) — light colored chert
— dark colored flint
fine to coarsely crystalline gypsum (CaSO4 • 2H2O) rock gypsum
fine to coarsely crystalline halite (NaCl) rock salt

Stream and river channels, beaches, and deserts often contain abundant sand-sized sediments. Sedimentary rocks that
contain sand-sized rock and mineral fragments are classified as medium-grained clastic rocks.
Porosity is the percentage of open spaces between grains in a rock. Loose sand can have a porosity of up to 40
percent. Some of these open spaces are maintained during the formation of sandstone, often resulting in porosities as
high as 30 percent. When pore spaces are connected to one another, fluids can move through sandstone. This feature
makes sandstone layers valuable as underground reservoirs of oil, natural gas, and groundwater. Sedimentary rocks
consisting of silt- and clay-sized particles are called fine-grained rocks. Siltstone and shale are fine-grained clastic
rocks. These rocks represent environments such as swamps and ponds which have still or slow-moving waters. In the
absence of strong currents and wave action, these sediments settle to the bottom where they accumulate in thin
horizontal layers. Shale often breaks along thin layers. Unlike sandstone, fine-grained sedimentary rock has low
porosity and often forms barriers that hinder the movement of groundwater and oil.

ii. Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

The formation of chemical and biochemical rocks involves the processes of evaporation and precipitation of
minerals. During weathering, minerals can be dissolved and carried into lakes and oceans. As water evaporates from
the lakes and oceans, the dissolved minerals are left behind. In arid regions, high evaporation rates can increase the
concentration of dissolved minerals in bodies of water. When the concentration of dissolved minerals in a body of
water reaches saturation, crystal grains precipitate out of solution and settle to the bottom. As a result, layers of
chemical sedimentary rocks form, which are called evaporites. Evaporites most commonly form in arid regions and
in drainage basins on continents that have low water flow. Because little freshwater flows into these areas, the
concentration of dissolved minerals remains high. Even as more dissolved minerals are carried into the basins,
evaporation continues to remove freshwater and maintain high mineral concentrations. Over time, thick layers of
evaporite minerals can accumulate on the basin floor. Biochemical sedimentary rocks are formed from the remains of
once-living things. The most abundant of these rocks is limestone, which is composed primarily of calcite. Some
organisms that live in the ocean use the calcium carbonate that is dissolved in seawater to make their shells. When
these organisms die, their shells settle to the bottom of the ocean and can form thick layers of carbonate sediment.
During burial and lithification, calcium carbonate precipitates out of the water, crystallizes between the grains of
carbonate sediment, and forms limestone. Limestone is common in shallow water environments, such as those in the

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Bahamas, where coral reefs thrive in 15 to 20 m of water just offshore. The skeletal and shell materials that are
currently accumulating there will someday become limestone as well. Many types of limestone contain evidence of
their biological origin in the form of abundant fossils. These fossils can range from large-shelled organisms to
microscopic, unicellular organisms. Not all limestone contains fossils. Some limestone has a crystalline texture, some
consists of tiny spheres of carbonate sand, and some is composed of fine-grained carbonate mud.

3.2.3. Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to high pressure and temperature below zone
of diagenesis. Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to metamorphism. In low grade metamorphic rocks, original
textures are often preserved allowing one to determine the likely protolith. As the grade of metamorphism increases,
original textures are replaced with metamorphic textures and other clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the
rock, are used to determine the protolith. Below is an examination of the role of two agents of metamorphism.

3.2.3.1. The Role of Temperature in Metamorphism

Changes in temperature conditions during metamorphism cause several important processes to occur. With
increasing temperature, and thus higher energy, chemical bonds are able to break and reform driving the chemical
reactions that changes the rock's chemistry during metamorphism. Increasing in temperature can also result in the
growth of crystals. In a rock, a small number of large crystals have a higher thermodynamic stability than do a large
number of small crystals. As a result, increasing temperature during metamorphism, even in the absence of any
chemical change, will generally result in the amalgamation of small crystals to produce a coarser grained rock. It is a
fact that individual minerals are only stable over specific temperature ranges. Thus, as temperature changes, minerals
within a rock become unstable and transform through chemical reactions to new minerals. This property is very
important to our interpretation of metamorphic rocks. By observing the mineral assemblage (set of minerals) within a
metamorphic rock, it is often possible to make an estimate of the temperature at the time of formation. That is,
minerals can be used as thermometers of the process of metamorphism.

3.2.3.2. The Role of Pressure in Metamorphism

Pressure, the second of the two physical parameters controlling metamorphism and occurs in two forms. The most
widely experienced type of pressure is lithostatic. This "rock-constant" pressure is derived from the weight of
overlying rocks. Lithostatic pressure is experienced uniformly by a metamorphic rock. That is, the rock is squeezed
to the same degree in all directions. Thus, there is no preferred orientation to lithostatic pressure and there is no
mechanical drive to rearrange crystals within a metamorphic rock experiencing lithostatic conditions. The second
pressure is the directed pressure, this is pressure of motion and action. Plate tectonics provide the underlying
mechanical control for all forms of directed pressure. Thus, metamorphism is closely linked to the plate tectonic
cycle and many metamorphic rocks are the products of tectonic interactions. As was the case with changes in
temperature, changes in pressure, either lithostatic or directed, have important impacts upon the stability of minerals.
Every mineral is stable over a range of pressures, if pressure conditions during metamorphism exceed a mineral‘s
stability range the mineral will transform to a new phase. Many of these solid-state reactions involve polymorphic
transformation – changes between minerals with the same chemistry and different crystallographic structures. Just as
with temperature, mineral assemblages within a metamorphic rock can be used as a barometer to measure pressure at
the time of formation.

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3.2.3.3. Recognizing Metamorphic Rock

Pressure and temperature increase with depth. When temperature or pressure becomes high enough, rocks melt and
form magma. But what happens if the rocks do not reach the melting point? When high temperature and pressure
combine and change the texture, mineral composition, or chemical composition of a rock without melting it, a
metamorphic rock forms. The word metamorphism is derived from the Greek words meta, meaning change, and
morphé, meaning form. During metamorphism, a rock changes form while remaining solid. The high temperatures
required for metamorphism are ultimately derived from Earth‘s internal heat, either through deep burial or from
nearby igneous intrusions. The high pressures required for metamorphism come from deep burial or from
compression during mountain building. Bowen‘s reaction series shows that all minerals are stable at certain
temperatures and they crystallize from magma along a range of different temperatures. Scientists have discovered
that these stability ranges also apply to minerals in solid rock. During metamorphism, the minerals in a rock change
into new minerals that are stable under the new temperature and pressure conditions. Minerals that change in this way
are said to undergo solid-state alterations. Scientists have conducted experiments to identify the metamorphic
conditions that create specific minerals. When the same minerals are identified in rocks, scientists are able to
interpret the conditions inside the crust during the rocks‘ metamorphism. Metamorphic rocks are classified into two
textural groups: foliated and nonfoliated. Geologists use metamorphic textures and mineral composition to identify
metamorphic rocks.

i. Foliated Rocks
Layers and bands of minerals characterize foliated metamorphic rocks. High pressure during metamorphism causes
minerals with flat or needle like crystals to form with their long axes perpendicular to the pressure. This parallel
alignment of minerals creates the layers observed in foliated metamorphic rocks.

ii. Nonfoliated Rocks

Unlike foliated rocks, nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are composed mainly of minerals that form with blocky
crystal shapes. Two common examples of nonfoliated rocks are quartzite and marble. Quartzite is a hard, often light-
colored rock formed by the metamorphism of quartz-rich sandstone. Marble is formed by the metamorphism of
limestone. Some marbles have smooth textures that are formed by interlocking grains of calcite. These marbles are
often used in sculptures. Fossils are rarely preserved in metamorphic rocks. Under certain conditions, new
metamorphic minerals can grow large while the surrounding minerals remain small. The large crystals, which can

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range in size from a few milli meters to a few centimeters, are called porphyroblasts. Although these crystals
resemble the very large crystals that form in pegmatite granite, they are not the same. Instead of forming from
magma, they form in solid rock through the reorganization of atoms during metamorphism. Garnet is a mineral that
commonly forms porphyroblasts.

3.2.3.4. Grades of Metamorphism

Different combinations of temperature and pressure result in different grades of metamorphism. Low-grade
metamorphism is associated with low temperatures and pressures and a particular suite of minerals and textures.
High-grade metamorphism is associated with high temperatures and pressures and a different suite of minerals and
textures. Inter mediate-grade metamorphism is in between low- and high-grade metamorphism. The intensity of a
metamorphic event through the use of the concept of metamorphic grade.

Figure: Grade Metamorphism

With increasing depth in the Earth, ambient temperature and pressure conditions rise steadily. Thus, within the
continental crust, temperatures vary from approximately 200 °C at 5 km to 800°C at 35 km. While these temperatures
are extreme relative to our everyday experiences, they are significantly below the melting point of most rocks.
Likewise, lithostatic pressure increases with increasing depth. At 5 km the pressure is approximately 2 kilo bars, or
about 2000 times atmospheric pressure. Deeper within the crust, at about 35 km, the pressure increases to some 10
kb. This trend of increasing temperature and pressure within the Earth is defined by a region of commonly
encountered metamorphic conditions. Low temperature and pressure setting as low-grade metamorphism usually
gneisses, while high temperature and intense pressure is known as high-grade metamorphism in schist environment.

3.2.3.5. Metamorphic Facies

The changes in mineral assemblages are due to changes in the temperature and pressure conditions of metamorphism.
Thus, the mineral assemblages that are observed must be an indication of the temperature and pressure environment
that the rock was subjected to. This pressure and temperature environment is referred to as Metamorphic Facies.
The sequence of metamorphic facies observed in any metamorphic terrain, depends on the geothermal gradient that
was present during metamorphism. The following figure highlights metamorphic faces depending on temperatures
and pressures.

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3.2.3.6. Types of Metamorphism

The effects of metamorphism can be the result of contact metamorphism, regional metamorphism, or hydrothermal
metamorphism. The minerals that form and the degree of change in the rocks provide information as to the type and
grade of metamorphism that occurred.
i. Regional Metamorphism
When high temperature and pressure affect large regions of Earth‘s crust, they produce large belts of regional
metamorphism. The metamorphism can range in grade from low to high grade. Results of regional metamorphism
include changes in minerals and rock types, plus folding and deforming of the rock layers that make up the area.
ii. Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions and results from high temperatures
associated with the igneous intrusion. Since only a small area surrounding the intrusion is heated by the magma,
metamorphism is restricted to the zone surrounding the intrusion, called a metamorphic or contact aureole. Outside of
the contact aureole, the rocks are not affected by the intrusive event. The grade of metamorphism increases in all
directions toward the intrusion. Because the temperature contrast between the surrounding rock and the intruded
magma is larger at shallow levels in the crust where pressure is low, contact metamorphism is often referred to as
high temperature, low pressure metamorphism. The rock produced is often a fine-grained rock that shows no
foliation, called a hornfels.

Figure: Contact Metamorphism

iii. Hydrothermal Metamorphism
When very hot water reacts with rock and alters its chemical and mineral composition, hydrothermal
metamorphism occurs. The word hydrothermal is derived from the Greek words hydro, meaning water, and
thermal, meaning heat. As hot fluids migrate in and out of the rock during metamorphism, the original mineral
composition and texture of the rock can change. Chemical changes are common during contact metamorphism near
igneous intrusions and active volcanoes. Valuable ore deposits of gold, copper, zinc, tungsten, and lead are formed in
this manner.

iv. Cataclastic Metamorphism

Cataclastic metamorphism occurs as a result of mechanical deformation, like when two bodies of rock
slide past one another along a fault zone. Heat is generated by the friction of sliding along such a shear
zone, and the rocks tend to be mechanically deformed, being crushed and pulverized, due to the shearing.
Cataclastic metamorphism is not very common and is restricted to a narrow zone along which the
shearing occurred.
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v. Burial Metamorphism
When sedimentary rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters, temperatures greater than 300oC may
develop in the absence of differential stress. New minerals grow, but the rock does not appear to be metamorphosed.
The main minerals produced are often the Zeolites. Burial metamorphism overlaps, to some extent, with diagenesis,
and grades into regional metamorphism as temperature and pressure increase.
vi. Shock Metamorphism (Impact Metamorphism)
When an extra-terrestrial body, such as a meteorite or comet impacts with the Earth or if there is a very large
volcanic explosion, ultrahigh pressures can be generated in the impacted rock. These ultrahigh
pressures can produce minerals that are only stable at very high pressure, such as the SiO2 polymorphs coesite and
stishovite. In addition they can produce textures known as shock lamellae in mineral grains, and such textures as
shatter cones in the impacted rock.

3.3. The Rock Cycle

Metamorphic rocks form when other rocks change. The three types of rock-igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
are grouped according to how they form. Igneous rocks crystallize from magma; sedimentary rocks form from
cemented or precipitated sediments; and metamorphic rocks form from changes in temperature and pressure. Once a
rock forms, does it remain the same type of rock always? Possibly, but it most likely will not. Heat and pressure can
change an igneous rock into a metamorphic rock. A metamorphic rock can be changed into another metamorphic
rock or melted to form an igneous rock. Alternately, the metamorphic rock can be weathered and eroded into
sediments that might become cemented into a sedimentary rock. In fact, any rock can be changed into any other type
of rock. The continuous changing and remaking of rocks is called the rock cycle. In general, the rock cycle is
summarized in the following figure. The arrows represent the different processes that change rocks into different
types.

Figure: Rock Cycle

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Unit 4: Geological process and Resulting Land forms

4.1. Concept and Definition of Endogenic process
The energy emanating from within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes. This energy
is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from the origin of the earth. This
energy due to geothermal gradients and heat flow from within induces diastrophism and volcanism in the lithosphere.
Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength, the action of
endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface is uneven.

4.2. Basic Concepts of Isostasy, Diastrophism and Neptunism

4.2.1. The Concept of Isostacy
Isostasy is a fundamental concept in the Geology. It is the idea that the lighter crust must be floating on the denser
underlying mantle. It is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exists on the Earth's surface.
Isostatic equilibrium is an ideal state where the crust and mantle would settle into in absence of disturbing forces.
The waxing and waning of ice sheets, erosion, sedimentation, and extrusive volcanism are examples of processes that
perturb isostasy. The physical properties of the lithosphere (the rocky shell that forms Earth's exterior) are affected by
the way the mantle and crust respond to these perturbations. Therefore, understanding the dynamics of isostasy helps
us figure out more complex phenomena such as mountain building, sedimentary basin formation, the break-up of
continents and the formation of new ocean basins.

There are two main ideas, developed in the mid-19th century, on the way isostasy acts to support mountain masses.
In Pratt's theory, there are lateral changes in rock density across the lithosphere. Assuming that the mantle below is
uniformly dense, the less dense crustal blocks float higher to become mountains, whereas the more dense blocks form
basins and lowlands. On the other hand, Airy's theory assumes that across the lithosphere, the rock density is
approximately the same, but the crustal blocks have different thicknesses. Therefore, mountains that shoot up higher
also extend deeper roots into the denser material below. Both theories rely on the presumed existence of a denser
fluid or plastic layer on which the rocky lithosphere floats. This layer is now called the asthenosphere, and was
verified in the mid-20th century to be present everywhere on Earth due to analysis of earthquakes - seismic waves,
whose speed decrease with the softness of the medium, pass relatively slowly through the asthenosphere. Both
theories predict a relative deficiency of mass under high mountains, but Airy's theory is now known to be a better
explanation of mountains within continental regions, whereas Pratt's theory essentially explains the difference
between continents and oceans, since the continent crust is largely of granitic composition which is less dense than
the basaltic ocean basin.

Resulting Geological Processes from Isostasy

The laws of buoyancy act on continents just as they would on icebergs and rafts. An iceberg will rise further out of
the water when the top is melted, and a raft will sink deeper when loads are added. However, the adjustment time for
continents is much slower, due to the viscosity of the asthenosphere. This results in many dynamic geological
processes that are observed today. The following paragraphs illustrate some of these examples. The formation of ice
sheets could cause the Earth's surface to sink. In areas which had ice sheets in the last ice age, the land is now
"rebounding" upwards since the heavy ice has melted and the load on the lithosphere is reduced. Evidence from
geological features includes former sea-cliffs and associated wave-cut platforms that are found hundreds of meters
above the sea level today. In the Baltic and in Canada, the amount and rate of uplift can be measure. In fact, due to

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the slowness of rebound, much of the land is still rising. Isostatic uplift also compensates for the erosion of
mountains. When large amounts of material are carried away from a region, the land will rebound upwards to be
eroded further. Due to drainage patterns, the erosion and removal of material is more prominent at plateau edges.
Isostatic uplift may raise the edge higher than it used to be, so the ridge tops can be at an elevation considerably
higher than the plateau itself. This mechanism is especially probable in mountain ranges bounding plateaus, such as
the Himalayas and Kunlun Mountains bounding the Tibetan Plateau. Interestingly, given enough time and reaction
kinetics, due to chemical transformations, the thick crustal root underneath mountains can become denser and
founder into the mantle. The removal of the dense root can happen by the convection of the underlying asthenosphere
or by delamination. After the root has detached, the asthenosphere rises and isostatic equilibrium leads to more
mountain building at that region. For instance, this is thought to be the reason behind the late Cenozoic uplift of the
Sierra Nevada in California. In fact, seismic data provide images of crust-mantle interactions during the supposed
active foundering of the dense root beneath the southern Sierra Nevada. It appears that dense matter flowed
asymmetrically into a mantle drip beneath the adjacent Great Valley. At the top of this drip, a V-shaped cone of crust
is being dragged down tens of kilometers into the center of the mantle drip, leading to the disappearance of the
Mohorovicic discontinuity (the boundary between crust and mantle) in seismic images. Likewise, at the northern
Sierra Nevada, there is also a seismic "hole" known as the Redding anomaly, lending to the assumption that
lithospheric foundering occurred there as well. Moreover, beneath the southern Sierra Nevada, Boyd et al.. imaged
what may be the foundering lithosphere itself when they generated a density map of the region via seismic
tomography. In conclusion, isostasy is yet another example of a deceptively simple idea in physics that provides
crucial and sweeping explanatory power for other sciences.

4.2.2. Diastrophism
All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth‘s crust come under diastrophism. They include: (i)
orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the
earth‘s crust; (ii) epeirogenic processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth‘s crust; (iii) earthquakes
involving local relatively minor movements; (iv) plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates. In
the process of orogeny, the crust is severely deformed into folds. Due to epeirogeny, there may be simple
deformation. Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental building process. Through
the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be faulting and fracturing of the
crust. All these processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce
metamorphism of rocks.

4.2.3. Neptunism
Neptunism states that the Earth was once completely covered by an ocean. Then, as this ocean receded, all of the
rocks observable at Earth‘s surface were precipitated out of the ocean in a definite order to form the current
landscape. The rock types were differentiated by the period of time in which they precipitated out of the ocean.
According to Werner‘s theory the ocean floor was an originally uneven surface on which the oldest rocks precipitated
during the primitive period. The primitive period was characterized by very deep, calm water conditions. Werner
attributed the formation of crystalline rocks, such as granite, to these conditions. The next period of Werner‘s
geologic timescale was the floetz period. This period was characterized as alternating between a shallow stormy
ocean and a deep calm sea. This alteration between depositional environments apparently represented rocks with
inconsistent or broken stratification. These rocks as well as volcanic and alluvial rocks are concurrent but are the

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result of different forces. For example, floetz were precipitated out of a universal ocean while basalts were believed
to form by the burning of underground coal deposits. Werner eventually realized that some of his primitive rocks
contained fossils, so the transitional period was created to account for this discrepancy. The transitional period marks
the slow transition from calm ocean conditions to stormy conditions that caused the extinction of fossils found in the
transitional period.
As we have seen before, Werner was the most influential supporter of neptunism, a theory stating that most of the
rocks observable at earth‘s surface were once precipitated out of a vast ocean. Therefore, Werner used catastrophism
as evidence to prove that the earth had experienced mass floods throughout geologic history. However, both
catastrophism and neptunism would eventually be discarded during the 19th century. The catastrophic theories have
hardly any evidence. It must be noted that Werner never traveled much. His interpretations of the landscape only
pertained to the area where he taught. His assumption that the rocks he was observing must be the same everywhere
else was his fundamental error. Werner‘s theory of neptunism is a perfect example that assumptions in science are
toxic to a well-developed understanding of the world.

4.3. Theories of Continental Formation and Mountain Development

4.3.1. What is Theory? What are the theories related to continental formation?
Beyond any course in the field of Geography and Environmental Studies, this course, Geomorphology, is a basket of
different theories. Hence, before directly proceding to the theories the universe and the solar system, it is better to
say a few things about what a theory is itself. If you were asked what is the ultimate goal of research in any discipline
or subject matter, what would you say? What do geographers, geologists, psychologists, family scientists, medical
researchers, experts in human development, chemists, political scientists, sociologists, biologists, astronomers, plant
pathologists, and anthropologists, etc. have in common? No, the answer is not that they all have pointy heads and
wear white lab coats. What they share is a common goal: the desire to increase understanding of their subject manner.
They want to find out how things work and why they work the way they do. Why? Two major reasons: (a) to know
for the sake of knowing and (b) to figure how some problem or issue can be better dealt with. How do the study
habits of students with good grade point averages (GPAs) differ from those of students with not-so-good GPAs?
Why do they differ? What makes some families seem more resilient to stress than other families and how
do they become this way? What makes some families less likely to reach out for help? Is expo- sure to successful
parental behavior a way for new parents to learn how to be good parents? What particular teaching approaches work
best with which student predilections for learning? To make progress on these kinds of intellectual and practical
questions, individual researchers (and, indeed, the entire research enterprise) operate in two distinct but highly related
worlds: the abstract (the world of concepts/ideas) and the concrete (the empirical/observable world). What scientific
theories do is link these two separate domains and, in so doing, provide descriptions, summaries, integration, and
explanations about what is known from research as well as guidance for additional research and practice that will
increase further understanding. Theorizing, then, is the process of systematically developing and organizing ideas to
explain phenomena, and a theory is the total set of empi- rically testable, interconnected ideas formulated to explain
those phenomena. It is extremely important to be clear that if one deals only with the conceptual, or idea, level
without testing those ideas against independent empirical information (empirical means ―available to the senses‖), or
if one deals only with observable information without trying to systematically explain it, then scientific theory
development is not possible. It also must be understood that the process is not linear in nature.

Hence, a theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic
view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the

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phenomena. This definition says three things: (1) a theory is a set of propositions consisting of defined and
interrelated constructs, (2) a theory sets out the interrelations among a set of variables (constructs), and in so doing,
presents a systematic view of the phenomena described by the variables, and (3) a theory explains phenomena; it
does so by specifying which variables are related to which variables and how they are related, thus enabling the
researcher to predict from certain variables to certain other variables.
Hence, a scientific theory is a systematic explanation in terms of basic principles of some body of information. To
say that the sky is blue is not the statement of a theory, since it is a verifiable observation about which there can be no
dispute, but it is possible to give a theory for why it is blue. Although at any time there are many scientific theories
which are generally accepted it is important to understand that there is no such thing as a correct theory. Any theory
that is currently accepted and used must be regarded as only plausible, or an approximation, until either it is found to
disagree with some observation, old or new, with some experiment or until some internal inconsistency is found
theoretically. Newton‘s law of gravitation, which could not explain the precession of the orbit of Mercury, was
eventually replaced by Einstein‘s theory of gravity, which includes Newtonian gravity as an approximation. From
Einstein‘s theory a prediction was made about the bending of light passing a massive object, which was confirmed by
observations during the solar eclipse of 1919. Another example is the Bohr theory for the structure of the hydrogen
atom that explained the hydrogen spectrum but failed for many-electron atoms and was eventually replaced by
models based on quantum mechanics.

Older theories that are replaced by better theories may still sometimes be useful. Nobody these days would teach the
Bohr model, except as an historical illustration, but Newtonian gravity is still a useful tool because it closely
approximates what is given by relativity theory so that for most practical purposes there
is no discernible difference. In line with what has been stated about the status of current theories both quantum
mechanics and general-relativity theory can themselves be only regarded just as plausible. In the light of new
knowledge they may eventually be found wanting and then eventually be replaced by more comprehensive theories
to which they are just approximations.

Characteristics of a Theory
For a body of assertions, descriptions or predictions of behaviour or relationships to qualify as a theory, it must meet
the following characteristics:
 It has to be clear, logical and coherent
 It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions
 It has a domain where it applies
 It has clearly described relationships among variables
 It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
 It comprises concepts, themes, principles and constructs
 It must have been based on empirical data
 It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
 Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
 Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and in several contexts
 Its assertions or predictions are applicable, and if applied as predicted, will result in the predicted outcome
 Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
 Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict future events

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4.3.2. Theories of Continental Formation

4.3.2.1. Theory of Continental Drifting
It is considered that there was a single landmass called PANGAEA- which means all earth. The mega-ocean is called
PANTHALASSA – which means all water.

The basic argument was that – About 200 million years ago, the mega-landmass PANGAEA started splitting into two
large landmasses namely, LAURASIA in the north and GONDWANALAND in the south. These two landmasses
kept splitting till they they reached present configuration of continents and oceans. The argument for the Continental
Drift Theory gets strength from the following evidences:
Matching of Continents in a Jig-Saw-Fit: The shorelines of Africa and South America towards each other show a
remarkable match.

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Evidence from rock formations: Wegener reasoned that when Pangaea began to break apart, large geologic
structures, such as mountain ranges, fractured as the continents separated. Using this reasoning, Wegener thought that
there should be areas of similar rock types on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. He observed that many layers of
rocks in the Appalachian Mountains in the United States were identical to layers of rocks in similar mountains in
Greenland and Europe. These similar groups of rocks, older than 200 million years, supported Wegener‘s idea that
the continents had once been joined.

Evidence from fossils : Wegener also gathered evidence of the existence of Pangaea from fossils. Similar fossils of
several different animals and plants that once lived on or near land had been found on widely separated continents.

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Wegener reasoned that the land-dwelling animals, such as Cynognathus (sin ug NATH us) and Lystrasaurus (lihs
truh SORE us) could not have swum the great distances that now exist between continents. Wegener also argued that
because fossils of Mesosaurus (meh zohSORE us), an aquatic reptile, had been found in only freshwater rocks, it was
unlikely that this species could have crossed the oceans. The ages of these different fossils also predated Wegener‘s
time frame for the breakup of Pangaea, and thus supported his hypothesis.
Climatic evidence : Because he had a strong background in meteorology, Wegener recognized clues about ancient
climates from the fossils he studied. One fossil that Wegener used to support continental drift was Glossopteris
(glahs AHP tur us), a seed fern that resembled low shrubs. Fossils of this plant had been found on many parts of
Earth, including South America, Antarctica, and India. Wegener reasoned that the area separating these fossils was
too large to have had a single climate.

Wegener also argued that because Glossopteris grew in temperate climates, the places where these fossils had been
found were once closer to the equator. This led him to conclude that the rocks containing these fossil ferns had once
been joined.
Coal deposits: Recall that sedimentary rocks provide clues to past environments and climates. Wegener found
evidence in these rocks that the climates of some continents had changed markedly. Coal forms from the compaction
and decomposition of accumulations of ancient swamp plants. The existence of coal beds in Antarctica indicated that
this frozen land once had a tropical climate. Wegener used this evidence to conclude that Antarctica must have been
much closer to the equator sometime in the geologic past.
Glacial deposits: Another piece of climatic evidence came from glacial deposits found in parts of Africa, India,
Australia, and South America. The presence of these 290-million-year-old deposits suggested to Wegener that these
areas were once covered by a thick ice cap similar to the one that covers Antarctica today. Because the traces of the
ancient ice cap are found in regions where it is too warm for them to develop, Wegener proposed that they were once
located near the South Pole. Wegener suggested two possibilities to explain the deposits. Either the South Pole had
shifted its position, or these landmasses had once been closer to the South Pole. Wegener argued that it was more
likely that the landmasses had drifted apart rather than Earth changing its axis.

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According to Wegener, forces responsible for this Continental drifting are:

1. Pole-fleecing force – rotation of earth.
2. Tidal force – This is due to attraction of moon and the sun that develops tides in
oceanicwaters.

Rejected Notion of the Continental Drifting theory

In the early 1900s, many people in the scientific community considered the continents and ocean basins to be fixed
features on Earth‘s surface. For the rest of his life, Wegener continued travelling to remote regions to gather evidence
in support of continental drift. Although he had compiled an impressive collection of data, the theory of continental
drift was never accepted by the scientific community. Continental drift had two major flaws that prevented it from
being widely accepted. First, it did not satisfactorily explain what force could be strong enough to push such large
masses over such great distances. Wegener thought that the rotation of Earth might be responsible, but physicists
were able to show that this force was not nearly enough to move continents. Second, scientists questioned how the
continents were moving. Wegener had proposed that the continents were plowing through a stationary ocean floor,
but it was known that Earth‘s mantle below the crust was solid. So, how could continents move through something
solid? These two unanswered questions -what forces could cause the movement and how continents could move
through solids - were the main reasons that continental drift was rejected. It was not until the early 1960s that new
technology revealed more evidence about how continents move that scientists began to reconsider Wegener‘s ideas.
Advances in seafloor mapping and in understanding Earth‘s magnetic field provided the necessary evidence to show
how continents move, and the source of the forces involved. Though the name of Alfred Wogner is coined with
theory, a number of scholars contributed their efforts on the development of the theory of continental drifting Some
of the contributere are:
i. Abraham Ortelius (1596): He was the first to note the similarity between coastlines of
the Americas and (Europe and Africa). So, he suggested an ancient separation.
ii. Francis Bakon (1620): He credited the first to notice the ''fit'' of the Atlantic coastlines. He suggested that
they were once together and had drifted apart.
iii. Francois Placet (1668): Related the separation to the flood of Profit Noah-Biblical Catastrophism
iv. Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756)-Biblical Catastrophism
v. Alexander von Humbolt (1801-1845): He identified Geometric similarities, Geologic similarities and
considered the Atlantic ocean as nothing else than a valley scooped out by the sea. He speculated that the
Atlantic was formed by a flow of eddying water.
vi. Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (1858): According to him, drift due to multiple Catastrophism and Flood was the
last major catastrophy for the formation of the ocean. He made fitness maps and Pre-drift reconstruction.
vii. Oswald Fisher (1882): Catastrophism event drift: He associated with the origin of the moon out of pacific.
Note : all these ideas were before put on the James Hutton (1785) doctrine, the Uniformitarianism. ''No power are to
be employed that are not natural to globe........., No extra ordinary event .........., or The present
is the key to the past.
Taylor and Baker (1910): They are American physicists also contributed their role. And the next is Alfred
Wegener has spent a large part of his life to the development of this hypothesis. Four editions of his book ''the origin
of continents and oceans" was printed during the period 1915-1928. He proposed Super continent Pangea (means all
land) surrounded by Panthalassa (means all oceans) in the Triassic .the major player on the development of the
theory. However, it became famus while Holmes (1927-1929) New theory of the mechanism of continental
movement ''Convection current‖ developed. Hence, post drift studies have shown some progress with following
noteworthy points:

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 Convectional current Theory: Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of

convection currents operating in the mantle portion. These currents are generated due to
radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle portion.
 Mapping of the oceanic floor: Dating of rocks from oceanic crust reveal that they are
much younger than continental areas.
 Du Toit (1937) proposed two Supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana land separated by paleo-Tethys.
He Modified the convection current hypothesis. This is the cause of separation of the supercontinents.
This hypothesis has been the convergence of opposition from scientists, especially regarding the
interpretation of the mechanism of movement.

4.3.2.2. Theory of Seafloor Spreading

Harry Hess (1960) proposed or explained the theory of Sea floor spreading. Dietz (1961) suggested the name "sea
floor spreading" as a mechanism to explain continental drift. Until the mid-1900s, most people, including many
scientists, thought that the ocean floors were essentially flat. Many people also had misconceptions that oceanic crust
was unchanging and was much older than continental crust. However, advances in technology during the 1940s and
1950s showed that all of these widely accepted ideas were incorrect. One technological advance that was used to
study the ocean floor was the magnetometer. A magnetometer is a device that can detect small changes in magnetic
fields. Towed behind a ship, it can record the magnetic field generated by ocean floor rocks. Another advancement
that allowed scientists to study the ocean floor in great detail was the development of echo-sounding methods. One
type of echo sounding is sonar. Sonar uses sound waves to measure distance by measuring the time it takes for sound
waves sent from the ship to bounce off the seafloor and return to the ship. Developments in sonar technology enabled
scientists to measure water depth and map the topography of the ocean floor.

Ocean-Floor Topography
The maps made from data collected by sonar and magnetometers surprised many scientists. They discovered that
vast, underwater mountain chains called ocean ridges run along the ocean floors around Earth much like seams on a
baseball. These ocean floor features form the longest continuous mountain range on Earth. When they were first
discovered, ocean ridges generated much discussion because of their enormous length and height-they are more than
80,000 km long and up to 3 km above the ocean floor. Later, scientists discovered that earthquakes and volcanism are
common along the ridges. Maps generated with sonar data also revealed that underwater mountain chains had
counterparts called deep-sea trenches. A deep-sea trench is a narrow, elongated depression in the seafloor. Trenches
can be thousands of kilometers long and many kilometres deep. The deepest trench, called the Marianas Trench, is in
the Pacific Ocean and is more than 11 km deep. Mount Everest, the world‘s tallest mountain, stands at 9 km above
sea level, and could fit inside the Marianas Trench with six Empire State buildings stacked on top. These two
topographic features of the ocean floor –ocean ridges and deep-sea trenches-puzzled geologists for more than a
decade after their discovery.

Ocean Rocks and Sediments

In addition to making maps, scientists collected samples of deep-sea sediments and the underlying oceanic crust.
Analysis of the rocks and sediments led to three important discoveries. First, the ages of the rocks that make up the
seafloor varies across the ocean floor, and these variations are predictable. Rock samples taken from areas near ocean
ridges were found to be younger than samples taken from areas near deep-sea trenches. The samples showed that the
age of oceanic crust consistently increases with distance from a ridge. This trend was symmetric across the ocean
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ridges. Scientists also discovered from the rock samples that even the oldest parts of the seafloor are geologically
young - about 180 million years old. Why are ocean-floor rocks so young compared to continental rocks, some of
which are at least 3.8 billion years old? Geologists knew that oceans had existed for more than 180 million years so
they wondered why there was no trace of older oceanic crust. The second discovery involved the sediments on the
ocean floor. Measurements showed that ocean-floor sediments are typically a few hundred meters thick. Large areas
of continents, on the other hand, are blanketed with sedimentary rocks that are as much as 20 km thick. Scientists
knew that erosion and deposition occur in Earth‘s oceans but did not understand why seafloor sediments were not as
thick as their continental counterparts. Scientists hypothesized that the relatively thin layer of ocean sediments was
related to the age of the ocean crust. Observations of ocean-floor sediments revealed that the thickness of the
sediments increases with distance from an ocean ridge. The pattern of thickness across the ocean floor was
symmetrical across the ocean. The third is the identification of magnetism Earth has a magnetic field generated by
the flow of molten iron in the outer core. This field is what causes a compass needle to point to the North. A
magnetic reversal happens when the flow in the outer core changes, and Earth‘s magnetic field changes direction.
This would cause compasses to point to the South. Magnetic reversals have occurred many times in Earth‘s history.
A magnetic field that has the same orientation as Earth‘s present field is said to have normal polarity. A magnetic
field that is opposite to the present field has reversed polarity. Paleomagnetism is the study of the history of Earth‘s
magnetic field. When lava solidifies, iron-bearing minerals such as magnetite crystallize. As they crystallize, these
minerals behave like tiny compasses and align with Earth‘s magnetic field. Data gathered from paleomagnetic studies
of continental lava flows allowed scientists to construct a magnetic polarity time scale. Scientists knew that oceanic
crust is mostly basaltic rock, which contains large amounts of iron-bearing minerals of volcanic origin. They
hypothesized that the rocks on the ocean floor would show a record of magnetic reversals. When scientists towed
magnetometers behind ships to measure the magnetic orientation of the rocks of the ocean floor, a surprising pattern
emerged. The regions with normal and reverse polarity formed a series of stripes across the floor parallel to the ocean
ridges. The scientists were doubly surprised to discover that the ages and widths of the stripes matched from one side
of the ridges to the other. By matching the patterns on the seafloor with the known pattern of reversals on land,
scientists were able to determine the age of the ocean floor from magnetic recording. This method enabled scientists
to quickly create isochron (I suh krahn) maps of the ocean floor. An isochron is an imaginary line on a map that
shows points that have the same age-that is, they formed at the same time.

4.3.2.3. Geosynclinals Orgen Theory

Prior to Plate Tectonics Subsiding linear trough that was caused by the accumulation of sedimentary rock strata
deposited in a basin and subsequently compressed, deformed, and uplifted into a mountain range, with attendant
volcanism and plutonism. The filling of a geosyncline with tons of sediments is accompanied in the late stages of
deposition by folding, crumpling, and faulting of the deposits.
Intrusion of crystalline igneous rock and regional uplift along the axis of the trough generally complete the history of
a particular geosyncline. It is then transformed into a belt of folded mountains. Geosynclines are divided into
eugeosynclines and miogeosynclines, depending on the types of discernible rock strata of the mountain system.

4.3.2.4. Theory of Plate Tectonics

From 1968 and early 1970, Plate tectonics: is a unifying model that attempts to explain the origin of patterns of
deformation in the crust, earthquakes distribution, continental drift and oceanic ridges as well as proving a
mechanism for earth to cool. Tectonics: the word comes from Greek language (tektos) which means (builder).
ectonics refers to regional scale geologic features.

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Examples:
 Mountain belts
 Growth of continents
 Formation of ocean floor
 Developed of sea basins
 Earthquakes and volcanism
The evidence for seafloor spreading suggested that continental and oceanic crust move as enormous slabs, which
geologists describe as tectonic plates.
Tectonic plate/ lithospheric plate is a massive , irregularly shaped slab of solid rock , generally composed of
continental and oceanic lithosphere. Plates move horizontally over the aesthenosphere as rigid units. these can be
called oceanic or continental based on which area is major on the plate. Theory of plate tectonics proposes that –
Earth lithosphere is divided into seven major and several minor plates.
i. Antarctica and surrounding oceanic plate
ii. North America ( western Atlantic floor separated from South America along Caribbean
islands)p plate
iii. South American ( with western Atlantic floor separated from North American plate along
Caribbean islands) plate
iv. Pacific plate
v. India- Australia-New Zealand plate
vi. Africa with eastern Atlantic floor plate.
vii. Eurasia and adjacent oceanic plate.
These and other minor plates have been constantly moving over globe throughout the history of earth. Continents are
part of a plate and what moves is the plate. This is in not sync with what Wegener said, he said continents move.

Figure: Major Plates and Causes for the Movement of the Plates

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Minor plates:
i. Cocos plate- between central america and pacific plate.
ii. Nazca plate – between south america and pacific plate.
iii. Arabian plate – Mostly Saudi Arabian landmass.
iv. Philippine plate – between Asiatic and Pacific plate.
v. Caroline plate – between the Philippine and Indian plate
vi. Fuji plate – North-east of Australia.
Plate tectonics is the theory that describes how tectonic plates move and shape Earth‘s surface. They move in
different directions and at different rates relative to one another and they interact with one another at their
boundaries.
Plate boundaries
There are three type of plate boundaries :
i. Divergent boundaries: New crust is generated as plates pull away from each other. Sites of pulling away :
Spreading sites. Example, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, at this the American Plate is /are separated from the Eurasian
and African Plates.

ii. Convergent Boundaries: Where crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another. The location where
sinking of plate occurs is- Subduction zone. Three ways of convergence are: a) between oceanic and
continental plate; b) between two oceanic plates; c) between two continental plates.
iii. Transform Boundaries: Crust is neither produced, nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each
other. Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to mid-oceanic ridges. Since
eruption is irregular, differential movement of a portion of plate away from axis of earth. Also, rotation of
earth has its effect on separated blocks of plate portions.
Each type of boundary has certain geologic characteristics and processes associated with it. A divergent boundary
occurs where tectonic plates move away from each other. Most divergent boundaries are found along the seafloor,
where they form mid ocean ridges. The actual plate boundary is located in a fault-bounded valley called a rift, which

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forms along a ridge. It is in this central rift that the process of seafloor spreading begins. The formation of new ocean
crust at most divergent boundaries accounts for the high heat flow, volcanism, and earthquakes associated with these
boundaries. Throughout millions of years, the process of seafloor spreading along a divergent boundary can cause an
ocean basin to grow wider. Although most divergent boundaries form ridges on the ocean floor, some divergent
boundaries form on continents. When continental crust begins to separate, the stretched crust forms a long, narrow
depression called a rift valley.

A convergent boundary occurs where tectonic plates move toward each other. When two plates collide, the denser
plate eventually descends below the other, less-dense plate in a process called subduction. There are three types of
convergent boundaries, classified according to the type of crust involved. As you know oceanic crust is made mostly
of minerals that are high in iron and magnesium, which form dense, dark-colored basaltic rocks, such as the basalt.
Continental crust is composed mostly of minerals such as feldspar and quartz, which form less-dense, lighter-colored
granitic rocks.

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The differences in density of the crustal material affect how they converge. The three types of tectonic boundaries
and their associated landforms are summarized as following.
i. Oceanic-oceanic
In the oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary a subduction zone is formed when one oceanic plate, which is denser as
a result of cooling, descends below another oceanic plate. The process of subduction creates a deep-sea trench. The
subducted plate descends into the mantle, thereby recycling oceanic crust formed at the ridge. Water carried into
Earth by the subducting plate changes the melting temperature of the plate, causing it to melt. The molten material,
called magma, is less dense so it rises back to the surface, where it often erupts and forms an arc of volcanic islands
that parallel the trench. Some examples of trenches and island arcs are the Marianas Trench and Marianas Islands in
the West Pacific Ocean and the Aleutian Trench and Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific Ocean.

ii. Oceanic-continental
Subduction zones are also found where an oceanic plate converges with a continental plate. Note that it is the denser
oceanic plate that is subducted. Oceanic continental convergence also produces a trench and volcanic arc. However,
instead of forming an arc of volcanic islands, oceanic-continental convergence results in a chain of volcanoes along
the edge of the continental plate. The result of this type of subduction is a mountain range with many volcanoes. The
Peru-Chile Trench and the Andes mountain range, which are located along the western coast of South America,
formed in this way.

iii. Continental-continental
The third type of convergent boundary forms when two continental plates collide. Continental-continental
boundaries form long after an oceanic plate has converged with a continental plate. Recall that continents are often
carried along attached to oceanic crust. Over time, an oceanic plate can be completely subducted, dragging an
attached continent behind it toward the subduction zone. As a result of its denser composition, oceanic crust descends
beneath the continental crust at the subduction zone. The continental crust that it pulls behind it cannot descend
because continental rocks are less dense, and will not sink into the mantle. As a result, the edges of both continents
collide, and become crumpled, folded, and uplifted. This forms a vast mountain range, such as the Himalayas.
Rates of plate movements determined by the strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that parallels the mid-
oceanic ridges. Heat within earth comes from two sources :
i. Radioactive decay
ii. Residual heat
The slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid plates is the driving force behind the plate
movement. In general, plate tectonics is the first theory to provide a comprehensive view of the processes that
produced Earth‘s major surface features, including the continents and ocean basins. With in the framework of this
theory, geologists have found explanations for the basic causes and distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and
mountain belts. Further they are now better able to explain the distribution of plants and animals in the geologic past,
as well as the distribution of economically significant mineral deposits.

Impact of plate tectonics:

Provide a unified explanation of the Earth major surface features. Linking of many different aspects of geology:
 Past distribution of flora and fauna
 Relation of volcanic rocks suites and plate margins
 Earthquakes.
 Volcanic activity
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The major premises of plate tectonics:

 The outer most layer consists of plates (lithosphere).
 The major plates and several small plates (lithosphere) which slowly move relative to one another.
 Lithosphere: This is strong, rigid resting on a weaker region in the upper mantle (asthenosphere).
 Lithosphere: is broken in to numerous segments (plates) that are in motion with respect to one another and
continually changes in shape and size.

4.3.2.5. The Earth Expansion Theory

Like contractionism and continental drift,the expanding Earth theory also has a long history, dating back to the
19thcentury; however, it remained a marginal idea until the beginning of the 20th century, when some geologists
suggested the possibility of Earth expansion. While continental drift gained little consensus because of the scientists‘
problem in accepting planet-wide migration of continents, the expanding-Earth theory had the merit of explaining
with a fixist model the evidence of ancient continental connections, suggesting that continents fragmented and
dispersed not because of lateral displacement but because of radial expansion while the planet was inflating. Indeed,
because of the very schematic knowledge about the structure of the planet available at the time, there are some
interesting parallels between Earth expansion and Wegener‘s theory. Wegener did not consider crustal subduction or
mantle convection; he connected India to both Africa and Asia in his Paleozoic paleogeographic maps, and believed
that continental crust floored the Tethys Sea. Moreover, some expansionists accepted, like Wegener, that the Pacific
Ocean was older than the Atlantic and Indian oceans, because they believed the planet expanded following a linear
trend.

Therefore, the images of Earth in expansionist and mobilist views were not so radically different at the time. This
also explains the existence of mobilist–expansionist hybrid hypotheses and some geologists‘ shifts of opinion from
mobilism to expansionism andvice versa. The main argument for Earth expansion is the questionable claim that
continental profiles have a perfect reciprocal fit on a smaller Earth, while mobilist reconstructions leave open gaps.
To test this hypothesis, expansionists worked with tridimensional physical models of the planet, scaled at different
sizes to verify the quality of the geometrical fit between continents on an increasingly small Earth. The experimenters
apparently failed to note that the process worked like a reversal of the contraction theory. Therefore, if the modern
lithosphere had to adjust to a smaller Earth this would not just decrease intercontinental distances but also increase
the deformation of the continents. What expansionists were also unable to provide was a valid mechanism increasing
Earth‘s size, although the speculations of eminent astrophysicists and physicists provided some support to the
possibility of planetary expansion.

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Figure: Variations in the planetary radius and surface gravity of an Earth expanding its size through time
according to different scenarios.

4.4. Orogenesis and Resulting Landform

Orogenesis is the thickening of the continental crust and the building of mountains over millions of years. Orogeny
encompasses all aspects of mountain formation including plate tectonics, terrane accretion, regional metamorphism,
thrusting, folding, faulting, and igneous intrusions. Folding and faulting are the most common deformation processes.
Deformation processes alter the earth‘s crust by extreme stress or pressure in the crust and mantle. Most deformation
occurs along plate margins from plate tectonic movements. Folding occurs when rocks are compressed such that the
layers buckle and fold. Ductile deformation. Faulting occurs when rocks fracture under the accumulation of extreme
stress created by compression and extensional forces. Brittle Deformation

4.4.1. Rock Deformation and Related Landforms

Stress: the agent of change, units are pressure (force/area)
 Compression
 Tension
 Shearing

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There are three major steps of deformation. These are elastic, plastic and failure.

The ratio of change produced in the dimensions of a body by a system of forces, in equilibrium, to its original
dimensions is called strain. Strain = Change in Dimension/Original Dimension
1. Elastic deformation up to elastic limit
 Springs back to original shape
2. Plastic deformation: It a type of deformation which does not spring back keeps deformed shape. It occurs
when:
 High temperature – near melting
 High pressure ... squeezed like a ball of clay
3. Brittle failure (it breaks)
 Subjected to great stress that exceeds the elastic limit. It is subjected to sudden stress ―impact event‖

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Factors Affecting Rock Deformation

 Intensity of applied stress
 Heat –Temperature of the Rock
 Amount of Time the Stress is applied
 Rock Composition

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4.4.2. Folding, faulting and Relating Landforms

4.4.2.1. Folding and Related Landforms

Folding is a concept that embraces all geologic processes by which surfaces in rocks become curved during
deformation. Since folds are permanent deformation structures with no or little loss of cohesion of the folded layer,
folding refers to the essentially slow, ductile behaviour of relatively soft and/or hot rocks. Beyond the descriptive,
anatomical classifications, much of the early geologic work on folding processes focused on the deformation of
stratified sediments. Different folding mechanisms combine a few basic processes involving the geometrical (layer
thickness and spacing) and physical properties of the rocks.
Fold: Folds form from curving, buckling, and bending of originally planar rock layers (e.g., beds, foliation) through
ductile deformation. Folds are the systematically curved layers of rocks. A fold is a structure produced when a
originally planer surface becomes bent or curved as a result of deformation. Folds range in size from mm to km.
Folds are a manifestation of ductile deformation i.e., form at depth where tempreture and Pressure are high and
fracturing does not occur.

Basic Fold Geometry

The basic fold geometry includes: Hinge, Limb, Hinge Line, Axial Plane, Interlimb Angle, and
Wavelength of the Fold, Crest, Trough and Fold Profile Plane.
1. Hinge(s): It represents the zone of maximum curvature of the surface. The figure shows that the hinge
separates the two limbs.

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2. Limb(s): It is the area between two hinges. A point in a limb where the sense of curvature changes is
recognized as inflection point. It is clear from the above diagram that in a fold there are two limbs and one
hinge.
3. Hinge line: It is a line of intersection with a bedding plane. It denotes the line of the greatest curvature in a
folded surface. It is important to note from the figure (below) that hinge line may be straight which is
designated as ‗Straight Line Hinge‘ or cylindrical fold. The adjacent figure also exhibits that hinge line may
be curved. In this case it is designated as ‗Curved Line Hinge‘ which recognizes non-cylindrical fold.
4. Axial Plane: The plane which bisects the angle between the two limbs is called an axial plane. The yellow
colour in above diagram is showing the axial plane. It should be noted that axial surface does not necessarily
divide the fold into equal halves. It is the imaginary plane which is equidistant from each limb of a fold and
which also bisects the angle between the two limbs, is called axial plane.
5. Interlimb Angle: The angle made by the limbs of the fold (profile plane) is designated as fold angle or
interlimb angle. It is also important to note that the smaller the interlimb angle, the greater the intensity of
folding.
6. Wavelength: The distance between the two hinges or zone of maximum curvature is called wavelength of
the fold. From the diagram (below) it is clear that the amplitude of the fold is half the height of the structure
measured from crest to trough.
7. Crest and Trough: the uppermost and lowest points of a fold are called the crest and trough, respectively.
8. Fold profile plane: It signifies the shape of the fold with reference to a plane which is perpendicular to hinge
line.
9. Fold axial surface: It is that surface which passes through the hinge line of the successive surfaces, such as is
in general not a plane is known as axial surface.
A single fold is comprised of a hinge and 2-limbs. In a series of folds, each limb is shared between adjacent folds.
The axial plane actually cuts the hinge zone of the fold along a line, which is termed as fold axis or axis.

Anticlines and synclines can take on slightly different geometries depending on the compressional forces that
form them. Very intense compressional forces form tight isoclinal folds, less intense
compressional forces produce open folds. Folds can be asymmetric, upright, overturned, or curved. A fold
pushed all the way over onto its side is called recumbent.

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Classification of Folds
From the point of view of the structure, geometry and appearance in space, a number of different types of folds have
so far been recognized:-

(A) Based on Interlimb angle: We already know that the angle made by the limbs of the fold is designated as
interlimb angle. The classification of folds on the basis of interlimb angle signifies the tightness and openness of
the fold. In this way geologists can also infer amount of deformation through the present classification. In general we
can identify four types of fold on the basis of interlimb angle. They are as follows:
I. Gentle Fold: In this case the interlimb angle remains between 120° to 180°
II. Open Fold: In this case in general the interlimb angle ranges beteeen 60° to 120°
III. Tight Fold: in this case the interlimb angle ranges between 10° to 60°
IV. Isoclinal fold: It denotes the special fold where the interlimb angle is nearly 0°

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(B). On the Basis of Symmetry of the Fold:

i. Symmetrical Fold: When the axial plane bisects the fold at a right angle or perfectly vertical in an
ideal situation then it is regarded as Symmetrical Fold. It ia a fold, whether anticline or syncline, is
described as Symmetrical when its axial plane is vertical and thus both the limbs have same amount
of dip. It results from equal amount of compressional forces acting from both the sides.

ii. Asymmetrical Fold: However, if the forces are unequal asymmetrical folds developed. The limbs of
anticline or syncline generally slope away from or towards each other, having dip in opposite
direction. The diagram shows that the inclination or presence of dip in a fold makes the fold
asymmetrical.

iii. Overturned Fold: If in any fold both the limbs dip towards the same direction, it is called an
Overturned Fold. In such fold one limb occurs in normal position whereas the other appears to have
been rotated or completely overturned from its usual position. In this fold the axial plane is inclined
and limbs of the fold dip in the same direction but at different angle.

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iv. Recumbent Fold or Nappe Fold –When a fold is so much overturned that its axial plane is
horizontal or nearly so, it is described as a Recumbent fold. A nappe is a large sheet like body of
rock that has been moved far from its original position. Nappes form during continental plate
collisions, when folds are sheared so much that they fold back over on themselves and break apart.
The resulting structure is a large-scale recumbent fold.
As the diagram shows, recumbent fold occurs when we find axial plane of the fold in a horizontal
position we classify that type of fold as „Recumbent Fold‟. It is actually an overturned fold. They
are well exposed in the Alps.

The figure shows that naturally under the immense pressure of overlying
rock in recumbent Fold the strata in the inverted limb region are much
thinner than the beds in the normal limb which is thicker than the
inverted limb. The sub-features of this fold are as follow:
 Arch-bend: The figure shows that the curved part of the
recumbent fold between the normal and inverted limb is known
as arch-bend.
 Shell and Core: The outer part of the fold is called shell and
the inner part is recognized as core of the recumbent fold. It is
noteworthy that generally core is composed of crystalline rocks
surrounded by shell of sedimentary rocks.
 Digitations: The figure shows that the fingers like subsidiary
fold attached to the recumbent fold are called digitations.

v. Isoclinal fold: We already know that isoclinal fold denotes a fold where the interlimb angle is nearly
0°. Isoclinal is a Greek word which means “equally inclined”. The figure shows that in this fold two
limbs dip at equal angles and in the same direction. It should be noted that many recumbent folds
are also considered as isoclinal. If in any fold, the amount of overturning be such that both the limbs
have the same amount of dip in the same direction, the structure is called an Isoclinal fold.

vi. Harmonic and disharmonic fold:

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 If in a thick succession, folds almost follow the same style, they are called harmonic folds.
 If they do not follow the same style as other layers the fold is called as disharmonic fold.

vii. Sheath fold: A sheath fold has a strongly curved hinge line. Sheath folds contain a long (stretching)
axis along the length of the tube or tongue shape, whilst cross sections normal to this axis display
closed geometries. Such elliptical sections or nested rings define eye- folds. Sheath folds are highly
non-cylindrical structures often associated with shear zones. Sheath folds form in areas where rocks
react differently to simple shear due to variations in competence across layers. The hinge line is
severely bent in sheath folds. In essence these folds are highly deformed layers of rock that have
been stretched out into a conical geometry overall.

(C) On the Basis of Appearance in Cross Section:

i. Anticline - An anticline is a fold which is generally convex upwards. In case of such folds, the limbs
commonly slope away from the axial plane. In most of the anticlines progressively older belts occur
towards the centre of curvature of the fold.

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The figure shows that convex shaped upfolded

rock beds are designated as anticlines i.e., a
type of fold which is convex upward.

The figure also exhibits that they may be

symmetrical and asymmetrical in nature.
Accordingly they are also named as
symmetrical anticline and asymmetrical
anticline. Likewise on the basis of interlimb
angle they may be in form of gentle anticline
and steep anticline.

ii. Syncline – A syncline on the other hand is a fold which is generally concave upwards. The limbs in syncline
commonly slope towards the axial plane. In most of the synclines progressively younger beds occur
towards the centre of curvature of the fold. Syncline and anticline occur in succession in any folded
region.

.
iii. Cylindrical folds: Folds are often drawn as cylindrical structures, meaning that the fold axis is a straight line
which, when moved parallel to itself, generates any single fold of the same generation. The axis of
cylindricity is parallel to the fold axis. Non- Cylindrical folds Hinges of non-cylindrical folds are curved
within a plane (curvilinear) and, therefore, change in trend and plunge. Conical fold describes a non-
cylindrically folded surface that has the approximate geometry of a cone.

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iv. Anticlinorium: It is a large anticline containing subsidiary folds of smaller size. In Scotland mountainous
area one can find example of this category of fold.
v. Synclinorium: It denotes a large syncline containing subsidiary folds of smaller size. They are found in the
central part of Aravali Ranges.
vi. Geosyncline: it means ―earth syncline‖ but the note of caution is that, this term should not be used for large
synclines. Geosyncline is considered as huge elongated basin containing huge stock of sediments.

(D) Special Types of Folds

i. . Chevron Fold: The crests and troughs of a fold are generally rounded. Occasionally, however,
sharp angular crests and troughs do occur in some folds and are described as Chevron Folds.
• Sharp hinges and straight limbs.

Chevron: The digram shows that they are angular folds in which hinges are very sharp. They are also known
as zig zag
ii. Ptygmatic fold: folds are chaotic, random and disconnected. Ptygmatic folds generally represent condition
where the folded material is of a much greater viscosity than the surrounding medium.

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iii. Box Fold/Conjugate fold: These folds are found in pairs whose axial surfaces are dipping towards each other.
(Two Hinge lines). A box fold is a special type of conjugate fold having almost a rectangular outcrop pattern.
The picture shows that it is a type of fold in which the crest is broad and flat. They are also known as Coffer
Fold

iv. Fan fold: When the upper shell of the Anticlinorium is eroded due to exogenic forces the remnant outer shell
is regarded as fanfold. They are found in Chota Nagpur Plateau region of our country. If a folds both the
limbs are overturned, it is called fan fold. In the anticlinal fan fold, the two limbs dip toward each other. In
synclinal fan fold, the two limbs dip away from each other. They assumed the shape of a fan and this called
Fan Fold.

v. Kink Bands: they are the narrow bands of beds ranging from few inches to a few feet wide. The beds
acquire a dip which is either steeper or gentler than the adjacent bed. These are the narrow band only a few
cm wide in which beds assumed a dip which is steeper or gentler than in adjacent parts.

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Similarly there are many other types of folds such as:

1. DRAG FOLD or PARASITIC FOLD-When a comparatively weak bed lies between strong beds, any sliding
motion in the stronger beds leads to the development of minor asymmetric fold known as Drag Folds/parasitic
fold within the weaker folds.

It give us information about sense of shear on the fold limbs as well as the location of larger-scale fold hinges. Think
of S and Z folds, their asymmetry will give a sense of rotation, when viewed down plunge.

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2. Monoclinal Fold: In horizontal or gently sloping beds, slight and another localized change in there usual
altitude leads to the formation of Monoclinal structure. In monoclines the beds are relatively flat but appears
to have been bent locally to exhibit higher dips.

Monoclines are, however, characteristic of regions in which sedimentary rocks have been deformed by dip slip
movement along vertical or steeply dipping faults in older and deeper rocks, such as the Colorado Plateau of the
southwestern United States.
3. Homocline fold: n structural geology, a homocline or homoclinal structure (from old Greek: homo = same,
cline = inclination), is a geological structure in which the layers of a sequence of rock strata, either
sedimentary or igneous, dip uniformly in a single direction having the same general inclination in terms of
direction. A homoclinal ridge or strike ridge is a hill or ridge with a moderate, generally between 10° to 30°,
sloping backslope. Its backslope is a dip slope, that conforms with the dip of a resistant stratum or strata,
called caprock.

4. Dome fold: Domes resemble anticlines, but the beds dip uniformly in all directions away from the center of
the structure. Domes are caused by compression and uplift. It is an anticlinal uplift with central symmetrical
dipping is known as Dome. Domes are generally formed from one main deformation event, or via diapirism
from underlying magmatic intrusions or movement of upwardly mobile, mechanically ductile, material such
as rock salt (salt dome) and shale (shale diapir).

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5. Basin fold: Basins resemble synclines, but the beds dip uniformly in all directions toward the
center of the structure. Basins are caused by compression and downwarping.It is a synclinal depression with
central reversal dip which is known as Basin.

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4.4.2.2. Faulting and Related Landforms

Rocks respond to stress (being squeezed or pulled apart) near the Earth‘s surface by breaking. When rocks break and
there is no offset along either side of the break, the break is called a fracture or joint. Rocks can also break as a result
of thermal expansion and contraction, the effects of fluids freezing, or when rocks are squeezed together or pulled
apart. When the rocks move past each other along fracture surface, it is called a faulting. Fault surfaces are often
nearly planar, and that planar surface is referred to as a ―fault plane.‖
Faults reflect ruptures or crakes in the earth along which one side is relatively displaced with reference to the other
side. Sometimes they are also known as disjunctive dislocation. In size and total displacement they may range from a
few inches to hundreds of kilometers long. They form in response to lithostatic, tectonic, and thermal stresses and
high fluid pressures.

Fractures and Joints

Joints occur where a rock breaks but there is no displacement or faulting associated with the break. Joints are not
singular features, but they occur in sets within a given type or area of a rock.
Common forms of jointing are columnar, sheet jointing, and tensional joints.

i. Columnar jointing occurs when igneous rocks cool and develop shrinkage joints along pillar-like columns.

ii. Sheeting joints occur when the layers of rock release pressure and exfoliate along parallel planes.
iii. Brittle fractures and tensional joints are caused by regionally extensive compressional or elongated
pressures along folds in the crustal rocks.

Fractures are breaks in rocks that are often singular more random features and are not associated with a set of joints.
Fractures often occur in association with faults or folds.

Fractures and joints create a variety of pathways for water to flow through, which weaken the rock and facilitate
chemical, biological, and mechanical weathering processes.

Basic Fault Geometry

i. Wall: Rock adjacent to a fault surface is the wall of the fault
ii. Fault block: the body of rock that moved as a consequence of slip on the fault is a fault block
iii. Hanging-Wall Block: It is a fault block or rock body above the fault plane.
iv. Foot-Wall Block: The fault block below the fault plane is recognized as foot-wall block.
v. Strike: It denotes the trend of horizontal line in the plane of the fault.
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vi. Dip: generally we recognize fault as steep or vertical to tell about image of a fault, which in turn reflects the
dip of the fault. The dip represents the angle between a horizontal surface and fault plane. It makes right
angle to the strike of the fault.
vii. Hade: is the complement angle of the dip i.e., Hade = 90° - Dip
viii. Throw: Normally under the gravitational pull during the faulting vertical displacement of rock occurs.
The figure (below) shows that this vertical displacement is recognized as Throw. In nutshell it denotes
the vertical component of dip separation.
ix. Heave: The above figure shows that apparent horizontal displacement of fault block is known as heave. It
denotes the horizontal component of dip separation.

Classification of Faults
Like folds faults can also be classified into several ways.
(A) Classification on the Basis of Apparent Movement
There are three types i.e., Normal Fault, Thrust or Reverse Fault and Strike and Oblique Slip Faults.
1. Normal Fault: The normal fault is also known as gravity fault, tensional fault or extensional fault. They
occur when the vertical stress is greater than the horizontal stress. A normal fault is one in which the
rocks above the fault plane, or hanging wall, move down relative to the rocks below the fault plane, or
footwall. The picture shows that in normal fault primarily displacement or movement is vertical. In this
case the downthrown block is the hanging-wall block which is influenced by the gravity that is why
normal fault is also recognized as gravity or tensional fault. On a global level normal fault system leads
to lengthening the earth‘s crust. This process occurs along the rift valleys and either side of mid- ocean
ridges.

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The cliff formed by faulting is commonly called a fault scarp, or escarpment. Process of Normal Faulting can give
rise to the following geomorphic features:
i. Horst: An upstanding fault block bounded by two normal faults is regarded as horst. The figure
(below) shows that in appearance it looks like block plateau or mountain generally flat on top but
with steep sides. Horst may be formed by upliftment of block between two normal faults or may
be left upstanding due to subsidence of either sides of the middle block.

ii. Graben: Graben is from the German word for “trough”. The figure shows that graben is a valley
like depression or trough representing a sloped fault block bounded by normal faults. It is like a
trench with straight parallel walls created by tensional force on the contrary the horst represents
a narrow elevated block between two normal faults.

iii. Fault Scarp: From the figure it is apparent that the steep straight cliff-like topography created along
the normal fault plane is called fault scarps. In length they may go up to 300 kilometers. The
height of fault scarp may range between a few meters to a few hundred meters.

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iv. Block Mountain: The long and ridge like horst is called block mountain.. Vosges Black Forest in
Germany is also well known example of Block Mountain.

v. Rift Valley: A long narrow fault trough created along the divergent plate boundary (due to tectonic
activity) is called rift valley. The East African Rift Valley is the well know example of rifting..
This rift valley is also the sites of volcanic activity. The volcano Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is a
well known example of this belt. As rift valleys open, water flows into the new lowlands. The
Red Sea and the Gulf of California are examples of this process they are actually confined in
larger rift valleys.
vi. Step Fault: Sometimes due to normal faulting several parallel series of faults are formed they appear
like giant steps of the stairs. They are known as step faults. They are generally common in rift
valley regions.
2. Thrust or Reverse Fault: Unlike normal fault the thrust faults are created by compressional stress.
From the figure (Below) it is apparent that, they are formed when hanging wall block has overridden
the footwall block generally at a very shallow angle. That is why they are also known as “contractional
faults”. A reverse fault is one in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall.

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It should be noted that in the thrust fault maximum stress is horizontal and minimum stress is vertical
which leads to shortening of the earth crust. There is a minor difference between thrust and reverse
fault. In former the dip angle is less than 45° and in later it is more than 45°. The subduction zones along
the convergent plate boundaries are characterized by thrust fault. In such tectonic settings, thrusting
occurs in combination with formation of folds. In the Alps and Himalayas , several such over thrusts
result from compressional stresses of the ongoing collision between different plates.

3. Strike Slip Fault: As the name suggests in this category of fault the relative displacement of fault blocks
remains mainly parallel to the strike of the fault. When rocks on either side of a nearly vertical fault
plane move horizontally, the movement is called strike-slip.
They are formed when rocks are torn by lateral-shearing stress. On the basis standing position of the
observer they are divided into two categories which are as follows:
i. Right Lateral Strike Slip Fault: From the above diagram it is clear that in this type of fault the
displacement appears to the right side of the observer.
ii. Left lateral Strike Slip Fault: If a person is standing at the fault and looks across to see that a block
or a portion of land has been displaced to the left hand direction, it is designated as a left- lateral
strike-slip fault.
iii. Transform Fault: Transform faults are associated with plate tectonics. The Transform Fault
represents plate boundary at which lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed. Therefore, they
are devoid of stunning landform features in comparison to convergent and divergent
boundaries. San Adreas fault in California is best known example of this category. One can also
identify the trace of the transform fault through offset roads, fences. It is also noteworthy that
any relative sudden displacement of rocks along the transform fault may cause immense loss of
life property
4. An oblique-slip fault is special type fault that forms when movement is not exactly parallel with the fault
plane. Oblique movement occurs when normal or reverse faults have some strike-slip movement and
when strike-slip faults have either some normal or reverse movement.

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Folding-Faulting and the Society

The study of folding and faulting is useful for academic purpose to create awareness about associated hazards and
benefits of folding and faulting. It is equally useful for exploration geologists to explore natural gas, oil in anticlinal
areas and to discover occurrence minerals along the fault line. The construction of mega-structures such as dams,
skyscrapers, nuclear power plants and town planning requires deeper understanding of the fold and fault settings.

4.4.2.3. Volcanism and Volcanic Landforms

Volcanism describes all the processes associated with the discharge of magma, hot fluids, and gases. Approximately
20 volcanoes are erupting. In a given year, volcanoes will erupt in about 60 different places on Earth. The
distribution of volcanoes on Earth‘s surface is not random. Most volcanoes form at plate boundaries. The majority
form at convergent boundaries and divergent boundaries. Along these margins, magma rises toward Earth‘s surface.
Only about 5 percent of magma erupts far from plate boundaries. Tectonic plates collide at convergent boundaries,
which can form subduction zones- places where slabs of oceanic crust descend into the mantle. An oceanic plate
descends below another plate into the mantle. As the oceanic plate descends, magma forms. The magma moves
upward because it is less dense than the surrounding solid material. As it rises, the magma mixes with rock, minerals,
and sediment from the overlying plate. Most volcanoes located on land result from oceanic-continental subduction.
These volcanoes are characterized by explosive eruptions. The larger belt, the Circum-Pacific Belt, is also called the
Pacific Ring of Fire. The name Circum-Pacific gives a hint about the location of the belt. Circum means around (as
in circumference). The outline of the belt corresponds to the outline of the Pacific Plate. The belt stretches along the

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western coasts of North and South America, across the Aleutian Islands, and down the eastern coast of Asia.
Volcanoes in the Cascade Range of the western United States and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines are some of the
volcanoes in the Circum-Pacific Belt. The smaller belt, which is called the Mediterranean Belt, includes Mount Etna
and Mount Vesuvius, two volcanoes in Italy. Its general outlines correspond to the boundaries between the Eurasian,
African, and Arabian plates.

Divergent volcanism
Recall that at divergent plate boundaries tectonic plates move apart and new ocean floor is produced as magma rises
to fill the gap. At ocean ridges, this lava takes the form of giant pillows and is called pillow lava. Unlike the
explosive volcanoes volcanism at divergent boundaries tends to be non-explosive, with effusions of large amounts of
lava. About two thirds of Earth‘s volcanism occurs underwater along divergent boundaries at ocean ridges. Some
volcanoes form far from plate boundaries over hot spots. Scientists hypothesize that hot spots are unusually hot
regions of Earth‘s mantle where high-temperature plumes of magma rise to the surface. Some of Earth‘s best-known
volcanoes formed as a result of hot spots under the ocean. For example, the Hawaiian islands which located over a
plume of magma. As the rising magma melted through the crust, it formed volcanoes. The hot spot formed by the
magma plume remained stationary while the Pacific Plate slowly moved northwest. Over time, the hot spot has left a
trail of volcanic islands on the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes on the oldest Hawaiian island, Kauai, are
inactive because the island no longer sits above the stationary hot spot. Even older volcanoes to the northwest are no
longer above sea level. The world‘s most active volcano, Kilauea, on the Big Island of Hawaii, is currently located
over the hot spot. Another volcano, Loihi, is forming on the seafloor southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii and might
eventually rise above the ocean surface to form a new island. Chains of volcanoes that form over stationary hot spots
provide information about plate motions. The rate and direction of plate motion can be calculated from the positions
of these volcanoes. The oldest seamount, Meiji, is at the other end of the chain and is about 80 million years old,
which indicates that this hot spot has existed for at least that many years. The bend in the chain at Daikakuji
Seamount records a change in the direction of the Pacific Plate that occurred 43 mya. When hot spots occur beneath
continental crust, they can lead to the formation of flood basalts. Flood basalts form when lava flows out of long
cracks in Earth‘s crust. These cracks are called fissures. Over hundreds or even thousands of years, these fissure
eruptions can form flat plains called plateaus. As in other eruptions, when the lava flows across Earth‘s surface,
water vapor and other gases escape. The volume of basalt erupted by fissure eruptions can be tremendous. For
example, the Columbia River basalts, located in the north western United States that contain 170,000 km3 of basalt.
This volume of basalt could fill Lake Superior, the largest of the Great Lakes, 15 times. However, the Columbia
River Basalts are small in comparison to the Deccan Traps. About 65 million years ago (mya) in India, a huge flood
basalt eruption created an enormous plateau called the Deccan Traps. The volume of basalt in the Deccan Traps is
estimated to be about 512,000 km3. That volume would cover the island of Manhattan with a layer 10,000 km thick
, or the entire state of New York with a layer 4 km thick. Some geologists hypothesize that the eruption of the
Deccan Traps caused a global change in climate that might have influenced the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Anatomy of a Volcano
Lava reaches the surface by travelling through a tubelike structure called a conduit, and emerges through an opening
called a vent. As lava flows through the vent and out onto the surface, it cools and solidifies around the vent. Over
time, layers of solidified lava can accumulate to form a mountain known as a volcano. At the top of a volcano,
around the vent, is a bowl-shaped depression called a crater. The crater is connected to the magma chamber by the
conduit. Volcanic craters are usually less than 1 km in diameter. Larger depressions, called calderas, can be up to 50
km in diameter. Calderas often form after the magma chamber beneath a volcano empties from a major eruption.

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Types of Volcanoes
The appearance of a volcano depends on two factors: the type of material that forms the volcano and the type of
eruptions that occur. Based on these two criteria, three major types of volcanoes have been identified. Each differs in
size, shape, and composition.
i. Shield volcanoes: A shield volcano is a mountain with broad, gently sloping sides and a nearly circular
base. Shield volcanoes form when layers of lava accumulate during non explosive eruptions. They are
the largest type of volcano. Mauna Loa is a shield volcano.
ii. Cinder cones: When eruptions eject small pieces of magma into the air, cinder cones form as this material,
called tephra, falls back to Earth and piles up around the vent. Cinder cones have steep sides and are
generally small; most are less than 500 m high. The Lassen Volcanic Park cinder cone is 700 m high.
Cinder cones often form on or very near larger volcanoes.
iii. Composite volcanoes: Composite volcanoes are formed of layers of hardened chunks of lava from violent
eruptions alternating with layers of lava that oozed down slope before solidifying.
Composite volcanoes are generally cone-shaped with concave slopes, and are much larger than cinder cones. Because
of their explosive nature, they are potentially dangerous to humans and the environment. Some examples of these are
Mount Augustine in Alaska and several in the Cascade Range of the western United States, such as Mount St.
Helens.

4.4.3. Tectonic Earthquakes and Related Landforms

Most earthquakes occur at plate margins due to tension, compression or shearing forces. Rocks at plate margins are
in constant motion and are being pushed, pulled, bent, twisted and folded. Inevitably at some point they must break
or crack to produce FAULTS!! A fault is a break or fracture between two blocks of rocks in response to stress
(tension, compression and shear). One block has moved relative to the other block. The surface along which the
blocks move is called a fault plane. There is a chicken and egg relationship between faults and earthquakes.
i. It was initially thought that earthquakes caused faulting (but then what caused the earthquake?)
ii. It was later realized that faulting produced the earthquakes.
Thus earthquakes may occur because:
a. Rocks are initially broken to produce a fault.
b. Movement or re-activation of an already existing fault.
Faults may therefore be thought of as ―fossil‖ relicts of previous earthquakes.

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Following the craks a volcanic activity may happen. The major activity is volcanic eruption. What makes the
eruption of one volcano quiet, and the eruption of another explosively violent?
The activity of a volcano depends on the composition of the magma. Lava from an eruption can be thin and runny or
thick and lumpy. In order to understand why volcanic eruptions are not all the same, you first need to understand how
rocks melt to make magma. Depending on their composition, most rocks begin to melt at temperatures between
800°C and 1200°C. Such temperatures are found in the crust and upper mantle. Temperature increases with depth
beneath Earth‘s surface. In addition to temperature, pressure and the presence of water also affect the formation of
magma. Pressure increases with depth because of the weight of overlying rocks. As pressure increases, the
temperature at which a substance melts also increases.

The composition of magma determines a volcano‘s explosivity, which is how it erupts and how its lava flows. What
are the factors that determine the composition of magma? Scientists now know that the factors include magma‘s
interaction with overlying crust, its temperature, pressure, amounts of dissolved gas, and -very significantly -the
amount of silica a magma contains. Understanding the factors that determine the behavior of magma can aid
scientists in predicting the explosivity of volcanic eruptions. In general, as the amount of gases in magma increases,
the magma‘s explosivity also increases. In the same way that gas dissolved in soda gives the soda its fizz, the gases
dissolved in magma give a volcano its ―bang.‖ Important gases in magma are water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Water vapor is the most common dissolved gas in magma. The presence of water
vapor determines where magma forms.

Minerals in the mantle, such as albite melt at high temperatures. The presence of dissolved water vapor lowers the
melting temperature of minerals, causing mantle material to melt into magma. This eventually forms volcanoes and
fuels their eruptions. The physical property that describes a material‘s resistance to flow is called viscosity.
Temperature and silica content affect the viscosity of magma. In general, cooler magma has a higher viscosity. In
other words, cool magma, much like chilled honey, tends to resist flowing. Magma with high silica content tends to
be thick and sticky. Because it is thick, magma with high silica content tends to trap gases, which produces explosive
eruptions. In general, magma with low silica content has low viscosity- it tends to be thin and runny, like warm
syrup. Magma with low silica content tends to flow easily and produce quiet, non-explosive eruptions. The silica
content of magma determines not only its explosivity and viscosity, but also which type of volcanic rock it forms as
lava cools. When rock in the upper mantle melts, basaltic magma typically forms.

Basaltic magma has the same silica content as the rock basalt- less than 50 percent silica. This magma rises from the
upper mantle to Earth‘s surface and reacts very little with overlying continental crust or sediments. Its low silica
content produces low-viscosity magma. Dissolved gases escape easily from basaltic magma. The resulting volcano is
characterized by quiet eruptions. Volcanoes such as Kilauea and Mauna Loa actively produce basaltic magma.
Surtsey, a volcano that was formed south of Iceland in 1963, is another volcano that produces basaltic magma.
Andesitic (an duh SIH tihk) magma has the same silica content as the rock andesite-50 to 60 percent silica. Andesitic
magma is found along oceanic-continental subduction zones. The source material for this magma can be either
oceanic crust or oceanic sediments. The higher silica content results in a magma that has intermediate viscosity.
Thus, the volcanoes it fuels are said to have intermediate explosivity. Colima Volcano in Mexico and Tambora in
Indonesia are two examples of andesitic volcanoes. Both volcanoes have produced massive explosions that sent huge
volumes of ash and debris into the atmosphere. This not only devastated the local communities, but also impacted the
global environment. When molten material rises and mixes with the overlying continental crust rich in silica and
water, it forms rhyolitic (ri uh LIH tihk) magma. Rhyolitic magma has the same composition as the rock granite -
more than 60 percent silica. The high viscosity of rhyolitic magma slows down its movement.
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High viscosity, along with the large volume of gas trapped within this magma, makes the volcanoes fueled by
rhyolitic magma very explosive. The dormant volcanoes in Yellowstone National Park in the western United States
were fueled by rhyolitic magma. The most recent of these eruptions, which occurred 640,000 years ago, was so
powerful that it released 1000 km3 of volcanic material into the air. When lava is too viscous to flow freely from the
vent, pressure builds up in the lava until the volcano explodes, throwing lava and rock into the air. The erupted
materials are called tephra. Tephra can be pieces of lava that solidified during the eruption, or pieces of the crust
carried by the magma before the eruption. Tephra are classified by size. The smallest fragments, with diameters less
than 2 mm, are called ash. The largest tephra thrown from a volcano are called blocks. Large explosive eruptions
can disperse tephra over much of the planet. Ash can rise 40 km into the atmosphere during explosive eruptions and
pose a threat to aircraft and can even change the weather. Some tephra cause tremendous damage and kill thousands
of people. Violent volcanic eruptions can send clouds of ash and other tephra down a slope at speeds of nearly 200
km/h. Rapidly moving clouds of tephra mixed with hot, suffocating gases are called pyroclastic flows.

They can have internal temperatures of more than 700°C. Most of Earth‘s volcanism happens below the surface
because not all magma emerges at the surface. Before it gets to the surface, rising magma can interact with the crust
in several ways. Magma can force the overlying rock apart and enter the newly formed fissures. Magma can also
cause blocks of rock to break off and sink into the magma, where the rocks eventually melt. Finally, magma can melt
its way through the rock into which it intrudes. What happens deep in Earth as magma slowly cools? When magma
cools, minerals begin to crystallize. Over a long period of time, minerals in the magma solidify, forming intrusive
igneous rock bodies. Some of these rock bodies are rib bon like features only a few centimeters thick and several
hundred meters long. Others are massive, and range in volume from about 1 km3 to hundreds of cubic kilometers.
These intrusive igneous rock bodies, called plutons (PLOO tahns), can be exposed at Earth‘s surface as a result of
uplift and erosion and are classified based on their size, shape, and relationship to surrounding rocks. The largest
plutons are called batholiths. Batholiths (BATH uh lihths) are irregularly shaped masses of coarse-grained igneous
rocks that cover at least 100 km2 and take millions of years to form. Batholiths are common in the interior of major
mountain chains.

Many batholiths in North America are composed primarily of granite -the most common rock type found in plutons.
However, gabbro and diorite, the intrusive equivalents of basalt and andesite, are also found in batholiths. Irregularly
shaped plutons that are similar to batholiths but smaller in size are called stocks. Both batholiths and stocks cut
across older rocks and generally form 5 to 30 km beneath Earth‘s surface. Sometimes when magma intrudes into
parallel rock layers close to Earth‘s surface, some of the rocks bow upward as a result of the intense pressure of the
magma body. When the magma solidifies, a laccolith forms. A laccolith (LA kuh lihth) is a lens shaped pluton with a
round top and flat bottom. Compared to batholiths and stocks, laccoliths are relatively small; at most, they are 16 km
wide. Another internal landform which created by volcanic eruption is sill. A sill forms when magma intrudes
parallel to layers of rock. A sill can range from only a few centimeters to hundreds of meters in thickness. Unlike a
sill, which is parallel to the rocks it intrudes, a dike is a pluton that cuts across pre-existing rocks. Dikes often form
when magma invades cracks in surrounding rock bodies. Dikes range in size from a few centimeters to several meters
wide and can be tens of kilometers long.

The processes that result in batholiths are complex. Many major mountain chains formed along continental-
continental convergent plate boundaries. Scientists think that some of these collisions might have forced continental
crust down into the upper mantle where it melted, intruded into the overlying rocks, and eventually cooled to form
batholiths. Plutons are also thought to form as a result of tectonic convergence.
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4.4.3.1. Forces within Earth that cause Earthquake

Most earthquakes are the result of movement of Earth‘s crust produced by plate tectonics. As a whole, tectonic plates
tend to move gradually. Along the boundaries between two plates, rocks in the crust often resist movement. Over
time, stress builds up. Stress is the total force acting on crustal rocks per unit of area. When stress overcomes the
strength of the rocks involved, movement occurs along fractures in the rocks. The vibrations caused by this sudden
movement are felt as an earthquake. The characteristics of earthquakes are determined by the orientation and
magnitude of stress applied to rocks, and by the strength of the rocks involved. There are three kinds of stress that act
on Earth‘s rocks: compression, tension, and shear. Compression is stress that decreases the volume of a material,
tension is stress that pulls a material apart, and shear is stress that causes a material to twist. The deformation of
materials in response to stress is called strain. Even though rocks can be twisted, squeezed, and stretched, they
fracture when stress and strain reach a critical point. At these breaks rock can move, releasing the energy built up as a
result of stress. Earthquakes are the result of this movement and release of energy. For example, the 2005 earthquake
in Pakistan was caused by a release of built-up compression stress. When that energy was released as an earthquake,
more than 75,000 people were killed and 3 million were made homeless. Laboratory experiments on rock samples
show a distinct relationship between stress and strain. When the stress applied to a rock is plotted against strain, a
stress-strain curve is produced. A stress-strain curve usually has two segments - a straight segment and a curved
segment. Each segment represents a different type of response to stress. The first segment of a stress strain curve
shows what happens under conditions in which stress is low. Under low stress, a material shows elastic deformation.
Elastic deformation is caused when a material bends and stretches. This is the same type of deformation that
happens from gently pulling on the ends of a rubber band. When the stress on the rubber band is released, it returns to
its original size and shape. The elastic deformation is proportional to stress. If the stress is reduced to zero, the
deformation of the rocks disappears. When stress builds up past a certain point, called the elastic limit, rocks undergo
plastic deformation. Unlike elastic deformation, this type of strain produces permanent deformation, which means
that the material stays deformed even when stress is reduced to zero. Even a rubber band undergoes plastic
deformation when it is stretched beyond its elastic limit. At first the rubber band stretches, then it tears slightly, and
finally, two pieces will snap apart. The tear in the rubber band is an example of permanent deformation. When stress
increases to be greater than the strength of a rock, the rock ruptures. The point of rupture, called failure. Most
materials exhibit both elastic and plastic behaviour, although to different degrees. Brittle materials, such as dry wood,
glass, and certain plastics, fail before much plastic deformation occurs. Other materials, such as metals, rubber, and
silicon putty, can undergo a great deal of deformation before failure occurs, or they might not fail at all. Temperature
and pressure also influence deformation. As pressure increases, rocks require greater stress to reach the elastic limit.
At high enough temperatures, solid rock can also deform, causing it to flow in a fluid-like manner. This flow reduces
stress. Crustal rocks fail when stresses exceed the strength of the rocks. The resulting movement occurs along a weak
region in the crustal rock called a fault. A fault is any fracture or system of fractures along which Earth moves. The
surface along which the movement takes places is called the fault plane.

The orientation of the fault plane can vary from nearly horizontal to almost vertical. The movement along a fault
results in earthquakes. Reverse faults form as a result of horizontal and vertical compression that squeezes rock and
creates a shortening of the crust. This causes rock on one side of a reverse fault to be pushed up relative to the other
side. Reverse faulting can be seen near convergent plate boundaries. Movement along a normal fault is partly
horizontal and partly vertical. The horizontal movement pulls rock apart and stretches the crust. Vertical movement
occurs as the stretching causes rock on one side of the fault to move down relative to the other side. Strike-slip faults
are caused by horizontal shear. The movement at a strike-slip fault is mainly horizontal and in opposite directions,
similar to the way cars move in opposite directions on either side of a freeway.

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4.4.3.2. Types of Seismic Waves

The vibrations of the ground during an earthquake are called seismic waves. Every earthquake generates three types
of seismic waves: primary waves, secondary waves, and surface waves. Primary waves are also referred to as P-
waves, primary waves squeeze and push rocks in the direction along which the waves are travelling. The
compressional movement of P-waves is similar to the movement along a loosely coiled wire. If the coil is tugged and
released quickly, the vibration passes through the length of the coil parallel to the direction of the initial tug.
Secondary waves, called S-waves, are named with respect to their arrival times. They are slower than P-waves, so
they are the second set of waves to be felt. S-waves have a motion that causes rocks to move at right angles in
relation to the direction of the wave. The movement of S-waves is similar to the movement of a jump rope that is
jerked up and down at one end. The waves travel vertically to the other end of the jump rope. Both P-waves and S-
waves pass through Earth‘s interior. For this reason, they are also called body waves. The third and slowest type of
waves are surface waves, which travel only along Earth‘s surface. Surface waves can cause the ground to move
sideways and up and down like ocean waves. These waves usually cause the most destruction because they cause the
most movement of the ground, and take the longest time to pass.
The first body waves generated by an earthquake spread out from the point of failure of crustal rocks. The point
where the waves originate is the focus of the earthquake. The focus is usually several kilometers below Earth‘s
surface. The point on Earth‘s surface directly above the focus is the epicentre. Surface waves originate from the
epicenter and spread out.

Unit 5: Exogenic Processes and Associated Landforms

5.1. Concept and Definition of Exogenic Process and Forces
5.1.1. What is the Concept of Exogenic Process?
Exogenic Processes: Exogenic : Processes occuring on the Earth's surface and that generally reduce relief. These
processes include weathering and the erosion, transport, and deposition of soil and rocks; the primary geomorphic
agents driving exogenic processes are water, ice, and wind. The exogenic processes obtain their energy from the
gradients generated by tectonic factors, processes, their corresponding driving forces and atmosphere determined by
the energy from the sun. Precipitation and temperature are the two significant climatic components that regulate
different processes. Whole exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a common term, denudation which
means to uncover. Weathering, transportation, and erosion are comprised of denudation. Gravitational force acts
upon every material on earth having a sloping surface and incline to create the movement of matter in downward
slope direction.

5.1.1.1. Exogenic Processes – Stress

The force applied per unit area is called stress. Stress is created in a solid by pulling or pushing and this induces
deformation. Forces acting along the surfaces of earth materials are shear stresses and it breaks rocks and other earth
materials. The shear stresses result in slippage or angular displacement. Besides gravitational stress, earth materials
become exposed to molecular stresses that may be caused by several factors amongst which crystallisation, melting,
and temperature variations are the most usual. Chemical processes generally lead to loosening of bonds between
grains, dissolving of soluble minerals or strengthening materials. Therefore, the fundamental cause that leads to
erosion, mass movements, and weathering is the development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.The
effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are minor and slow relative to endogenic forces. It may be
imperceptible in a short time span, but will in the long run influence the rocks harshly due to constant fatigue.

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5.2. Theories of Landform and Slope Development

As you have seen before, there is no general theory of geomorphology. We cannot cast the subject in a single
equation, or set of equations. As with geology, geomorphology is a tangle of physics, chemistry, biology and history.
It is also geometry, as the geomorphology plays out in a complex geographic, topographic setting in which both the
tectonic and climate processes responsible for driving evolution of the topography change in style and intensity.
There is no grand quest for a Universal Law of Geomorphology.

5.2.1. Multicyclic and Polygenetic Evolution of Landscapes

The landforms that are found on the surface of the Earth can be grouped into 4 categories:
(1) Structural Landforms - landforms that are created by the solidification of large quantities of magma or by
massive movements due or rock because of plate tectonics. This includes landforms like: shield, fold
mountains, rift valleys, and volcanoes.
The major controlling factor in land form development is structure and process. Here the term structure
includes not only the folds, faults etc. but all those ways in which the earth materials out of which land forms
are carved differ from one another in their physical and chemical attributes. it includes such as rock attitudes;
presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, faults, and folds; rock massiveness; hardness of constituent
minerals; the susceptibility of the mineral constituents to chemical alteration; permeability and
impermeability of rocks; and various other ways by which the rocks of the earth crust differ from one
another. The term structure also has stratigraphic implications, and knowledge of the structure of a region
implies as appreciation of rock sequence, both in outcrop and in subsurface, as well as regional relationship
of the rock strata. In general the structures are much older than the geomorphic forms developed upon them.
Such major structural features as folds and faults may go back to far distant periods of diastrophism.

(2) Weathering Landforms - landforms that are created by the physical, chemical or biological decomposition
of rock through weathering. Weathering produces landforms where rocks and sediments are decomposed
and disintegrated. This includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features: karst, patterned
ground, and soil profiles.

(3) Erosional Landforms - landforms formed from the removal of weathered and eroded surface materials by
wind, water, glaciers, and gravity. This includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features:
river valleys, glacial valleys, and coastal cliffs.

(4) Depositional Landforms - landforms formed from the deposition of weathered and eroded surface
materials. On occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure, heat and chemical processes
to become sedimentary rocks. This includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic features:
beaches, deltas, flood plains, and glacial moraines.

Monocyclic landscapes are those that bear the imprint of only one cycle of erosion; multicyclic landscapes have
been produced during more than one cycle of erosion. Much of the earth's topography bears the imprints of more than
one period of erosion. Hence, multicyclic landscapes have been produced during more than one cycle of erosion.
Much of the earth's topography bears the imprints of more than one period of erosion.
Many landforms show the influence of several of the above processes. We call these landforms polygenetic.
Processes acting on landforms can also change over time, and a single landscape can undergo several cycles of
development. We call this type landscape development polycyclic.

A landform created by a number of geographical cycles occurring one after the other in order, leaving their distinct
marks on the landscape, is called a polycyclic landform. Many landforms show the influence of several of the
processes like weathering, erosion, sediment deposition. They are known as landforms polygenetic. Processes acting

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on landforms can also change over time, and a single landscape can undergo several cycles of development. This
type of landscape development is polycyclic.

Examples of polycyclic reliefs:

 Older alluvium terraces, for instance, Bhangar terraces in north Indian plains.
 Existence of synclinal ridges and anticlinal valleys in successive cycles.
 Rejuvenated landforms.
 Scraped erosional surface of different ages. Examples—Appalachians and Western Ghats.
 Fault Line scarp due to differential erosion.
 Pleomorphic landforms which are those formed under conditions which do not exist now. These landforms
include relict landforms (those based on earlier ones, e.g. drainage systems of north Sahara in Africa), buried
landforms, e.g., those formed by continental glaciers in USA, exhumed landforms (initially buried but now
resurrected).
The following graphical model describes the relationship between general landform types and the
geomorphic processes of weathering, erosion, and sediment deposition

Figure: Simple model of landform development

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5.2.2. Models/Theories of Landscape Evolution (Views of Davis, Penck,

King and Hack)
Our subject is often subdivided according to the geographic elements of the geomorphic system: hillslopes, rivers,
eolian dunes, glaciers, coasts, karst, and so on. As discussed before, the are a number of scholars who contribute for
the evolution of geomorphology. Hence, there are a number of geomorphic theories of landform development. Some
of the major geomorphic theories are:
 Davisian Theory
 Penck‘s Theory
 Gilbert‘s Theory
 Theory of L.C. King
 Theory of J.T. Hack
 Theory of Morisawa
 Theory of S.A. Schumm

A brief description of each of the geomorphic theories is stated as following.

i. Davisian Theory: Cycle of Erosion
The most popular theory of landform development was given by American geomorphologist William Morris Davis.
His concept of geographical cycle (or commonly known as cycle of erosion) provided a genetic classification and
systematic description of landforms. According to Davis, geographical cycle is a period of time during which an
uplifted landmass undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into low featureless plain or
peneplain (which Davis called peneplane), Davis‘s theory was the outcome of a set of theories and models presented
by him during the 1880s and 1890s. He propounded the model of ‗complete cycle of river life‘ in his essay on The
Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania (1889), and that of ‗geographical cycle‘ (1899) and ‗slope evolution‘. He, under
the concept of ‗complete cycle of river life‘, postulated the cycle concept of progressive development of erosional
stream valleys, and through the ‗geographical cycle‘ described the sequential development of landforms through
time. However, Prof. Savindra Singh says that the general theory of landform development of Davis is not the
‗geographical cycle‘ as many of the geomorphologists believe. Davis‘s theory may be expressed as: ―There are
sequential changes in landforms through time (passing through youth, mature and old stages) and these sequential
changes are directed towards well defined end product development of peneplain‖. A Davisian idea in which the
point to which a landform has evolved during a cycle of erosion is termed as Geomorphic stage. It is a result of the
different processes the landforms pass through different stages – a series of orderly and sequential changes.

ii. Penck‟s Theory: Slope Development

According to German geomorphologist Walther Penck, the characteristics of landforms of a given region are related
to the tectonic activity of that region. Contrary to the Davisian concept that ―landscape is a function of structure,
process and time (stage)‖, Penck put forward his view that geomorphic forms are an expression of the phase and rate
of uplift in relation to the rate of degradation, where it is assumed that interaction between the two factors, uplift and
degradation, is continuous. According to Penck‘s view the landforms observed at any given site give expression to
the relation between the two factors of uplift and degradation that has been or is in effect, and not to a stage in a
progressive sequence.

The main premises of Penckian model of landscape development are the following:

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1. The morphological characteristics of any region of the earth‘s surface is the result of competition between
crustal movement and denudation processes.
2. On the basis of morphological characteristics tectonic movements can be explained and their causal factors
ascertained.
3. Development of landscape is not time- dependent.
4. The shape of the hillslope depends on the relative rates of valley incision by rivers and removal of debris
from the hill-slope.
5. Three crustal states are witnessed: (a) state of crustal stability with no active displacement; (b) state of initial
domed uplift in a limited area followed by widespread unlift; and (c) state of extensive crustal upliftment.
6. Upliftment and erosion are always coexistent.
7. Three states of adjustment between crustal movement and valley deepening are observed: (a) if for a longer
time crustal upliftment remains constant, the vertical erosion by the river is such that there is balance
between the rate of upliftment and erosion; (b) if the rate of uplift is more than the rate of valley deepening,
then the channel gradient continues to increase till the rate of valley deepening matches. However, it must be
noted that there was certain misunderstanding in the interpretation of Penck‘s work as it was published in
obscure German language. Penck‘a morphological system was severely criticised in the United States in the
same way the ‗geographical cycle‘ was criticised in Germany. Penck‘s concepts of parallel retreat of slope
and continued crustal movements were subjected to severe criticism by many geomorphologists and
geologists.
However, despite lack of support for Penck‘s concept of long continued upliftment and tectonic speculations, his
concepts of slope development and weathering processes are of immense geomorphological significance.

iii. Gilbert‟s Theory: Dynamic Equilibrium

On the basis of his investigation of landforms and the processes associated with their formation in different parts of
the United States, Grove Karl Gilbert formulated a set of principles to explain geomorphic features. The concepts and
principles propounded by Gilbert provided the base for the development of the dynamic equilibrium theory involving
time- independent development of landforms and it subsequently became the pivot of drastic methodological shift in
geomorphology. According to Gilbert, ―the landscape is the result of two competing tendencies i.e. tendency towards
variability (when driving force exceeds resisting force) and tendency towards uniformity (when driving force equals
resisting force)‖. Gilbert says landscapes remain in equilibrium condition, their history is rhythmic punctuated by
oscillatory changes and their forms are punctuated by frictional rhythms arising out of the mechanism of driving and
resisting forces. The three major components of Gilbert‘s geomorphic principles are: the concept of quantification,
the concept of time and the concept of equilibrium. Gilbert‘s concept of equilibrium, also known as the principle of
least force, envisages that in the final form of any functional system ―the sum of the forces acting on the final form
equaled zero‖. There are two types of forces: driving force and resisting force. He tried to explain the formation of
laccoliths resulting from vulcanicity during his field studies by applying the concept of equilibrium.
According to him the formation of laccolith depends on the competence of during force (rise of magma) and resisting
force (overlying pressure of superincumbent load). The formation and growth of laccoliths continue so long as the
driving force of rising magma is not countered by resisting force of equal magnitude acting downwards. When the
driving force is balanced by the resisting force, the growth of laccolith becomes static. A state of equilibrium is
achieved and thus the principle of least work becomes operative wherein the sum of driving and resisting forces.

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iv. Theory of L.C. King: Landscape Cyclic Models

L.C. King‘s theory of landform development is based on his studies of landforms in arid, semi-arid and savanna
regions of South Africa. He formulated a set of cyclic models (such as landscape cycle, epigene cycle, pediplanation
cycle, hillslope cycle, etc.) and asserted that these are practicable in other parts of globe as well. The reference
system of King‘s model says ―there is uniform development of landforms in varying environmental conditions and
there is insignificant influence of climatic changes in the development of fluvially originated landforms. Major
landscapes in all the continents have been evolved by rhythmic global tectonic events. There is continuous migration
(retreat) of hillslope and such retreat is always in the form of parallel retreat.‖ For King, the profile of an ideal
hillslope consists of all four elements of slope, viz., summit, scarp, debris slope and pediments and such hillslopes
develop in all regions and in all climates where there is sufficient relief and fluvial process is the dominant agent of
denudation. Pointing out that the Davisian model of arid cycle of erosion was inadequate to explain all types of
landscapes, King, in the 1940s, propounded a new cyclic model of pediplanation (or pediplanation cycle) to explain
the unique landscapes that he observed in the arid, semi-arid and savanna parts of Africa. According to King, the
African landscape consisted of three basic elements: (a) rock pediments flanking river valleys and having concave
slope varying in angle from 1.5° to 7° cut into solid rocks; and (b) scarps having steep slopes bounding the uplands
and varying in angle from 15° to 30° and experiencing parallel retreat due to backwasting by weathering and
rainwash; (c) steep sided residual hills known as inselbergs (bornhardts) which vary in size and shape. The size of the
inselbergs is dependent on the magnitude of erosion and their shape on the nature of underlying structure.
It is worth noting that King‘s concept of upliftment and crustal stability is similar to the concept of Davis. The cycle
of pediplanation is performed by twin processes of scarp retreat and pedimentation. Each cycle begins with rapid rate
of upliftment followed by long period of crustal (tectonic) stability. The cycle of pediplanation begins with the uplift
of previously formed pediplains and not of any structural unit. The pediplanation cycle passes through the stages of
youth, mature and old as in the Davisian cycle of erosion. However, there are certain differences between the models
of King and Davis. Davis‘s peneplain is formed due to down wasting while King‘s pediplain is formed due to
coalescence and integration of several pediments which are formed due to parallel scarp retreat. Once formed,
Davis‘s peneplain does not experience further growth until it is reuplifted. When uplifted, new erosional cycle is
initiated and the rivers are rejuvenated. On the other hand, King‘s pediplain once formed further grows headward.

Critique of King‟s Model:

King‘s model was subjected to many criticisms:
(a) King‘s model was limited to the African experience.
(b) It is doubtful to assert that there is uniform development of landscapes in d/t environmental conditions.
(c) King‘s concept of antique pediplanation remains questionable.

v. Theory of J.T. Hack:

American geomorphologist J.T. Hack made a serious attempt to fill the conceptual vacuum created by the criticism
and rejection of Davisian evolutionary model of geographical cycle and Penck‘s morphological system. Hack pointed
out that multi-level landscape (polycyclic relief) cannot be explained in terms of multiple erosion cycle (Davisian
notion), rather these landscapes can be explained in terms of dynamic equilibrium theory. According to Hack,
geomorphic system is an open system and so long as energy remains constant in the geomorphic system, landscape
remains in the steady state condition despite the lowering in the landscape by denudational processes. Hack‘s model
envisages time-independent development of landscape. In other words, ―the shape of the landforms reflects the
balance between the resistance of the underlying materials to erosion and the erosive energy of the active processes‖.

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The main assumptions of the Hackian model of landscape development are:

(a) There is balance between denudational processes and rock resistance.
(b) There is uniform rate of downwasting in all components of landscapes.
(c) Differences and characteristics of form are explicable in terms of spatial relations in which geologic patterns are
primary consideration.
(d) The denudational processes which operate at present have been carved out of the earth‘s surface landscapes.
(e) There is lithologic adjustment to landforms.
vi. Theory of Morisawa:
American geomorphologist Marie Morisawa formulated a geomorphic model based on tectonic movements and
changes. She analysed the results of goemorphological studies pertaining to erosion and reliefs undertaken by
different geomorphologists in different parts of the world and concluded that ―there is high rate of erosion on uplifted
landmass because potential energy required for erosion increases due to greater height and high potential energy
results in high kinetic energy due to increased channel flow velocity which ultimately accelerates erosion‖. She said
that the rate of denudation and basin reliefs were highly positively correlated and 90 percent of the total differences
in erosion rates in different drainage basins were due to average reliefs of the basins.

The main premises of Morisawa‟s tectono- geomorphic model are:

(a) Landforms are the result of inequality of force or inequality of resistance or of both.
(b) The variations in landforms are due to inequality of rates of operation ‗of exogenetic processes acting on different
geomaterials of the earth‘s surface and inequality of the rates of endogenetic processes.
(c) Nature tends to attain balance or equilibrium between force (of processes) and resistance of geomaterials.
However, this balance is not always maintained since the earth is unstable and dynamic. The isostatic feedback also
affects the rates of upliftment and erosion, and deposition and subsidence.
(d) The current landforms are the result of difference of ratios of the actions of endogenetic and exogenetic processes.
(e) When uplifted or newly created, a landmass undergoes rapid transformation of its form through exogenetic
(denudational) processes. The rate of transformation is dependent on the nature of force and resistance.
(f) Some morphological features can be explained in terms of plate tectonics.

vii. Theory of S.A. Schumm:

Schumm‘s theory is based on the episodic erosion model. He stated that denudation is not gradual and continuous,
rather it is episodic. The geomorphic history of landscape development, according to Schumm, includes numerous
periods of rapid erosion (period of instability) and deposition. Period of rapid erosion is followed by long period of
deposition. There is repetition of periods of erosion and deposition and thus there is complexity in the evolution and
development of landforms. Schumm says the complexity of landscape can be explained in terms of two geomorphic
concepts: (a) concept of geomorphic thresholds, and (b) concept of complex response. Explaining these two concepts
Prof. Savindra Singh writes, ―The concept of geomorphic thresholds suggests that changes may occur in the fluvial
system but these changes are not occasioned by external factors such as isostatic upliftment, but are effected by
inherent geomorphic controls of eroding fluvial system (say drainage basin).
For instance, if there is deposition of eroded sediments in a fluvial system, these deposited sediments become
unstable at a critical threshold slope i.e. channel slope gradient increases due to sedimentation and a limit (threshold)
is attained when no further sediments may be accommodated. Consequently, the channel gradient becomes such (due
to deposition) that erosion of deposited sediments begins due to increased channel flow velocity. It is evident that
such changes (deposition and erosion) have not been effected by external variables of the fluvial system but have
been caused by the internal geomorphic controls.

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According to the concept of complex response, when a fluvial system is rejuvenated (say, drainage basin), then the
response of the fluvial system to rejuvenation is not just renewed accelerated rate of valley deepening but the
response is in the form of attainment of new equilibrium (it may be stated that the equilibrium is disturbed due to
rejuvenation) through down cutting, aggradation and renewed erosion. If the effects of external variables of the
fluvial system (isostatic upliftment) is combined with geomorphic thresholds and complex response then at least
during the initial stage (youth), the geomorphic cycle of erosion cannot be progressive; rather, there would be
complex response of events of relative periods of stability separated by periods of episodic erosion. In other words,
there is repetition of periods of erosion and erosionless periods (periods of stability), the response (result) of which is
that, the fluvial system and the resultant landscape become very complex. The main reason of the resultant
complexity of landscape is the fact that if any event occurs in any segment of a river, there is no instantaneous impact
of such event on the entire channel length.‖
Though some of Schumm‘s ideas did not find favour with many geomorphologists, modern studies of thresholds and
complex response have suggested to synthesise the Davisian cyclic decay model and the steady state model of Gilbert
into an organic vision of landform evolution.

5.2.3. Slope Forms, Processes, and Classification

5.2.3.1. The Concept of Slope and its Application

Slope can be defined as the angle, inclination, steepness, or gradient of a straight line. Slope often is used to describe
the steepness of the ground‘s surface. Slope can be measured as the rise (the increase in elevation in some unit of
measure) over the run (the horizontal distance measured in the same units as the rise). Many geographic information
systems (GIS) can analyze digital elevation data (elevation points, contour lines, digital elevation models, etc.) and
derive both slope and aspect data sets. Slope is an important landscape metric which helps to describe landforms,
model surface runoff, characterize habitat, classify soils,and to assess the potential for development.

5.2.3.2. Processees, Approaches and Classification of Slopes

Physical landscape is an assemblage of slopes. Geomorphologists for longbeen intrigued by the study of origin and
form of slopes, it posed a major challenge to the study of landforms. Various theories and models were formulated to
provide a rational explanation to its origin and form but all had their own flaws. Despite the fact that slope constitutes
the core of landform study, it has not received due attention and largely remained neglected. The study of slopes
faces a number of challenges. It becomes difficult to determine its nature, the rate of operation of the processes and
its effect on the slope. It is also very difficult to mark the whole trajectory of slope development and trace changes in
its form with the passage of time. In a landform study there are two aspects which have always remained in the
focus- the form and the process. The term ‗form‘ indicates the morphology of a given region at a given time. The
different shape a landform assumes is the focus of the study while ‗process‘means the actual operation of different
agents which bring about changes in the physical environment. These agents are manyand they vary in terms of their
role in different regions. Process includes agents such as soil creep, surface wash, weathering etc. Two approaches
were followed to have a proper understanding of the slope development. They are (a) Historical approach (b)
Process-Form approach

i. Historical Approach: This approachemphasizes on historical evolution of slopes right from its origin to the
present form.It, however, suffers from the inherent problem ofcorrect reconstruction of the past forms of
slope. There is no yardstick to measure or verify the correct reconstruction of the past, so it makes the
problem of identifyinga proper theory that explains the actual forms of the slopes in the past more
complex. Tracing the correct historical development of slope forms is therefore not an easy task. Many
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writers and investigators have taken recourse in the assumption that the present day slopes have
developed from near- vertical cliff which in course of time have weathered back and modified to new
forms and gradients. Such conditions may occasionally occur in nature but in a majority of cases slopes
appear to border river valleys which were never vertical cliffs. It is wrong to generalize that river erosion
always produces steep vertical wall like feature due to its high intensity of erosion. Along with the
process of river erosion there are other processes like weathering and creep that tends to consistently
modify the slope edges produced by river and transform them into more complex slope forms. ―The
concept of initial slope is perhaps a totally unrealistic one‖(Small, 1978). Another commonly
encountered problem is determining the age of the slope. There is no standard method which can be
universally applied to determine the age of slope with accuracy. Extensive field survey of different slope
profiles can give rather more satisfactory results than any other method of study. Studying numerous
profiles would help the investigator easily distinguish profiles in various stages of their evolution and
place them in proper time sequence.However, this exercise also does not give a completely satisfactory
result. Determination of slope age based on its form is by no means an easy exercise. Despite all the
problems mentioned above many geomorphologist went ahead and formulated diverse theories
explaining the process of slope evolution.But theory formulation and reconstructing the past forms of
slope is still largely based on speculation.

ii. The process-form approach: The premise of this approach rests on the assumption that the form and gradient
of slope is an outcome of causal relationship between weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition.
These processes of denudation operate in different combinations and in varying rates giving rise to
immense variety of slope forms with varying steepness. The variation in rock types, climate, vegetation
etc has direct bearing on the types of slope forms produced. If we take the example of limestone region
having adequate amount of rainfall we observe convex slope as the most common form because of the
reason thatrainwash is less effective here due to the porous nature of rock which in other regions would
have resulted in concavity. This approach like the historical approach suffers from several difficulties. It
becomes verydifficult to observe the different processes at work on slopes since the process of
weathering, creep, rainwash etc are extremely slow and not perceptible to the eyes. Thus it requires state
of the art tools and highly accurate methods for recording of the operation of these processes for arriving
at accurate results. It is again very difficultto assert very firmlythat slope processes have direct bearingon
the form of denudational slope. Another problem associated with this process-form approach is the
possibility that many slopes of the present times are not an outcome of present day processes( Small,
1978). There have been diverse opinions expressed regarding the relationship between slope form and
climate. If slope is controlled by slope processesalone then it is assumed it would give rise to different
slope forms in different regions. Some geomorphologist have overstressed this relationship citing several
examples in its support. However, the assumption that certain type of slope will be formed only in a
particular kind of climate is not always true. For a long period of time it was held that pediments are
found in desert regions but now many scientists and geomorphologist support the view that it may occur
anywhere in the world. In the above discussed two approaches the historical approach retraces the
sequence of events in the past and the process-form approach investigates the processes and their
interrelationships that results in diverse slope forms. Both the above slope approaches are helpful in the
study and understanding of the slopes and their evolution.

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GeneticClassification of slopes
Slopes are produced by both Endogenetic and Exogeneticprocesses. Based on these two processes they have been
broadly divided into – Endogenetic Slopes and Exogenetic slopes

i. Endogenetic Slopes- These slopes originate due to the processes which originate within the earth. Different
earth movements lead to formation of folds, faults, rift valleys etc. These slopes are also referred to as
tectonic slopes. Fault scarps are often associated with faults and rift valleys. Volcanic eruption which is also
an outcome of endogenetic process going on inside the earth results in the formation of new features.
Volcanic Eruptions cause accumulation of lava and pyroclastic materials and give rise to different kinds of
volcanic hills, plateaus and cones. The size and steepness of volcanic cones, plateaus and hills depends on
the nature of eruption, viscosity of lava and amount of pyroclastic material released during eruptions. The
features formed due to the volcanic eruptions or tectonic processes undergo modification by sub aerial
processes resulting into various slope forms.

ii. Exogenetic slopes- These slopes are an outcome of external processes originating at or near the earth‘s
surface. Processess like weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition play key role in fashioning a
landscape. These processes consistently operate upon the surface and regularly create and modify slope
forms. The slopes created by exogenetic processes can broadly be divided into two categories(a) Erosional or
degradational slopes and (b) Depositional or aggradational slopes. Erosional slopes are formed by the action
of wind , runningwater, waves , glaciers etc. Glaciers and running water produce numerous landforms in
their valleys. Features like escarpment, watersheds, river terraces, cliffs ( in coastal region) are examples of
erosional slopes. Depositional slopes are again produced by the same agents. Alluvial fans, natural levees are
produced by running water; moraines are produced by glaciers; wind produces sand dunes of various shapes
and sizes. Deposition along sea coasts givesrise to sand bars , barriers and beaches. These are all different
depositional slopes produced by the action of water, wind and glacier.

Forms/Elements of slope

Slopes have a number of forms or elements. A slope profile commonly consists of convex (crest),rectilinear
and concave slope forms. Convex slopes are commonly found at the top and concave slopes lie at the base of
the hillslope.L. C. King and A.Wood were of the belief that a standard composite slope profile consist of four
elements. The uppermost part is convex slope or crest. Below the crest is scarp or free face followed by
rectilinear slope and at last at the bottom is the concave slope. This is the most common composite slope
profile, however, in reality theyare found in several combinations. All the elements may not occur in a single
slope profile. Occurrence of these elements in varying combination depends on factors like structure of rock,
nature of rock and the processes that operate upon the surface. The four main types of slope elements (forms)
have been discussed below in detail.

1. Convex Slope: At times an entire slope may assume a convex form but it is most commonly
observed on the upper parts of the slope. Convex slope profile is a result of denudational process;
they are assumed to be the characteristic of the humid temperate region. Some rock types like
chalk and limestone are also associated with convex profile of slope. However, this is not a rule as
they can easily be observed in many other regions having a variety of rock types other than
limestone or chalk.In the upper parts of the hillslope they are often referred to as ‘crest’ or ‘summit
slope’. The angle of the slope increases downslope from the crest. Weathering and soil creep are
believed to be the two most active processes which have caused the formation of the summital
convexity. The term summital convexity is often referred to as ‘waxing slope’ after it was used and
popularized by a well known German geomorphologistW. Penck.

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2. Cliff or Free Face: It is a steep wall like slope often known as scarp or free face. It is mostly bare
because of its steepness. No regolith or debris can accumulate at such a steep slope therefore all the
material falls down and accumulate at the foot of the cliff. Since it remains free of any detritus or
debris many geomorphologists call it ‗Free Face‘. Cliff develops along the coast (due to undercutting
by sea waves), in river valleys, glacial regions, in faulted landscapes and many other places. As
previously mentioned weathered material falls down or slides and accumulates at the base of the free
face. This accumulated feature if left untouched by transporting agents will grow in size and result
into a new depositional feature which is called a talus slope. The angle of talus or scree slope is
determined by the size of the weathered materials. If the material is course it would result in a steep
slope but if it is fine gentler slopes would emerge. The consistent rise of the slope due to continuous
supply of weathered material would slowly cover the lower parts of the free face and hence protect it
from weathering. The talus slope would gradually grow higher causing reduction in the length of the
free face. Eventually, a time would arrive when the entire cliff or free face would disappear and will
be replaced by aggradational slope of lesser angle than the cliff.

3. Rectilinear slope:Itmostly lies below the cliff or free face. It is also known as constant slope since the
slope angle largely remains constant. The slope is straight in profile. This element varies in its

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dimension and may also dominate the entire slope. This slope section is often found extending from
summit to the bottom of a valley. On many other slope profiles the rectilinear section lies at the
centre of the profile between a broader convexity on the upper part and a larger concavity on the
lower section. The angle of rectilinear slope is determined by the angle of repose of the weathered
fragments derived from the underlying rock and occupying its surface (Small,1978). Many
geomorphologists are of the view that rectilinear slopes develop due to aggradation only but this is
not the case in manyinstances. In the words of Small ( 1978)‗Rectilinear slopes can be essentially
denudational forms, underlain by solid rock and bearing only a veneer of detritus,either at rest or
moving very slowly downhill owing to disturbance by frost and other agencies‘.These slopes are also
referred to as debris controlled slope. Strahler (1950) used the term ‗repose slope‘ to refer to such
slopes.

4. Concave slope: The concave slope is observed at the lowest part of the slope profile. It is located at
the bottom of a hillslope and extends further down to the river valley. It is usually covered with a
layer of debris. The accumulated scree due to rainwash spreads the finer particles farther than the
coarser ones leading to development of concavity. Penck used the term waning slope for such
slopes. In arid and semi arid regions these slopes display a sharp break of gradient between the
lower concave section and the steeper slopes above. In contrast, in humid conditions the basal
concavity grades smoothly into the higher slopes.

The above discussed elements are assumed to be present in a standard hillslope but as has been pointed out
by many geomorphologists and thinkers that all the four elements may not be noticed in a hillslope. One or
more than one element may be missing from the slope profile owing to various reasons. A slope profile may
have different combinations of elements and one can theoretically assume infinite number of such
combinations. In reality, there are several combinations which occur frequently and appearvery common.

5.2.4. Slope Failures (Translational, Rotational, Wedge & Compound

Failure)
5.2.4.1. Slope Stability

It may be useful to visualize slopes as existing in one of the following three stages:
 Stable: The margin of stability is sufficiently high to withstand all destabilizing forces.
 Marginally Stable: Likely to fail at some time in response to destabilizing forces reaching a certain
level of activity.
 Actively Unstable: Slopes where destabilizing forces produce continuous or intermittent
movements.

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The stability of a slope is always discussed in terms of its susceptibility to failure and is a topic of serious concern to
geologists all over the world. It is defined slope stability as the resistance of any inclined surface, as the wall of an
open pit or cut, to failure by sliding or collapsing. Any ground surface that stands at an angle to the horizontal is
termed an unrestrained slope and can be of natural origin or man-made. As the ground surface is not horizontal, there
will always be the tangential component of gravity that tends to move the slope-forming materials down-slope.
Resistance to failure is mainly derived from a combination of the slope geometry and inherent shear
strength of the soil or rock mass involved.

5.2.4.2. Slope failures

Earth materials with sloping ground surfaces, either natural or man-made are subject to gravitational and
other forces as seepage which lead to instability and ultimately failure. Slope failures occur in many forms
and there is a wide range in their predictability, rapidity of occurrence and movement, and ground area
affected, all of which relate directly to the consequences of failure. There are various classifications of
slope failures, but the most useful classifications are those that employ as their primary criteria the type of
movement and the type of slope forming materials involved, with secondary considerations of velocity and
the amount and phase of water.

5.2.4.3. Major Types of Slope Failure

According to Varnes (1978, there are six types of slope failures. These are:
1. Falls
2. Topples
3. Slides
4. Lateral spreads
5. Flows
6. Complex

1. Falls: Falls are those down-slope movements where the mass in motion mostly travels

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through air. Falls include free fall, movements by leaps and bounds, and rolling of fragments of bedrock or
soil. Rockfall (free fall of rock) is an extremely rapid process and occurs without warning. Rockfall is
typically the result of frost wedging. Frost wedging is a process where water enters cracks in rocks, freezes,
expands, and breaks the rock apart. Frost wedging results in a fan-shaped pile of rock fragments at the base
of the slope. The rock fragments are called talus and the slope is referred to as a talus slope. The presence
of a talus slope is a warning sign itself.

Figure: Fall - material free fall.

2. Topples: The down-slope movements as a result of forces that cause an overturning moment about
a pivot point below the center of gravity of the unit are topples. If topples are unchecked, falls or
slides may result.

Figure: Topples - the end-over-end motion of rock down a slope

3. Slides: Slides may occur in almost every conceivable manner, slowly and suddenly, and with or
without any apparent provocation. Usually, slides are due to excavation or undercutting the foot of
an existing slope. However, in some instances, they are caused by gradual disintegration of the
structure of the soil, starting at hair cracks which subdivide the soil into angular fragments . In
others, they are caused by an increase of the pore-water pressure in a few exceptionally permeable
layers, or by a shock that liquefies the soil beneath the slope.

Slides can be separated into rotational and translational types. The behavior of the slides depends mostly on
the type of material and whether that material is:
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a). homogeneous (isotropic ) material (similar properties in all directions), or

b). inhomogeneous (anisotropic) material with planes of weakness

Rotational Movement
According to the Geological Survey of the United States (USGS, 2004), a rotational slide is a slide in
which the surface of rupture is curved concavely upward and the slide movement is roughly rotational
about an axis that is parallel to the ground surface and transverse across the slide. In a translational slide (as
shown in the following figure the landmass moves along a roughly planar surface with little rotation or
backward tilting. It is caused by slope failure of homogeneous (isotropic) materials (similar properties in all
directions).

Translational Slide

Figure: Schematic diagram of a translational slide

It is caused by slope failure of inhomogeneous (anisotropic) material with planes of weakness.

4. . Lateral Spreads
Lateral spreads are disturbed lateral extensional movements in a fractured mass.
They involve the lateral displacement of large, surficial blocks of soil as a result of
liquefaction of a subsurface layer.

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Figure: Schematic diagram of a lateral spread

Displacement occurs in response to the combination of gravitational forces and inertial forces generated by
an earthquake. Two subgroups of lateral spreads are often identified:
 where the spread is without a well-defined controlling basal shear surface or zone of plastic flow,
 in which extension of rock or soil results from liquefaction or plastic flow of subjacent material.
The process whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and silts) are
transformed from a solid into a liquefied state.
Lateral spreads are distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes or flat terrain. Failure is
usually triggered by rapid ground motion, such as that experienced during an earthquake, but can also be
artificially induced. When coherent material, either bedrock or soil, rests on materials that liquefy, the
upper units may undergo fracturing and extension and may then subside, translate, rotate, disintegrate, or
liquefy and flow. Lateral spreading in fine-grained materials on shallow slopes is usually progressive. The
failure starts suddenly in a small area and spreads rapidly. Often the initial failure is a slump, but in some
materials movement occurs for no apparent reason (USGS, 2004). Lateral spreads, like other types of
failures, exhibit fairly specific topographic signatures that are easily identified.

Figure: Classic features of a lateral spread

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5. Flow: Flows occur when sufficient force is applied to rocks and regolith that they begin to flow
down slope.

Figurue: Flow. Viscous to fluid-like motion of debris

A sediment flow is a mixture of rock and/or regolith with some water or air which can occur in bedrock or
soils. In bedrock, flows include spatially continuous deformation, and superficial as well as deep creep and
extremely slow and generally non-accelerating differential movements among relatively intact units. The
movements may:
 be along shear surfaces that are apparently not connected
 result in folding, bending or bulging, or
 roughly simulate those viscous fluids in distribution of velocities
In soils, the movement within the displaced mass is such that the form taken by moving material, or the
apparent distribution of velocities and displacements, resemble those of viscous fluids. The slip surfaces
within the moving material are usually not visible or are short-lived. The boundary between the moving
mass and material may be a sharp surface or differential movement or a zone of distributed shear.
Movement ranges from extremely rapid to extremely slow.

Depending on the amount of water present in the sediment, Flows can be subdivided into slurry flows and
granular flows.

Slurry flows are sediment flows that contain between about 20% and 40% of water. As the water content
increases above some 40%, slurry flows grade into streams. Slurry flows are considered watersaturated
flows. Granular flows on the other hand are sediment flows that contain between about 0% and 20% water.
This flow is possible with little or no water. Fluidlike behavior is given these flows by mixing with air.
Granular flows are not saturated with water (Nelson, 2005).

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Figure: Sketch of subdivisions of slurry flows and granular flows based on water saturation and velocity.
Slurry flows can further be subdivided into :
i. Solifluction - with flowage rates measured on the order of centimeters per year of regolith
containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lodes on hill slopes. These occur in areas
where the soil remains saturated with water for long periods of time.
ii. Debris flows - occur at higher velocities than solifluction, with velocities between 1 meter/year and
100 meters/hr, and often result from heavy rains causing saturation of the soil and regolith with
water. They sometimes start with slumps and then flow down hill forming lobes with an
irregular surface consisting of ridges and furrows.
iii. Mud flows - are highly fluid, high velocity mixture of sediment and water that has a consistency
ranging between soup-like and wet concrete. They move at velocities greater than 1 km/hr and
tend to travel along valley floors. These usually result from heavy rains in areas where there is
abundance of unconsolidated sediment that can be picked up by streams. Thus after heavy
rainfall, streams can turn into mud flows as they pick up more and more loose sediments. Mud
flows can travel for a long distance because of their high velocities and are potentially
dangerous.

On the other hand, Granular flows can be divided into:

i. Creep - which is a very slow, usually continuous movement of regolith down slope.
ii. Earth flows - are usually associated with heavy rains and move at velocities between several
cm/year and 100 of m/day. They usually tend to be narrow tongue-like features that begin at a
scarp or small cliff.

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iii. Grain flows - usually form in relatively dry material, such as a sand dune on a steep slope. A small
disturbance sends the dry unconsolidated grains moving rapidly down the slope.
iv. Debris Avalanches - which are very high velocity flows of large volume mixtures of rock and
regolith that result from collapse of a mountainous slope. They move down slope and then can
travel for a considerable distances along relatively gentle slopes. These are often triggered by
mature events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

6. Complex failures
Complex movements are those involving a combination of one or more of the other five principal types
of movements. These mechanisms are often complex and act at depth, making the investigation and
characterization of contributing factors difficult. This poses a problem in the analysis stage of the
investigation as uncertainties arise concerning the analysis technique to be employed and what input
data is required.

Causes of slope failures

The stability, marginally Stable and actively unstable stages of a given slope provide a useful framework
for understanding the causal factors of instability and classifying them into preparatory causal factors and
triggering causal factors. The preparatory causal factors are those which make the slope susceptible to
movement without actually initiating it and thereby tending to place the slope in a marginally stable state.
Ground cracks are the surface manifestation of a variety of mass movements. In plan, they are commonly
concentric or parallel, and have widths of a few centimeters and lengths of several meters which distinguish
them from the much shorter desiccation cracks. The formation of cracks and any increase in their rate of
widening is a common measure of impending slope failure. The appearance of, and increases in ground
subsidence or upheaval are also a good measure of impending failure. Triggering causal factors are those
which initiate movement. These causal factors shift the slope from a marginally stable state to an actively
unstable state. Slope failure is a natural process which can be induced, accelerated or retarded by
human actions.

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Figure: Schematic diagram showing influence of different factors on instability

Many causes are involved, including

i. Removal of lateral support through the erosive power of streams, glaciers, waves, and long shore and tidal
currents; through weathering and wetting, drying and freeze thaw cycles in surficial materials; through
land subsidence or faulting that create new slopes; and through human actions such as cutting slopes for
roads and other structures, quarrying, removal of retaining walls, and lowering of reservoirs.
ii. Adding weight naturally to slopes by rain, hail, snow and water from springs, by accumulation of talus or
volcanic debris, and by human actions such as landfills, stockpiles of ore or rock, waste piles,
construction of heavy buildings and other structures, and water leaking from pipelines, sewers, canals,
and reservoirs.
iii. Earthquakes, thunder, or vibrations from nearby slope failures, and human activities such as vibrations from
explosives, machinery, road and air traffic.
iv. Regional tilting that increases slope angles.
v. Decrease of underlying support by removal of granular and soluble materials, mining, loss of strength or
failure and/or freezing out of underlying material.
vi. Lateral pressure from water in cracks, freezing of water in cracks, hydration of minerals, and mobilization of
residual stress.
vii. Volcanic processes that modify ground and rock stresses, such as inflation or deflation of magma chambers,
fluctuations in lava-lake levels, and increase in ground tremors.

5.3. Denudational Geomorphologic Process & Resulting landforms

5.3.1. Weathering Process and its types

Weathering is the process by which material is prepared for transport. Weathering is the response of the
materials within the lithosphere to conditions at or near its contact with the atmosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere.
External processes are manly related with weathering and denudation. Weathering is the process in which materials
on or near Earth‘s surface break down and change. Mechanical weathering is a type of weathering in which rocks and
minerals break down into smaller pieces. This process is also called physical weathering. Mechanical weathering
does not involve any change in a rock‘s composition, only changes in the size and shape of the rock. A variety of
factors are involved in mechanical weathering, including changes in temperature and pressure. Temperature plays a
role in mechanical weathering. When water freezes, it expands and increases in volume by 9%. In many places on
Earth‘s surface, water collects in the cracks of rocks and rock layers. If the temperature drops to the freezing point,
water freezes, expands, exerts pressure on the rocks, and can cause the cracks to widen slightly.
When the temperature increases, the ice melts in the cracks of rocks and rock layers. The freeze-thaw cycles of water
in the cracks of rocks is called frost wedging. Frost wedging is responsible for the formation of potholes in many
roads in the northern United States where winter temperatures vary frequently between freezing and thawing.
Another factor involved in mechanical weathering is pressure. Roots of trees and other plants can exert pressure on
rocks when they wedge themselves into the cracks in rocks. As the roots grow and expand, they exert increasing
amounts of pressure which often causes the rocks to split. On a much larger scale, pressure also functions within
Earth. Bedrock at great depths is under tremendous pressure from the overlying rock layers. A large mass of rock,
such as a batholith, may originally form under great pressure from the weight of several kilometers of rock above it.
When the overlying rock layers are removed by processes such as erosion or even mining, the pressure on the
bedrock is reduced. The bedrock surface that was buried expands, and long, curved cracks can form. These cracks,
also known as joints, occur parallel to the surface of the rocks. Reduction of pressure also allows existing cracks in

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the bedrock to widen. For example, when several layers of overlying rocks are removed from a deep mine, the
sudden decrease of pressure can cause large pieces of rocks to explode off the walls of the mine tunnels. Over time,
the outer layers of rock can be stripped away in succession, similar to the way an onion‘s layers can be peeled. The
process by which outer rock layers are stripped away is called exfoliation. Exfoliation often results in dome-shaped
formations, such as Moxham Mountain in New York and Half Dome in Yosemite National Park in California.
Chemical weathering: It is the process by which rocks and minerals undergo changes in their composition. Agents of
chemical weathering include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid precipitation. The interaction of these agents
with rock can cause some substances to dissolve, and some new minerals to form. The new minerals have properties
different than those that were in the original rock. For example, iron often combines with oxygen to form iron oxide,
such as in hematite. The composition of a rock determines the effects that chemical weathering will have on it. Some
minerals, such as calcite, which is composed of calcium carbonate, can decompose completely in acidic water.
Limestone and marble are made almost entirely from calcite, and are therefore greatly affected by chemical
weathering. Buildings and monuments made of these rocks usually show signs of wear as a result of chemical
weathering. Temperature is another significant factor in chemical weathering because it influences the rate at which
chemical interactions occur. Chemical reaction rates increase as temperature increases. With all other factors being
equal, the rate of chemical weathering reactions doubles with each 10°C increase in temperature. Water is an
important agent in chemical weathering because it can dissolve many kinds of minerals and rocks. Water also plays
an active role in many reactions by serving as a medium in which the reactions can occur. Water can also react
directly with minerals in a chemical reaction. In one common reaction with water, large molecules of the mineral
break down into smaller molecules. This reaction decomposes and transforms many silicate minerals. For example,
potassium feldspar decomposes into kaolinite, a fine-grained clay mineral common in soils. An important element in
chemical weathering is oxygen. The chemical reaction of oxygen with other substances is called oxidation. Iron in
rocks and minerals combines with this atmospheric oxygen to form minerals with the oxidized form of iron.

A common mineral that contains the oxidized form of iron is hematite. Another atmospheric gas that contributes to
the chemical weathering process is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a gas that occurs naturally in the atmosphere as
a product of living organisms. When carbon dioxide combines with water in the atmosphere, it forms a very weak
acid called carbonic acid that falls to Earth‘s surface as precipitation. Precipitation includes rain, snow, sleet, and fog.
Natural precipitation has a pH of 5.6. The slight acidity of precipitation causes it to dissolve certain rocks, such as
limestone. Decaying organic matter and respiration produce high levels of carbon dioxide. When slightly acidic water
from precipitation seeps into the ground and combines with carbon dioxide in the soil, carbonic acid becomes an
agent in the chemical weathering process. Carbonic acid slowly reacts with minerals such as calcite in limestone and
marble to dissolve rocks. After many years, limestone caverns can form where the carbonic acid flowed through
cracks in limestone rocks and reacted with calcite. Another agent of chemical weathering is acid precipitation, which
is caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides that are released into the atmosphere, in large part by human
activities. Sulfur dioxide is primarily the product of industrial burning of fossil fuels. Motor-vehicle exhausts also
contribute to the emissions of nitrogen oxides. These two gases combine with oxygen and water in the atmosphere,
forming sulphuric and nitric acids, which are strong acids. The acidity of a solution is described using the pH scale.
Acid precipitation is precipitation that has a pH value below 5.6-the pH of normal rainfall. Because strong acids can
be harmful to many organisms and destructive to human made structures, acid precipitation often creates problems.
Many plant and animal populations cannot survive even slight changes in acidity. Acid precipitation is a serious issue
in New York and in West Virginia and much of Pennsylvania.

Rate of Weathering

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The natural weathering of Earth materials occurs slowly. For example, it can take 2000 years to weather 1 cm of
limestone, and most rocks weather at even slower rates. Certain conditions and interactions can accelerate or slow the
weathering process. Climate is the major influence on the rate of weathering of Earth materials. Precipitation,
temperature, and evaporation are factors that determine climate. The interaction between temperature and
precipitation in a given climate determines the rate of weathering in a region. Rates of chemical weathering:
Chemical weathering is rapid in climates with warm temperatures, abundant rainfall, and lush vegetation. These
climatic conditions produce soils that are rich in organic matter. Water from heavy rainfalls combines with the
carbon dioxide in soil organic matter and produces high levels of carbonic acid. The resulting carbonic acid
accelerates the weathering process. Chemical weathering has the greatest effects along the equator, where rainfall is
plentiful and the temperature tends to be high.
Rates of physical weathering: Conversely, physical weathering can break down rocks more rapidly in cool climates.
Physical weathering rates are highest in areas where water in cracks within the rocks undergoes repeated freezing and
thawing. Conditions in such climates do not favour chemical weathering because cool temperatures slow or inhibit
chemical reactions. Little or no chemical weathering occurs in areas that are frigid year-round. Both Egyptian
obelisks were carved from granite more than one thousand years ago. For more than a thousand years, they stood in
Egypt‘s dry climate, showing few effects of weathering. In 1881, Cleopatra‘s Needle was transported from Egypt to
New York City. In the time that has passed since then, the acid precipitation and the repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing in New York City accelerated the processes of chemical and physical weathering. In comparison, the obelisk
that remains in Egypt appears unchanged.

Rock Type and Composition: Not all the rocks in the same climate weather at the same rate. The effects of climate on
the weathering of rock also depend on the rock type and composition. For example, rocks containing mostly calcite,
such as limestone and marble, are more easily weathered than rocks containing mostly quartz, such as granite and
quartzite.

Surface area: The rate of weathering also depends on the surface area that is exposed. Mechanical weathering breaks
rocks into smaller pieces. As the pieces get smaller, their surface area increases. When this happens, there is more
total surface area available for chemical weathering. The result is that weathering has more of an effect on smaller
particles.

Topography: The slope of a landscape also determines the rate of weathering. Rocks on level areas are likely to
remain in place over time, whereas the same rocks on slopes tend to move as a result of gravity. Steep slopes
therefore promote erosion and continually expose less-weathered material.

5.3.2. Mass Wasting and Related Landforms

Mass wasting, is the failure and downslope movement of rock or unconsolidated materials in response to gravity.
This term is sometimes referred to as ―slope stability‖ and also commonly called ―landslides.‖ Mass wasting happens
because tectonic processes have created uplift. Erosion, driven by gravity, is the inevitable response to that uplift, and
various types of erosion, including mass wasting, have created slopes in the uplifted regions. Slope stability is
ultimately determined by two factors: the angle of the slope and the strength of the materials on it.

Classification of Mass Wasting

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It‘s important to classify slope failures so that we can understand what causes them and learn how to mitigate their
effects. The three criteria used to describe slope failures are:
i. Material: Type of material that failed (typically either bedrock or unconsolidated sediment)
ii. Motion: How the material moved (fall, slide, or flow).
iii. Rate: Speed at which the material moved

Three types of motion associated with slope failure are:

i. Fall: Material drops through the air, vertically or nearly vertically.
ii. Slide: Material moves as a cohesive mass along a sloping surface.
iii. Flow: Material moves like a fluid.

Table: Classification of slope failures based on type of material and type of motion. Extremely rapid = more than
3m/sec, Rapid = 0.3m/min, Moderate = 1.5 m/day, Very slow = 1.5m/year Extremely slow = 0.3m/5years.
Failure Type Type of Material Type of Motion Rate of Motion
Rock fall Bedrock Fall Extremely rapid
Rock slide Bedrock Slide Very slow to extremely rapid
Rock avalanche Bedrock (slides then Flow Extremely rapid
breaks into smaller
fragments)
Creep or solifluction Unconsolidated materials Flow or slide Extremely slow
(rock fragments, soils)
Slump Unconsolidated Slide Very slow to moderate
sediments
Mudflow Unconsolidated Flow Moderate to Extremely rapid
sediments (very small
silt and clay)
Debris flow Unconsolidated Flow Rapid to Extremely rapid
sediments (Sand, gravel,
and larger
fragments)

Rock Fall

Figure: The contribution of freeze-thaw to rock fall

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Figure: Major Types of mass movement

5.4. Fluvial Process and Landform

Fluvial landforms are landforms shaped dominantly by the action of running water, whether in the form of overland
flow or stream flow.

5.4.1. Cycle of Erosion Model

Erosion is a process in which various erosive agents obtain and remove rock debris from the Earth‘s crust, and
transport them for a long distance. In the process of erosion, if new relief feature is formed then the same process sets
renewed again till the feature is converted into featureless plain called peneplain. The destruction of these relief
features levelled upto sea level due to the process of erosion, which is defined as cycle of erosion. The concept of the
cycle of erosion or geographic cycle of erosion is initially proposed by William Morris Davis, American
Geomorphologist and Professor of Physical Geography at Harward University, in 1899, which was key idea in the
history of geomorphology. The main concept of Davis was to arrange landforms into a cycle of development. There
are mainly five theories proposed about the development of surface relief or landform in the history of
geomorphology such as W.M. Davis (1899), W. Penck (1924), K.K. Markov (1948), L.C. King (1962), I.P.
Gerasimov and J.A. Mecerjakov (1970). In the following subsections, we will focus on the process of cycle of
erosion proposed by Davis and Penck.

i. Davis Model of Erosion Cycle

The geographical cycle theory of W.M. Davis was the first modern theory of continental erosion and landscape
evolution. He postulated his concept of geographical cycle is a period of time during which an uplifted landmass
undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into low featureless plain or peneplane. He
assumed that the initial form of landmass got uplifted from beneath the sea by Earth movements. According to Davis,
the landscape is a function of structure, process, and stage. All of these three play a dominant role in the origin and
development of landforms in a particular place. Structure deals with the nature of rock (whether hard or soft) as well
as its structural characteristics (folds, faults, etc.). In the soft rock, the cycle is completed in short duration compared
to the hard rocks. Process is concerned with internal and external forces that shape the landscape. Stage means the
length of time during which the processes are at work. Land sculpture varies in different stages. When landmass is
uplifted, the erosional agents start working on it to convert featureless surface. Davis envisioned a continuous
sequence of terrain evolution which is linked to the life cycle of organism defining as youth, mature, and old stages.
The following figure explains the three basic stages of erosion.

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Figure: Diagrammatic representation of Davisian cycle of erosion

Stage 1: Younger and Juvenile Stage

The process of denudation is initiated by the upliftment of landmass above sea level. In humid climatic environment,
because of sufficient rain, a system of streams normally develops on the emerged landmass. The top surfaces or
summits of stream divides are not affected significantly by the erosion. The stream divides are separated by small
rivers and tributaries that are engaged in headward erosion. These streams with incise deep, steep sided, narrow, v-
shaped valleys, flow rapidly, and have irregular gradients marked by waterfalls and rapids. In this stage, shallow
lakes and swamps can be found due to the incomplete drainage system. By the end of the middle youth stage the
valley side slopes experience retreat, and as tributaries start to extend their valleys into the interfluve area by
headward erosion. This is the reason, as Davis described, the area is in a younger and juvenile stage of development.
Erosion can remove material through a number of different agents, including running water, glaciers, wind, ocean
currents, and waves. These agents of erosion can carry rock and soil thousands of kilometres away from their source.
After the materials are transported, they are dropped in another location in a process known as deposition. Gravity is
associated with many erosional agents because the force of gravity tends to pull all materials down slope. Without
gravity, neither streams nor glaciers would flow. In the process of erosion, gravity pulls loose rock down slope. The
effects of gravity on erosion by running water can often produce dramatic landscapes with steep valleys.

Figure: Young Stage of Erosion

Erosion transports weathered materials across Earth‘s surface until they are deposited. Gravity‘s Role: Recall that the
process of weathering breaks rock and soil into smaller pieces, but never moves it. The removal of weathered rock
and soil from its original location is a process called erosion.

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Stage 2: Maturity
The early stage of maturity indicates lateral erosion and the well integrated drainage system. The falls and rapids are
worn away and thus the area would develop smooth profiles. The main river and its tributaries are graded to the base
level of erosion. The stream will consume less amount of energy to move its load that results in the reduction of
valley deepening due to the substantial decrease in channel gradient and flow velocity. Because of the lateral erosion,
V-shaped valleys of youthful stage are transformed into broad U shapes, and sometimes produce floodplains. By the
end of mature stage, relief is reduced rapidly and valley floors exceed slowly by the nature of graded streams.

Figure: Mature Stage of Erosion

Stage 3: Old Stage

This stage is characterized by the gradual reduction of river gradients and associated decline of stream energy,
absence of valley incision, and sharp decrease of relief, etc. The area is dominated by extensive flood plains over
which a few major streams meander broadly and slowly. By the end of old stage, the whole surface approaches closer
and closer to the base level, termed by Davis a peneplain meaning near plain. Above the peneplain a few erosional
remnants are described as monadnocks after Mount Monadnock in New Hampshire, USA. Millions of years after the
cycle began, the land is subject to renewed uplift which includes a new cycle of erosion, a process which Davis
termed as rejuvenation.

Figure: Old Stage of Erosion

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This theory was very popular among the educators and researchers in the first half of the twentieth century, because
of its easiness in understanding landscape development in evolutionary terms. The geographical cycle‘ sequential
stages such as youth, mature and old could appear in many areas in the nature. However, there are some
imperfections observed in his assumptions and raised doubts about his conclusions by the scientific community. For
example, most interfluves appear to grow narrower with parallel retreat of valley slopes but as Davis described
interfluves grows lower as the cycle advances. A more important difficulty with Davisian model is that the land
upliftment does not take place until the cycle is completed. Another example, the peneplain surfaces are recognized
in some areas but not everywhere. The scientific evidences also show that isostasy takes place more or less
continuously as denudation advances.

ii. Penck Model of Erosion

Walther Penck, German geomorphologist, proposed many observations in the 1920‘s with respect to Davisian Cycle
of Erosion. According to him, the landscape characterized in a specified area is related to the tectonic activity of that
region. Davis imagined that the landscape is a function of structure, process and time, in which upliftment and
denudation process begins to work alternatively. Penck‘s forward thinking is that the landforms are an expression of
the phase, and rate of landscape upliftment in relation to rate of erosion, where both upliftment and erosion are in
continuous process. According to Davisan model, erosional process starts to work when the landscape is completely
uplifted and further the landmass is slowly eroded to endforms of low relief. Penck agreed with the concept of
Davisian eroded landforms of low relief but he opposed the rapid upliftment and repeated cycle of endforms erosion.
According to Penck, upliftment of the land area and denudation process starts at the same time. He used the term
Entwickelung meaning thereby development in the place of ‗stage‘. For the youth, maturity, and old stages he
proposed the terms Aufsteigende Entwickelung (waxing or accelerated rate of development), Gleichformige
Entwickelung (uniform rate of development), and Absteigende Entwickelung (wanning or decelerating rate of
development). The following figure explains three basic phases of landscape development as proposed by Penck.

Figure: Penck‘s concept of the landscape development

In the first phase of development land surface rises slowly and reaches to the summit level at maximum. The
landscape development begins with the upliftment of Primarumpf (initial landscape with low height and relief)
representing an initial featureless broad land surface. The rivers with accelerated rate of down cutting due to steep
gradient and velocity form narrow V-shaped valleys. In this stage, rate of upliftment is high where there is no
significant effect of erosion. Since the upliftment of landmass far exceeds the valley deepening, the absolute height
goes on increasing. Straight slopes can be observed on valley sides due to lower rate of valley deepening and divide
summits. When upliftment rate exceeds the denudation, the convex slopes are formed resulting from waxing or
accelerated rate of development called Aufsteigende Entwicklung. Second phase is uniform development of the
landscape. Upliftment and denudation match one another that form straight slopes resulting from steady-state

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development are called Gleichformige Entwicklung. Initially, it is characterized by the continuance of accelerated
rate of upliftment and attains maximum altitude (absolute relief), but relative relief remains constant. In a subsequent
sub-phase, the altitude, and relative relief are unchanged due to the rate of erosion of divide summits that matches the
valley deepening. At the end of this second phase, upliftment of the land stops completely. Altitudes of summit
divides start decreasing and relative relief remains constant because of the rate of lowering of divide summits which
equals the rate of valley deepening.

The final phase of landforms development leads to waning development termed as Absteignede Entwicklung, where
upliftment is less than the denudation and concave slopes are formed. The progress of upliftment remains constant
and erosion process of summit divides gets decreased. It means that the erosional process is dominant, and both the
absolute and relative reliefs show declining trend. We can observe in this final phase of landscape development that
upliftment is almost absent and valley deepening slows down. The valley side slopes of upper part have steep slopes
called gravity slopes while the lower part is called wash slope, which consists of low inclined talus material. Further,
ridges of the summit divides are reduced to steep side of conical residuals and their heights get decreased which are
called inselbergs. This inselberg landscape is observed by a series of concave wash slopes termed as Endrumpf.

5.4.2. Fluvial Erosional landforms: Streams

Stream formation relies on an adequate water supply. Precipitation provides water for the beginnings of stream
formation. Streams can also be fed by underground deposits of water. As a stream develops, it changes width and
size, and shapes the land over which it flows.

5.4.2.1. Stream channels

The region where water first accumulates to supply a stream is called the headwaters. It is common for a stream‘s
headwaters to be high in the mountains. Falling precipitation accumulates in small gullies at these higher elevations
and forms briskly moving streams. As surface water begins its flow, its path might not be well defined. In time, the
moving water carves a narrow pathway into the sediment or rock called the stream channel. The channel widens and
deepens as more water accumulates and cuts into Earth‘s surface. Stream banks hold the moving water within them.
When small streams erode away the rock or soil at the head of a stream, it is known as headward erosion. These
streams move swiftly over rough terrain and often form waterfalls and rapids as they flow over steep inclines.
Sometimes, a stream erodes the high area separating two drainage basins and joins another stream, and then draws
water away from the other stream. This process is called stream capture.

5.4.2.2. Formation of Stream Valleys Meanders

The driving force of a stream is the force of gravity on water. This means that the energy of a stream comes from the
movement of water down a slope called a stream gradient. When the gradient of a stream is steep, water in the stream
moves downhill rapidly, cutting steep valleys. The gradient of the stream depends on its base level, which is the
elevation at which it enters another stream or body of water. The lowest base level possible for any stream is sea
level, the point at which the stream enters the ocean. Far from its base level, a stream actively erodes a path through
the sediment or rock, and a V-shaped channel develops. V-shaped channels have steep sides and sometimes form
canyons or gorges. As a stream approaches its base level, it has less energy for downward erosion. Instead, streams
that are near their base level tend to erode at the sides of the stream channel, and over time result in broader valleys
with gentle slopes.

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Meanders
As stream channels develop into broader valleys, the volume of water and sediment that they are able to carry
increases. In addition, a stream‘s gradient decreases as it near its base level, and the channel gets wider as a result.
The decrease in gradient causes an increase in the volume of water the stream channel can carry. Hence, in large
flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns called meanders develop
over flood and delta plains. Meander is a type of channel pattern. When the gradient of the channel becomes
extremely low, water flows leisurely and starts working laterally. Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get
transformed into a small curvature in the banks; the curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of the curve
and erosion along the bank on the outside. If there is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting, the tendency to
meander is reduced. Normally, in meanders of large rivers, there is active deposition along the concave bank and
undercutting along the convex bank. The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp
and the convex bank presents a long, gentle profile. As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due
to erosion at the inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes as indicated in the following figure.

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5.4.3. Fluvial Depositional Landforms

The velocity of a stream determines how much sediment it can transport. Rapidly flowing streams have the energy to
transport sediment as large as gravel. When streams lose velocity, they lose some of the energy needed to transport
sediment, and deposition of sediment occurs.
Alluvial fans: A stream‘s velocity lessens and its sediment load drops when its gradient abruptly decreases. In dry
regions such as the North American Southwest, mountain streams flow intermittently down steep, rocky slopes and
then flatten out onto expansive dry lake beds. In areas such as these, a stream‘s gradient suddenly decreases, causing
the stream to drop its sediment at the base of the mountain in a fan-shaped deposit called an alluvial fan. Alluvial
fans are sloping depositional features formed at the bases of slopes and are composed mostly of sand and gravel.
Deltas: Streams also lose velocity and some of their capacity to carry sediment when they join larger bodies of quiet
water. The triangular deposit that forms where a stream enters a large body of water is called a delta, named for the
triangle-shaped Greek letter delta (Δ). Delta deposits usually consist of layers of silt and clay particles. As a delta
develops, sediments build up and slow the stream water, sometimes even blocking its movement. Smaller distributary
streams then form to carry the stream water through the developing delta. Deltas, such as the Mississippi River Delta,
are normally areas where the stream flow changes direction frequently. Over the course of thousands of years, the
Mississippi River Delta has changed frequently. Today, any small change in the drainage channels can result in
catastrophic flooding for local communities. To prevent floods, an extensive system of dams and levees is in place to
protect people and economic activities. A consequence of flood control is the decrease in the regular deposition of
sediment throughout the delta. In the absence of regular deposition throughout the delta, normal processes of coastal
erosion have caused the delta to shrink over time.
Rejuvenation: During the process of stream formation, down cutting can occur. Down cutting is the wearing away
of the streambed and is a major erosional process that influences the stream until it reaches its base level. If the base
level drops as a result of geologic processes, the stream undergoes rejuvenation. Rejuvenation means to make young
again. During rejuvenation, a stream actively resumes the process of down cutting toward its base level. This causes
an increase in the stream‘s velocity and the stream‘s channel once again cuts downward into the existing meanders.
Rejuvenation can cause deep-sided canyons to form. Millions of years ago, the Colorado River was near its base
level, like much of the Mississippi River today. Then the land was uplifted compared to the level of the ocean, which
caused the base level of the Colorado River to drop. This caused the process of rejuvenation, in which the river began
cutting downward into the existing meanders.

Lakes Undergo Change

Water from precipitation, runoff, and underground sources can maintain a lake‘s water supply. Some lakes contain
water only during times of heavy rain or excessive runoff from spring thaws. A depression that receives more water
than it loses to evaporation or use by humans will exist as a lake for a long period of time. However, most lakes are
temporary water-holding areas; over hundreds of thousands of years, lakes usually fill in with sediment and become
part of a new landscape.

Eutrophication
Through the process of photosynthesis, plants such as green algae add oxygen to lake water. Animals that live in a
lake need oxygen in the water. Throughout their life cycle, the animals add waste products to the water. Oxygen is
also consumed during the decay process that occurs after plants and animals living in the body of water die. Scientist
use the amount of dissolved oxygen present in a body of water to assess the overall quality of the water. Dissolved
oxygen is one quality a body of water must have to support life. The process by which bodies of water become rich in
nutrients from the surrounding watershed that stimulate excessive plant growth is called eutrophication. Although

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eutrophication is a natural process, it can be sped up with the addition of nutrients, such as fertilizers, that contain
nitrogen and phosphorus. Other major sources of nutrients that concentrate in lakes are animal wastes and phosphate
detergents. When eutrophication occurs, the animal and plant communities in the lake can change rapidly. Algae
growing at the surface of the water can suddenly multiply very quickly. The excessive algae growth in a lake or pond
appears as a green blanket. Other organisms that eat the algae can multiply in numbers as well. In addition, the
population of algae on the surface can block sunlight from penetrating to the bottom of the lake, causing sunlight
dependent plants and other organisms below the surface to die.

Freshwater wetlands
A wetland is any land area that is covered with water for a part of the year. Wetlands include environments
commonly known as bogs, marshes, and swamps. They have certain soil types and support specific plant species.
Their soil types depend on the degree of water saturation.
Bogs : Bogs are not stream-fed but instead receive their water from precipitation. The waterlogged soil tends to be
rich in Sphagnum, also called peat moss. The breakdown of peat moss produces acids, thereby contributing to the
soil‘s acidity. The waterlogged, acidic soil supports unusual plant species, including insect-eating pitcher plants such
as sundew and Venus flytrap.
Marshes: Freshwater marshes frequently form along the mouths of streams and in areas with extensive deltas. The
constant supply of water and nutrients allows for the lush growth of marsh grasses. The shallow roots of the grasses
anchor deposits of silt and mud on the delta, thereby slowing the water and expanding the marsh area. Grasses, reeds,
sedges, and rushes, along with abundant wildlife, are common in marsh areas. Swamps: Swamps are low-lying areas
often located near streams. Swamps can develop from marshes that have filled in sufficiently to support the growth of
shrubs and trees. As these larger plants grow and begin to shade the marsh plants, the marsh plants die. Swamps that
existed about 200 million years ago developed into present-day coal reserves that are common in Pennsylvania and
many other locations in the United States and around the world.

5.4.4. Types of Drainage Patterns and Structure

5.4.4.1. Basic Concepts Drainage and Drainage System
The term drainage is the flow of water through well-defined channel. It refers to the movement of water (from
rainfall and snowmelt) either over Earth‘s surface or down into the soil and bedrock. Although moving water is an
outstanding force under the ‗process‘ heading, the ramifications of slope wash, stream flow, stream patterns, and
other aspects of drainage are so significant that generally the topic or drainage is considered a basic element in
landform analysis. In geomorphology, drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the networks and patterns
formed by the streams, rivers, and related contributers in a particular drainage basin. Drainage system refers to the
branched network of stream channels together with the adjacent land slopes that drain. Arrangements of the main
rivers and their tributaries shaped by the nature of the underlying rock and slope of the surrounding. The system
includes the total area from which a river and its tributaries collect both a surface run off and surface below.

5.4.4.2. Drainage Basin and Drainage Pattern

A drainage basin is an entire area drained by a river and its tributaries. It is a natural hydrological entity,
which allows surface run-off to a defined channel, drains, streams or river at a particular point. Each stream in a
drainage system drains a certain area, called a drainage basin (also called a catchment or a watershed). In a single
drainage basin, all water falling in the basin drains into the same stream. A drainage divide separates each drainage

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basin from other drainage basins. Drainage basins can range in size from a few km2 , for small streams, to extremely
large areas. On the other hand, drainage pattern refers to the particular plan or design which the individual stream
courses collectively form. It refers to the system of flow of surface water mainly through the forms of rivers and
basins. It is the patter or arrangement formed by the streams, rivers and lakes in a particular drainage basin.

Drainage patterns are controlled by following factors:

i. Initial slope.
ii. Lithology and lithological variation.
iii. Structures.
iv. Geologic and geomorphic history of the area.
v. Climate and rainfall of the area.

Since the drainage patterns are influenced by so many factors they are extremely useful in the interpretation of
geomorphic features and for understanding of structural and lithological control of landform evolution. Drainage
pattern is an important element in geologic interpretation of aerial photos.

5.4.4.3. Drainage Density

Drainage density is the total length of all the streams and rivers in a drainage basin divided by the total area of the
drainage basin. It is a measure of how well or how poorly a watershed is drained by stream channels. It is equal to the
reciprocal of the constant of channel maintenance and equal to the reciprocal of two times the length of overland
flow. When deriving drainage density for a catchment area, both perennial and intermittent rivers/tributaries need to
be taken into consideration. If only perennial streams are included, the drainage density value for catchments with
only intermittent streams would be equal to zero. In the case of a flood event, when both perennial and intermittent
streams are active, its values would be unrealistic.

In order to calculate drainage density for a basin or sub-basin, you must first ensure that you have the lengths of all
channels within the basin's boundaries (rivers, streams, etc.), as well as the area for the entire basin. Drainage density
is calculated using the formula:

Higher drainage density values indicate lower infiltration rates and higher surface flow velocity. A high drainage
density is often related to a high sediment yield transported through the river network, high flood peaks, steep hills,
and a low suitability for agriculture. Hydrogeological and geomorphological systems often have heterogeneous
characteristics that vary with scale from microstructures to continents.

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5.4.4.4.Types of Drainage Pattern and Factors Determining Drainage Pattern

Drainage patterns often reveal useful information about the underlying structure and lithology. A search for a
distinctive drainage network on a topographic map or aerial photograph is a logical first step in the study of regional
geology and provides clues into these structural characteristics.

Drainages tend to develop along zones where rock type and structure are most easily eroded. Thus various types of
drainage patterns develop in a region and these drainage patterns reflect the structure of the rock. There are different
drainage patterns. Drainage patterns can be classified into following 4 types depending upon their origin,
spatial distribution, sub-surface flow and channel characteristics.

A. Genetic Classification

It is related to the period of formation and their relation to the original slope, underlying bedrock and structures.
Genetically the streams have been divided into following types:

 Consequent stream - A stream whose course is dictated by the slope of the land.

 Sub-sequent stream - A stream that has developed on a weak substructure, such as a clay vale or in regional
joint or fault pattern, at right angles to streams consequent to the dip of the slope. Such streams owe their
development to the accelerated rate of head-ward erosion of zones of least resistance.

 Obsequent stream - A stream that flows in the opposite direction to a consequent stream, often against the
direction of dip.

 Resequent stream- A stream which flows down the dip of the formations.

 Insequent stream - A stream whose course is not controlled by original slope, structure or rock types.

 Superimposed stream - A stream formed on one surface and structure has science cut down through
unconformity to flow over older rocks, which have structure discordant with that above the unconformity.
Such a stream is then said to be superimposed on older rocks.

 Antecedent stream - Established a course despite the appearance and growth of some structural element
across its path. e.g. The Indus, the Satluj and the Brahamaputra rivers have cut transverse gorges across the
Himalayan mountains. The uplift of Himalayas increased their gradients and their increased erosive action
was able to maintain their courses across the mountains.

B. Internal Drainage based Classification

 Sinkhole - A hollow oval or circular in outline with short rudimentary channel which disappear in the hole.
This is typical of soluble rocks like limestone, gypsum and dolomites etc.

C. Spatial Drainage Pattern based Classification

 Dichotomic - In this type of drainage pattern streams radiate from a common point in a fan shaped manner.
Such patterns develop on alluvial fans and deltas in coarse granular material.

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 Anastomotic - Steams branching and rejoining irregularly. Streams are meandering with ox-bow lakes and
meander scars. Common on flood plains.

 Braided Pattern - A stream consisting of interwoven channels constantly shifting through islands of alluvium
and sand banks. Stream beds are wider and shallower. Controlled by deposited material.

 Deranged - Aimless, erratic and haphazard channels disappearing in swamps and lacunas of the kettle
depressions. Develops on glacial till.

D. Geomorphic Classification

On the basis of the map pattern formed by the stream channels the drainage patterns may be of following types:

i. Dendritic Drainage Pattern: A drainage pattern which looks like tree branches is known as Dendritic
drainage pattern. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams (analogous to the twigs of a
tree), which are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of
the tree, respectively). They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. Dendritic
systems form in V-shaped valleys; as a result, the rock types must be impervious and non-porous

ii. Radial Drainage Pattern: Radial drainage patterns develop surrounding areas of high topography where
elevation drops from a central high area to surrounding low areas.

Radial drainage patterns form when rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions. In a radial drainage system,
the streams radiate outwards from a central high point. Volcanoes usually display excellent radial drainage. They can
sometimes also be found on tops of mountains. Other geological features on which radial drainage commonly
develops are domes and laccoliths.

On these features the drainage may exhibit a combination of radial patterns. The radical pattern
develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome like structure

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iii. Rectangular Drainage Pattern: Rectangular drainage patterns develop where linear zones of weakness,
such as joints or faults cause the streams to cut down along the weak areas in the rock.

Rectangular pattern is generally developed in the regions where the rock joints form rectangular pattern. The rocks
are weathered and eroded along the interfaces of joints, fractures and faults and thus sur-face runoff collects in such
long and narrow clefts (resulting from the weathering and erosion of joints) and forms numerous small rills. These
rills are further ex-tended in length and width and become channels. With the march of time a network of streams is
developed wherein streams follow the lines of weakness (joints and fractures). The tributaries join their master
streams al-most at right angles and thus a rectangular drainage pattern is formed.

iv. Trellis drainage pattern is formed when the primary tributaries of main rivers flow parallel to each other and
secondary tributaries join them at right angles. For example, rivers in the upper part of the Himalayan
region. Trellis drainage is characteristic of folded mountains, such as the Appalachian Mountains in
North America and in the north part of Trinidad.

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v. Centripetal Drainage Pattern

Centripetal drainage pattern is formed when rivers discharge their waters from all directions into a lake or a
depression. Centripetal or inland drainage pattern opposite to the radial drainage pattern because it is characterized by
the streams which converge at a point which is generally a depression or a basin. This pattern is formed by a series of
streams which after emerging from surrounding uplands converge in a central low land which may be a depression,
or a basin or a crater lake.

vi.Annular Drainage Pattern

Annular pattern, also known as ‗circular pattern‘ is formed when the tr ibutaries of the master
consequent streams are developed in the form of a circle. Such pattern is developed over a
mature and dissected dome mountain characterised by a series of alternate bands of hard and soft rock beds.

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vi. Parallel Drainage Pattern

Parallel drainage pattern comprises numerous rivers which are parallel to each other and follow the regional slope.
This pattern is more frequently devel-oped on newly emerged coastal plains

A drainage anomaly is a feature of drainage which is different from the normal pattern either in spatial or depth
characteristics. These anomalies result from neo-tectonic activity. Drainage anomalies indicate structural features and
changes in lithology. An abnormally linear drainage line would suggest a fracture or joint or fault control or contact
between a soft and hard formation. An arcuate course may indicate a plunging fold closure or a domal structure.
Abrupt change in stream development may indicate recent tectonic changes and rejuvenation.

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5.5. Aeolian Processes and Landforms

5.5.1. Wind as geomorphic agent
The wind is a primary geomorphic agent in hot deserts. Winds blow faster in hot deserts, causing erosion and
depositional activities in the desert. Aeolian Landforms are landforms that are formed by the wind's erosional and
depositional actions. This phenomenon is n't unique to Earth; it's been noticed and investigated on other planets as
well, including Mars. An erg (also called a sand sea, dune sea, or sand sheet if there are no dunes) is a large, flat
region of desert covered with wind-blown sand with little or no vegetation.

5.5.2. Aeolian Erosional Landforms

Abrasion : Another process of erosion, called abrasion, occurs when particles such as sand rub against the surface
of rocks or other materials. Abrasion occurs as part of the erosional activities of winds, streams, and glaciers. In wind
abrasion, wind picks up materials such as sand particles and blows them against anything in their path. Because sand
is often made of quartz, a hard mineral, wind abrasion can be an effective agent of erosion -windblown sand particles
eventually wear away rocks. Structures, such as telephone poles, can also be worn away or undermined by wind
abrasion, and paint and glass on homes and vehicles can be damagedby windblown sand. Materials that are exposed
to wind abrasion show unique characteristics. For example, windblown sand causes rocks to become pitted and
grooved. With continued abrasion, rocks become polished on the windward side and develop smooth surfaces with
sharp edges. In areas of shifting winds, abrasion patterns correspond to wind shifts, and different sides of rocks
become polished and smooth. Rocks shaped by windblown sediments are called ventifacts. Ventifacts are found in
various shapes and sizes, and include arches and pillars.

5.5.3. Transportation by Wind

A current of rapidly moving air can pick up and carry sediment in the same way that water does. However, except for
the extreme winds of hurricanes, tornadoes, and other strong storms, winds cannot generally carry particles as large
as those transported by moving water. Regardless, wind is a powerful agent of erosion. Winds transport materials by
causing their particles to move in different ways. For example, wind can move sand on the ground in a rolling
motion. A method of transport by which strong winds cause small particles to stay airborne for long distances is
called suspension. Another method of wind transport, called saltation, causes a bouncing motion of larger particles.
Saltation accounts for most sand transport by wind. Limited precipitation leads to an increase in the amount of wind
erosion because precipitation holds down sediments and allows plants to grow. Thus, wind transport and erosion
primarily occur in areas with little vegetative cover, such as deserts, semiarid areas, seashores, and some lakeshores.

Deflation : The lowering of the land surface those results from the wind‘s removal of surface particles is called
deflation. During the 1930s, portions of the Great Plains region, which stretches from Montana to Texas,
experienced severe drought. The area was already suffering from the effects of poor agricultural practices, in which
large areas of natural vegetation were removed to clear the land for farming. Strong winds readily picked up the dry
surface particles, which lacked any protective vegetation. Severe dust storms resulted in daytime skies that were
often darkened, and the region became known as the Dust Bowl. Today, the Great Plains are characterized by
thousands of shallow depressions known as deflation blowouts. Many are the result of the removal of surface
sediment by wind erosion during the 1930s. The depressions range in size from a few meters to hundreds of meters in
diameter. Deflation blowouts are also found in other areas that have sandy soil. Wind erosion continues today

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throughout the world. Deflation is a major problem in many agricultural areas of the world as well as in deserts,
where wind has been consistently strong for thousands of years. In areas of intense wind erosion, coarse gravel and
pebbles are usually left behind as the finer surface material is removed by winds. The coarse surface left behind is
called desert pavement.

5.5.4. Aeolian Depositional Landforms

Wind Deposition
Wind deposition occurs in areas where wind velocity decreases. As the wind velocity slows down, some of the
windblown sand and other materials cannot stay airborne, and they drop out of the air stream to form a deposit on the
ground.
Dunes: In windblown environments, sand particles tend to accumulate where an object, such as a rock, landform, or
piece of vegetation, blocks the forward movement of the particles. Sand continues to be deposited as long as winds
blow in one general direction. Over time, the pile of windblown sand develops into a dune. The conditions under
which a dune forms determine its shape. These conditions include the availability of sand, wind velocity, wind
direction, and the amount of vegetation present.

Dune migration: As long as winds continue to blow, dunes will migrate. Dune migration is caused when prevailing
winds continue to move sand from the windward side of a dune to its leeward side, causing the dune to move slowly
over time.
Types of Dunes
Barchan Dunes form solitary, crescent shapes form from a small amount of sand covered by minimal or no
vegetation form in flat areas of constant wind direction crests point downwind reach maximum size of 30 m.

Figure: Landforms Resulted by wind deposits

Transverse Dunes form series of ridge shapes form from a large amount of sand covered by minimal or no
vegetation form in ridges that are perpendicular to the direction of the strong wind reach maximum size of 25 m.
Parabolic Dunes form U-shapes form from a large amount of sand covered by minimal vegetation form in humid
areas with moderate winds crests point upwind reach maximum size of 30 m.
Longitudinal Dunes form series of ridge shapes form from small or large amounts of sand covered by minimal or no
vegetation form parallel to variable wind direction reach maximum height of 300 m.

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5.6. Glacial and Periglacial Processes and Landforms

5.6.1. Glacier Formation
A glacier is a mass of ice on land consisting of compacted and recrystallized snow that flows under its own weight.
Glaciers cover 1/10 of Earth‘s land surface. Glaciers form in areas where snow fall exceeds snow melt for a number
of years (high altitudes and latitudes). If the rate of melting is less than the rate of glacier advance then the glacier
will advance, if it is not then the glacier will retreat. Once the snow pack reached ~30m it will begin to behave as a
viscous fluid and ―flow‖ downhill. This plastic flow is restricted to the base of the glacier while the upper layers
remain brittle. Glaciers ablate, or waste away by melting or calving. Glaciers move at rates of a few metres to 10s of
metres per day depending on the slope, however they also retreat or advance within the valley.

5.6.2. Glacier as Geomorphic Agent

Glaciers modify landscapes by eroding and depositing. A large, moving mass of ice is called a glacier. Glaciers form
near Earth‘s poles and in mountainous areas at high elevations. They currently cover about 10% of Earth‘s surface. In
the past, glaciers were more widespread than they are today. During the last ice age, which began about 1.6 mya and
ended more than 10,000 years ago, ice covered about 30% of Earth. Areas at extreme northern and southern latitude,
such as Greenland and Antarctica, and areas of high elevations, such as the Alps, have temperatures near 0°C year-
round. Cold temperatures keep fallen snow from completely melting, and each year the snow that has not melted
accumulates in an area called a snowfield. Thus, the total thickness of the snow layer increases as the years pass. The
accumulated snow develops into a glacier. The weight of the top layers of snow eventually exerts enough downward
pressure to force the accumulated snow below to re-crystallize into ice. A glacier can develop in any location that
provides the necessary conditions. Glaciers can be classified as one of two types -valley glaciers or continental
glaciers.

Valley glaciers: Glaciers that form in valleys in high, mountainous areas are called valley glaciers. The movement
of a valley glacier occurs when the growing ice mass becomes so heavy that the ice maintains its rigid shape and
begins to flow, much like toothpaste. For most valley glaciers, flow begins when the accumulation of snow and ice
exceeds 20 m in thickness. Over time, as valley glaciers flow down slope, their powerful carving action transitions V-
shaped stream valleys into U-shaped glacial valleys.

Continental glaciers: Glaciers that cover broad, continent sized areas are called continental glaciers. These
glaciers form in cold climates where snow accumulates over many years. A continental glacier is thickest at its
center. The weight of the center forces the rest of the glacier to flatten in all directions. In the past, when Earth
experienced colder average temperatures than it does today, continental glaciers covered huge portions of Earth‘s
surface. Today, they are confined to Greenland and Antarctica. Both valley glaciers and continental glaciers move
outward when snow gathers at the zone of accumulation, a location in which more snow falls than melts, evaporates,
or sublimates. For valley glaciers, the zone of accumulation is at the top of mountains, while for continental glaciers,
the zone of accumulation is the center of the ice sheet. Both types of glaciers recede when the ends melt faster than
the zone of accumulation builds up snow and ice.

5.6.3. Glacial Erosion and Depositional Landforms

Glacial Erosion: Of all the erosional agents, glaciers are the most powerful because of their great size, weight, and
density. When a valley glacier moves, it breaks off pieces of rock through a process called plucking. When glaciers
with embedded rocks move over bedrock, they act like the grains on a piece of sandpaper, grinding parallel scratches
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into the bedrock. Small scratches are called striations, and larger ones are called grooves. Scratches and grooves
provide evidence of a glacier‘s history and indicate its direction of movement. At the high elevations where snow
accumulates, valley glaciers also scoop out deep depressions, called cirques. Where two cirques on opposite sides of
a valley meet, they form a sharp, steep ridge called an arête. When there are glaciers on three or more sides of a
mountaintop, the carving action creates a steep, pyramid-shaped peak. This is known as a horn. Hanging valleys are
formed when tributary glaciers converge with the primary glaciers and later retreat. When the glaciers melt, the
valley is left hanging high above what is now a river in the primary valley floor.

Glacial Deposition: Glacial till is the unsorted rock, gravel, sand, and clay that glaciers carry embedded in their ice
and on their tops, sides, and front edges. Glacial till is formed from the grinding action of the glacier on underlying
rock. Glaciers deposit unsorted ridges of till called moraines when the glacier melts. Moraines can be terminal or
lateral. Terminal moraines are found where the glacier melts, and lateral moraines are located along the direction of
glacier flow.

Figure: Some glacial erosional and depositional forms

Outwash: When the farthest ends of a glacier melt and the glacier begins to recede, melt water floods the valley
below. Melt water contains gravel, sand, and fine silt. When this sediment is deposited by melt water carried away
from the glacier, it is called outwash. Because of the way water transports sediment, outwash is always sorted by
particle size. The area at the leading edge of the glacier where the melt water flows and deposits outwash is called an
outwash plain. Continental glaciers that move over older moraines form the material into elongated landforms called
drumlins. A drumlin‘s steeper slope faces the direction from which the glacier came. Streams flowing under melting
glaciers leave long, winding ridges of layered sediments called eskers. A kame is a mound of layered sediment
deposited at the retreating glacier face and is conical in shape. Sometimes, a large block of ice breaks off a
continental glacier and the surrounding area is covered by sediment. When the ice block melts, it leaves behind a
depression called a kettle hole. After the ice block melts, the kettle hole fills with water from precipitation and runoff
to form a kettle lake.

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Figure: panoramic diagram of glacial landscape with various depositional landforms

5.7.Coastal Processes and Landforms

5.7.1. Sea wave as Geomorphic Agent

Sea Waves: Waves are undulations formed by wind blowing over a water surface. They are caused by turbulence in
airflow generating pressure variations on the water. As the wind moves across the surface of the water, some of the
wind‘s energy gets transferred into the water. The more energy the wind transfers to the water, the bigger the waves
will be.
• The faster the wind blows (wind speed), the more energy the wind has, and the bigger the waves it can generate.
• The longer the length of time the wind blows (wind duration), the greater the amount of time it can transfer
energy to the water, and the bigger the waves it can generate.
• The greater the distance over the water that the wind travels (fetch), the more opportunity there is for air–water
interaction, and the bigger the waves that can be created.
The amount of energy in a wave in deep water is approximated by the formula: P= H2T
Where, H is the height of the wave; T is the time interval. The highest point of a wave is the crest, and the lowest
point is the trough. The vertical distance between crest and trough is the wave height, and the horizontal crest-to-
crest distance is the wavelength.
The wavelength determines the speed with which waves move through deep water. Wave speed increases with
wavelength.
Wave height: depends on three factors: fetch, wind duration, and wind speed. Fetch refers to the expanse of water
that the wind blows across. The longer the wind can blow without being interrupted (wind duration) over a large area
of water (fetch), the larger the waves will be. Also, the faster the wind blows (wind speed) for a longer period of time
over the ocean, the larger the waves will be. The highest waves are usually found in the Southern Ocean, an area over
which strong winds blow almost continuously. Waves created by large storms can also be much higher than average.
For instance, hurricanes can generate waves more than 10 m high.
Breaking waves: It shows that as ocean waves reach the shallow water near shorelines, the water depth eventually
becomes less than one-half of their wavelengths. The shallow depth causes changes to the movement of water
particles at the base of the wave. This causes the waves to slow down. As the water becomes shallow, incoming wave
crests gradually catch up with the slower wave crests ahead. As a result, the crest-to-crest wavelength decreases. The
incoming waves become higher, steeper, and unstable, and their crests collapse forward. Collapsing waves are called
breakers. The formation of breakers is also influenced by the motion of wave crests, which overrun the troughs

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5.7.2.The Work of waves, currents and tides

A large movement of water in one general direction is a current. Currents can be temporary or long-lasting. They can
be near the surface or in the deep ocean. The strongest currents shape Earth‘s global climate patterns (and even local
weather conditions) by moving heat around the world. At the surface, currents are mainly driven by four factors—
wind, the Sun‘s radiation, gravity, and Earth‘s rotation. All of these factors are interconnected. The Sun‘s radiation
creates prevailing wind patterns, which push ocean water to bunch in hills and valleys. Gravity pulls the water away
from hills and toward valleys and Earth‘s rotation steers the moving water. Waves, currents and tides interact with
the coastal land and contribute to shoreline changes such as erosion and deposition.

Coastal Systems: waves, tides, sediments, cells

The narrow strip where the sea and land interact is shaped and influenced by both natural and human variables within
a powerful system. The action of waves, tides and currents provides an input of energy which is then used through
the processes of erosion, weathering, transportation and deposition to produce the morphology of the coastal zone
above and below the waves. The coastal system is driven by wave energy within the nearshore (breaker zone) and
foreshore (intertidal) zones.The following figure shows how the components of the system are related and interact.

Figure: The Coastal System

The processes within the system and the appearance of the coastline will be controlled by a number of physical
variables and possibly influenced by human activity.
1. Physical variables
 Climate/weather patterns/seasons
 Wave type and strength
 Wind direction
 Fetch length and direction
 Tidal range/flow
 Currents

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 Geology of coastline
 Availability of sediment from marine, coastal and fluvial sources
 Erosional and weathering processes.
2. Human influences
 Coastal engineering and management
 Disruption of sediment supply
 Dredging
 River dams
 Cliff protection
 Non-management
 Blocking structures
 Harbour walls
 etc.
Wave:
Waves are caused by the surface of the sea exerting frictional drag on the lowest layer of the wind. Higher layers of
the wind then move faster over the lower levels and fall forward, pushing down on the sea surface, creating a wave.
As the wind blows on the back of the small ripple, the wave grows. In the open sea there is no actual movement of
water, just a movement of energy. There are two types of wave: constructive and destructive, which shape beaches by
the removal, addition and movement of sediment.

Tide:
The ocean‘s tides are controlled by the gravitational pull of the Moon, and to a lesser extent the Sun. The Moon pulls
the water in the ocean towards it, creating a bulge of water; a high tide. The Moon not only pulls the water but also
pulls the Earth towards it, this creates a second bulge of water and the second high tide on the other side of the Earth.

Sediments and sediment cells

One of the main activities of the coastal system is the sourcing, transfer and deposition of sediment along a stretch
of coastline called a sediment or littoral cell.

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5.7.3. Coastal Erosional and Depositional landforms

Erosional features: Waves move faster in deep water than in shallow water. This difference in wave speed causes
initially straight wave crests to bend when part of the crest moves into shallow water, a process known as wave
refraction. Or the change in direction, or bending of waves as they enter shallow water, is called wave refraction.
Wave-cut platforms: Many headlands have spectacular rock formations. Generally, as a headland is worn away, a
flat erosional surface called a wave-cut platform is formed.
The shore is the area of land between the lowest water level at low tide and the highest area of land that is affected by
storm waves. The shoreline is the place where the ocean meets the land. Shorelines are shaped by the action of
waves, tides, and currents. The location of the shoreline constantly changes as the tide moves in and out.
Long Shore Current: Each wave that arrives at an angle to the shore pushes more water parallel to the shoreline.
Eventually, a moving mass of water called a long shore current develops parallel to the shoreline. The width of the
long shore current is about equal to the width of the surf zone. It is these longshore currents that transport most of the
beach sand parallel to shore.
Rip Current: are narrow currents that flow straight out to sea in the surf zone. They flow rapidly out through the surf
zone and then die out quickly.
Beaches: It is the area in which sediment is deposited along the shore. Beaches are composed of loose sediments
deposited and moved about by waves along the shoreline. Beaches are composed of loose sediments deposited and
moved about by waves along the shoreline. The size of sediment particles depends on the energy of the waves
striking the coast and on the source of the sediment. Beaches pounded by large waves or formed on rocky coasts
usually consist of coarse materials such as pebbles and cobbles.
Sea stacks: Differential erosion, the removal of weaker rocks or rocks near sea level, produces many of the other
characteristic landforms of rocky headlands. A sea stack is an isolated rock tower or similar erosional remnant left on
a wave-cut platform.
Sea Arch: A sea arch is formed as stronger rocks are undercut by wave erosion. They are bridges of rock left above
openings eroded in headlands or stacks by waves. The openings are eroded in spots where the rock is weaker than
normal.
Sea caves: are tubes like passages blasted into the headlands at sea level by the constant assault of the breakers.

5.8. Karst Topography and Associated Landforms

5.8.1. Concept of Karst topography
Karst is a term for features that have formed on the landscape due to the dissolution of soluble bedrock,
such as limestone, marble or dolomite. The resulting topography can include caves, sinkholes, springs and
disappearing streams. It can sometimes form complex underground drainage systems. The biological and
chemical composition of karst landscapes creates unique
habitats for aquatic and terrestrial species. Some species have adapted specifically to the karst environment
and cannot survive anywhere else.

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5.8.2. Major Landforms Resulted due to Karst Processes

One of the main features is a sinkhole - a depression in the ground caused by the collapse of a cave or by the direct
dissolution of limestone by acidic water. Another type of feature, called a disappearing stream, forms when a surface
stream drains into a cave system and continues flowing underground, leaving a dry valley above. Disappearing
streams sometimes re-emerge on Earth‘s surface as karst springs. Limestone regions that have sinkholes and
disappearing streams are said to have karst topography.

The word karst comes from the name of a region in Croatia where these features are especially well developed. The
Mammoth Cave region in Kentucky has karst topography that contains tens of thousands of sinkholes. In karst areas,
sinkholes proliferate, grow, and eventually join to form wide valleys. Most of the original surface has been dissolved,
with the exception of scattered mesas and small buttes. The rate of the dissolution process varies greatly among
locations, depending on factors such as humidity and soil composition. In humid areas, where there is more
precipitation, more water infiltrates areas of porous soil, and dissolves the limestone in the subsurface.

5.8.2.1. Groundwater Deposits

Calcium ions eventually precipitate from groundwater and form new calcite minerals. These minerals create
spectacular natural features.
Dripstones: The most remarkable features produced by groundwater are the rock formations called dripstone that
decorate many caves above the water table. These formations are built over time as water drips through caves. Each
drop of water hanging on the ceiling of a cave loses some carbon dioxide and precipitates some calcite. A form of
dripstone, called a stalactite, hangs from the cave‘s ceiling like icicles and forms gradually. As the water drips to the
floor of the cave, it may also slowly build mound-shaped dripstone called stalagmites. Sometimes stalactites and
stalagmites grow together to form dripstone columns.

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Figure: Stalagmites and Stalactites

Hard water: Water that contains high concentrations of calcium, magnesium, or iron is called hard water. Hard
water is common in areas where the subsurface rock is limestone. Because limestone is made of mostly calcite, the
groundwater in these areas contain significant amounts of dissolved calcite. Hard water used in households can
sometimes cause problems. Just as calcite precipitates in caves, it can also precipitate in water pipes and on the
heating elements of appliances. Over time, deposits of calcite can clog water pipes and render some electrical
appliances useless.
5.8.2.2. Ground water and Associated Landforms

The ultimate source of all water on land is the oceans. Evaporation of seawater cycles water into the atmosphere in
the form of invisible water vapour and visible clouds. Winds and weather systems move this atmospheric moisture all
over Earth, with much of it concentrated over the continents. Precipitation brings atmospheric moisture back to
Earth‘s surface. Some of this precipitation falls directly into the oceans and some falls on land. Infiltration is the
process by which precipitation that has fallen on land trickles into the ground and becomes groundwater. Only a
small portion of precipitation becomes runoff and is returned directly to the oceans through streams and rivers.
Groundwater slowly moves through the ground, eventually returns to the surface through springs and seepage into
wetlands and streams, and then flows back to the oceans.

Groundwater Storage: On sandy soils, rain soaks into the ground almost immediately. Where does that water go?
The water seeps into small openings within the ground. Although Earth‘s crust appears solid, it is composed of soil,
sediment, and rock that contain countless small openings, called pores spaces. Pore spaces make up large portions of
some of these materials. The amount of pore space in a material is its porosity. The greater the porosity, the easier
water can flow through the material. Subsurface materials have porosities ranging from 2% to more than 50%. For
example, the porosity of well-sorted sand is 30%; however, in poorly sorted sediment, smaller particles occupy some
of the pore spaces and reduce the overall porosity of the sediment.
Similarly, the cement that binds the grains of sedimentary rocks together reduces the rocks‘ porosity. Because of the
enormous volume of sediment and rock beneath Earth‘s surface, enormous quantities of groundwater are stored in the
pore spaces.

The Zone of Saturation: The region below Earth‘s surface in which groundwater completely fills all the pores of a
material is called the zone of saturation. The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is the water table. Strictly

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speaking, only the water in the zone of saturation is called groundwater. In the zone of aeration, which is above the
water table, materials are moist, but because they are not saturated with water, air occupies much of the pores.

Water movement: Water in the zone of saturation and zone of aeration can be classified as either gravitational water
or capillary water. Gravitational water is water that trickles downward as a result of gravity. Capillary water is water
that is drawn upward through capillary action above the water table and is held in the pore spaces of rocks and
sediment because of surface tension. Capillary action can be seen when the tip of a paper towel is dipped into water
and the water seems to climb up through the fibers of the paper towel.
The water table: The depth of the water table often varies depending on local conditions. For example, in stream
valleys, groundwater is relatively close to Earth‘s surface, and thus the water table can be only a few meters deep. In
swampy areas, the water table is at Earth‘s surface, whereas on hilltops or in arid regions, the water table can be tens
to hundreds of meters or more beneath the surface. The topography of the water table generally follows the
topography of the land above it. For example, the slope of the water table corresponds to the shape of valleys and
hills on the surface above. Because of its dependence on precipitation, the water table fluctuates with seasonal and
other weather conditions. It rises during wet seasons, usually in spring, and drops during dry seasons, often in late
summer.

Groundwater Movement: Groundwater flows downhill in the direction of the slope of the water table. Usually, this
downhill movement is slow because the water has to flow through numerous tiny pores in the subsurface material.
The tendency of a material to let water pass through it is its permeability. Materials with large, connected pores,
such as sand and gravel, have high permeability and permit relatively high flow velocities up to hundreds of meters
per hour. Other permeable subsurface materials include highly fractured bedrock, sandstone, and limestone.
Groundwater flows through permeable sediment and rock, called aquifers. In aquifers, the pore spaces are large and
connected. Fine-grained materials have low permeability because their pores are small. These materials are said to be
impermeable. Groundwater flows so slowly through impermeable materials that the flow is often measured in
millimeters per day. Some examples of impermeable materials include silt, clay, and shale. Clay is so impermeable
that a clay-lined depression will hold water. For this reason, clay is often used to line artificial ponds and landfills.
Impermeable layers, called aquicludes, are barriers to groundwater flow.

Flow velocity: The flow velocity of groundwater depends on the slope of the water table and the permeability of the
material through which the groundwater is moving. The force of gravity pulling the water downward is greater when
the slope of the water table surface is steeper. Water also flows faster through a large opening than through a small
opening. The flow velocity of groundwater is proportional to both the slope of the water table and the permeability of
the material through which the water flows.

Springs: Groundwater moves slowly but continuously through aquifers and eventually returns to Earth‘s surface. In
most cases, groundwater emerges wherever the water table intersects Earth‘s surface. Such intersections commonly
occur in areas that have sloping surface topography. The exact places where groundwater emerges depend on the
arrangement of aquifers and aquicludes in an area. As you learned on the previous page, aquifers are permeable
underground layers through which groundwater flows easily, and aquicludes are impermeable layers. Aquifers are
commonly composed of layers of sand and gravel, sandstone, and limestone. In contrast, aquicludes, such as layers of
clay or shale, block ground water movement. As a result, groundwater tends to discharge at Earth‘s surface where an
aquifer and an aquiclude are in contact. These natural discharges of groundwater are called springs.

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Emergence of springs: The volume of water that is discharged by a spring might be a mere trickle or it might form a
stream. In some regions called karst regions, an entire river might emerge from the ground. Such a super spring is
called a karst spring. Karst springs occur in limestone regions where springs discharge water from underground
pathways. In regions of nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks, springs often emerge on the sides of valleys at about the
same elevation, at the bases of aquifers. Springs might also emerge at the edges of perched water tables. In a perched
water table, a zone of saturation that overlies an aquiclude separates it from the main water table below. Other areas
where springs tend to emerge are along faults, which are huge fractures along which large masses of rock have
moved, and sometimes block aquifers. In limestone regions, springs discharge water from underground pathways as
karst springs.
Temperature of Springs: People usually think of spring water as being cool and refreshing. But the temperature of
groundwater that is discharged through a spring is generally the average annual temperature of the region in which it
is located. Thus, springs in New England have year-round temperatures of about 10°C, while further south, springs in
the Gulf states have temperatures of about 20°C. Compared to air temperatures, groundwater is generally colder in
the summer and warmer in the winter. However, in some regions around the world, springs discharge water that is
much warmer than the average annual temperature. These springs are called warm springs or hot springs, depending
on their temperatures. Hot springs are springs that have a temperature higher than that of the human body, which is
37°C. These hot springs emerge from aquifers that descend to tremendous depths in Earth‘s crust and through which
deep, hot water rises. The water is hot because temperatures in Earth‘s upper crust increase by an average of 25°C for
every km of depth. Among the most spectacular features produced by Earth‘s underground thermal energy in
volcanic regions are geysers. Geysers are explosive hot springs. In a geyser, water is heated past its boiling point,
causing it to vaporize. The resulting water vapour builds up tremendous pressure. This pressure is what fuels the
eruptions.
Groundwater Weathering and Deposition
Chemical weathering of limestone by water causes the characteristic topography of karst areas.
The resulting calcium ions (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions are then carried away in the groundwater. Eventually, they
precipitate, which means they crystallize out of the solution, somewhere else. Precipitation occurs when the
groundwater evaporates or when the carbon dioxide gas leaves the water. The processes of dissolving, called
dissolution, and precipitation of calcite both play a major role in the formation of limestone caves.

Caves: A natural underground opening with a connection to Earth‘s surface is called a cave or a cavern. Some caves
form three-dimensional mazes of passages, shafts, and chambers that stretch for many kilometers. Some caves are
dry, while some contain underground streams or lakes. Others are totally flooded and can be explored only by cave
divers. Most caves are formed when groundwater dissolves limestone. The development of most caves begins in the
zone of saturation just below the water table. As groundwater infiltrates the cracks and joints of limestone
formations, it gradually dissolves the adjacent rock and enlarges these passages to form an interconnected network of
openings. As the water table is lowered, the cave system becomes filled with air. New caves then form beneath the
lowered water table. If the water table continues to drop, the thick limestone formations eventually become
honeycombed with caves. This is a common occurrence in limestone regions that have been uplifted by tectonic
forces.

5.9. Broad Landform Regions and their Significance

The earth has an infinite variety of landforms. Some parts of the lithosphere may be rugged and some flat.

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5.9.1. Landform Classification Schemes

For systematic analysis, landforms can be classify in to different groups. There are three major landform
classification schemes. These are:
i. Generic classification of landforms
ii. Genetic classification of landforms
iii. Classification on the basis of scale and lifespan

Generic Classification of Landforms is the description of the entire group or class of landforms i.e. mountain,
plateau, plain, etc.
Genetic Classification of Landforms means classification of landforms by dominant set of geomorphic processes.
Some examples of genetic classification are:
 Fluvial Landforms (Fluvial Geomorphology)
 Hill slope Landforms (Hill Slope Geomorphology)
 Glacial Landforms (Glacial Geomorphology)
 Tectonic Landforms (Tectonic Geomorphology)
 Aeolian Landforms (Aeolian Geomorphology)
 Karst Landforms (Karst Geomorphology), etc.

Within each of these genetic classifications, the resulting landforms are a product of either constructive and
destructive processes or a combination of both. Landforms are also influenced by other agents or processes including
time, climate, and human activity.

5.9.2. Broad Global Landform Regions

The global landform can be categorized in to different regions based on different classification schemes. For
instance, on the basis of scale and lifespan, the global landform can be categorized in to three broad regions. These
are:
i. First order relief features: it includes continental platforms and ocean basins.

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ii. Second order relief features: are superimposed on the first order category of landforms like plain, plateau,
mountains,
iii. Third order relief features: are superimposed on the 2nd order category of landforms such as valley, canyons,
dunes, etc.
Although the basic geomorphological principles can be applied to all environments, geomorphologists tend to
specialize in one or two areas, such as aeolian (desert) geomorphology, glacial and periglacial geomorphology,
volcanic and tectonic geomorphology, and even planetary geomorphology. Most researches are multi-disciplinary,
combining the knowledge and perspectives from two contrasting disciplines, combining with subjects as diverse as
ecology, geology, civil engineering, and hydrology, soil science, etc.

By taking elevation and slope in to account, the world landforms can be grouped in four divisions. These are:
i. Mountains
ii. Plateaus
iii. Plains and and Valley
A. Mountains: A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show
significant exposed bedrock. A mountain differs from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is larger
than a hill, typically rising at least 300 metres (1000 feet) above the surrounding land. A few mountains are
isolated summits, but most occur in mountain ranges. Any natural elevation of the earth's surface is called a
Mountain. Range- Mountains arranged in a line. Glaciers – Glaciers are permanently frozen rivers of ice in
mountains. There are three types of mountains and they are:
i. Fold Mountains
 They are rugged relief and high conical peaks. For instance, Himalayan Mountains and the
Alps (Young fold mountains)
 The Aravali range in India (oldest fold mountain system in the world)
 The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia (very old fold
mountains)
ii. Block Mountains:
 Created when a large mass of land is broken and displaced vertically. For instance, the Rhine
valley and the Vosges mountain in Europe
iii. Volcanic Mountains

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 Formed due to volcanic activity. Example, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fujiyama in
Japan.
How are the Mountains are useful?
Mountains are very useful in various ways.
 They are the storehouse of water and many rivers have their basis in the glaciers in the
mountain.
 Reservoirs are made and water is harnessed for the use of people.
 Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and generation of hydro-electricity.
 Mountains have a rich variety of flora and fauna.
 The forests provide fuel, fodder, shelter and other products like gum, raisins, etc.
 Mountains also provide a tranquil site for tourists.

B. Plateaus: In geology and physical geography, a plateau, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a
highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often
one or more sides have deep hills.
 A plateau is an elevated flat land.
 It is a flat-topped tableland standing above the surrounding area. e.g. The Deccan plateau in India is
one of the oldest plateaus.
 The Western plateau of Australia, the East African Plateau in Kenya (The Tanzania and
 Uganda), the Tibet plateau (the highest plateau in the world) etc.
How are Plateaus useful?
 Plateaus are very useful as they are rich in mineral deposits. E.g. African plateau is famous for gold
and diamond mining
 Chhotanagpur plateau in India is a huge reserve of iron, coal and manganese.
 Are important for socio-economic activities
C. Plains: In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and
is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and
as plateaus or uplands
Generally, plains are not more than 200 metres above mean sea level.
 Generally, plains are very fertile; hence these plains are very thickly-populated regions of the world.
E.g. largest plains made by the rivers are found in Asia and North America
 Large plains in Asia are formed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra in India and the Yangtze in
China.
How are the Plains useful?
● Plains are the most useful areas for human habitation.
● Building houses, construction of the transport network, as well as for cultivation is easy.
● In India, the Indo-Gangetic plains are the most densely populated regions

5.9.3. Landform Regions of Ethiopia

The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the geologic activities of the Cenozoic Era. The uplifting of the
Arabo-Ethiopian swell and the subsequent outpouring of lava, the formation of a great structural valley by faulting,
subsequent depression creation and deposition are major features in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian landform is
characterized by great diversity. There are flat-topped plateaus, high and rugged mountains, deep river gorges and
vast plains. Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level (Kobar Sink) to the highest mountain in Ethiopia,

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Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l). More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass is above 1,000 meters of elevation; and
above 1,500 meters makes 44% of the country. Most of the Ethiopian highlands are part of central and northern
Ethiopia, and its northernmost portion extends into Eritrea. The highland core, on the other hand, is encircled by
semi-arid and lowlands. The Ethiopian highlands are rugged mass of mountains, they have been dissected by several
rivers and gorges. They have been divided into several regions and mountain systems. Most of the country consists of
high plateau and mountain ranges that are sources of many rivers and streams.

Taking the 1,000 meters contour line for the highland-lowland demarcation, there is an observable contrasting
features between the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands. The highlands make up nearly 56% of the area of the
Ethiopia. This is further subdivided into lower highland (1,000 - 2,000 m.a.s.l), which make up 35% and higher
highland (>2,000m.a.s.l) constituting nearly 22%.
In general, due to the structural divisions brought about by the geologic processes of the Cenozoic Era, three major
physiographic units can be identified in Ethiopia. These are:
i. The Western highlands and lowlands
ii. The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and lowlands
iii. The Rift Valley

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