BASIC ISSUES IN TRANSLATION

• Lexical Issues in Translation

 A Word and its Meaning
 Synonyms, Homonyms and Paronyms (Translator’s False
Friends)
 Ways of Rendering of Phraseological Units
 Ways of Rendering of Culture-bound Words
 Ways of Rendering of Neologisms
• Grammatical Issues in Translation
 The Word Order Rules
 The Theme and Rheme
 Ways of Rendering of the Article
 Ways of Rendering of the Passive Voice
 Ways of Rendering of the Verbals
o Infinitive and Infinitive Constructions
o Participle and Participial Constructions
o Gerund and Gerundial Constructions
 Ways of Rendering of the Nominative Constructions
BASIC ISSUES IN TRANSLATION:
SHORT CHARACTERISTICS.

Lexical Issues in Translation.

 A word and its meaning. To produce an adequate translation of a SL word is one of the
greatest challenges’ translators might face in his/her work. The difficulty of finding such an
equivalent lies in the fact that both in the English and Ukrainian languages words are often
polysemantic, and their meanings may not coincide. Thus, an English single word may correspond
to two words in the Ukrainian language or English words may have meanings which are absent in
Ukrainian words (e.g. the English word “picture”, unlike its Ukrainian counterpart, has also the
meaning of «фотокартка»). Scholars distinguish denotative and connotative meanings of a word.
1) Denotative meaning is a core dictionary meaning of a word encompassing the main
features of a concept and distinguishing it from all other words. It is important to point out that
apart from the main denotative meaning words have additional meanings. Translators should bear
in mind that if the core denotative meanings of a word may coincide in SL and TL, its additional
meanings may be different. For example, in the Ukrainian language the additional meaning of the
word «school» (school of dolphins) is «a large number of sea animals» which corresponds to the
Ukrainian word “зграя” (зграя дельфінів). Besides there are a lot of polysemantic words in the
English language, which do not always coincide in meaning with their Ukrainian counterparts. For
example, the verb to run means not only бігти but also керувати (to run a factory). Also, there
are some collocation both in SL and TL that used in combinations with certain words and phrases.
Usually such collocations have a fixed nature. For example, you can say strong tea, but you can
hardly say powerful tea. Instead, you should say a powerful machine. Translators should be
attentive to the differences between word collocations in the English and Ukrainian languages.
Thus, both in English and in Ukrainian we can say a to deliver goods – постачати товари, but
we say читати лекцію in Ukrainian when in English we still use the same word in the phrase to
deliver a lecture.
2) Words hardly ever exist regardless of the context that is why we often talk about contextual
meaning of a word which is also a part of its denotative (dictionary) meaning. Cf. It would be a
major surgery, but it would mean I’d at least have a chance to walk again… – Операція буде
серйозною, проте я принаймні дістану шанс знову ходити… To produce an adequate
translation of a word quite often translators have to take into account not only a narrow context
but also a broad one encompassing nearby sentences and paragraphs.
 3) Connotative meaning is a figurative meaning of a word, that is emotions and associations
that a word evokes in our mind. For example, the denotative meaning of a word home is “a place,
building for living”, a connotative meaning of this word is “warmth of family hearth, love, your
native place”. A cat mostly has a denotative meaning whence the word a kitty expresses the attitude
of a speaker towards the notion. The phrase a warm-hearted person and a word kitty are more
expressive and emotive as compared to their more neutral synonyms a kind person and a cat which
more sound like a statement of fact. Connotative meaning may not coincide in the SL and TL as
in some contexts lexical units of one language may be less expressive than those of another
language. Compare: The wedding over, and the bride-people gone, her father and herself were left
to dine together, with no prospect of a third to cheer a long evening. – Коли весілля закінчилось
і гості розійшлися, вона з батьком лишилася вечеряти удвох, уже не тішачи себе надіями,
що хтось третій складе їм товариство і розважить цього нескінченного вечора. Besides,
words may acquire different connotations in different languages and cultures creating the so-called
culturally marked connotations or meanings: let George do it – хай хтось інший зробить це.
This is an example of American colloquial idiom which expressiveness is neutralized in the
Ukrainian translation.
 Synonyms. Both in English and Ukrainian there are almost no absolute synonyms. Most
of the synonyms differ in the shades of meaning which are not always interchangeable. Synonyms
may belong to different stylistic registers which roughly may be divided into elevated, neutral, and
colloquial style. The latter may also include different kinds of jargon and slang. It is important that
translators preserve an appropriate register in translation. Translator should be very attentive when
dealing with synonyms as the English and Ukrainian synonymous lines and tradition of using them
in both languages may not coincide. For example, synonymic pairs which are very common in the
English language may look awkward in the Ukrainian language, for which reason such pairs may
be translated by one word: just and equitable – справедливий, null and void – недійсний, rules
and regulations – правила.
 Homonyms are words that have identical graphical and phonological form but different
meaning. In translation a particular attention should be paid to rendering homonymic terms in
scientific texts since formally the same words may belong to different fields of science and
industry, thus generating different meanings and, hence, different translations. Compare: design –
дизайн (in computer graphics and textile industry), конструкція (engineering industry);
development – розвиток (in economics), забудова (in building industry).
 Paronyms are words which have similar graphical and phonological forms but with
different meanings. Poor knowledge of SL and TL vocabularies may lead to misinterpretation of
their paronymic words, and to blunders in translation: affect – effect, adapt – adopt.
  Within the course of translation it is quite challenging for us to focus upon so-called inter-
language paronyms which are also defined as Translator’s False Friends. Such inter-language
paronyms mostly originate from international words which with the course of time might have lost
original meanings and have acquired new ones. As far as you might guess these meanings may
vary from language to language. Thus, the English word complexion means колір обличчя and not
комплекція which in Ukrainian stands for physique – будова тіла. In English the additional
meaning of the word to agitate, apart from агітувати, is to make smb. anxious about smth.
(хвилювати); in Ukrainian the word мітинг exists only in the meaning of a gathering of people
for a political purpose (a rally) when the English word meeting has a much broader meaning.
 Ways of idioms translation. Idioms are the collocations or set phrases with a figurative
meaning conveying a single coherent concept. The origin of many such phrases, especially
proverbs and idioms, is deeply rooted in history and experience of this or that culture.
1) The idioms that have similar component parts and meaning in both languages are translated
by using direct dictionary equivalents (equivalent translation): All that glitters is not gold – Не
все те золото, що блищить; cold as ice – холодний як лід. Equivalent translation is often used
in translating idioms taken from Greek mythology and the Bible which are common for the whole
European continent: Achilles’ heel – Ахіллесова п’ята, forbidden fruit – заборонений плід; the
Tower of Babel – Вавилонська вежа, a wolf in sheep’s clothing – вовк в овечій шкурі.
2) The idioms that have different component parts but have similar meaning in two languages
are translated by the transformation of remetaphorization when translators change the
components of a unit without changing its sense: to buy a pig in a poke – купити кота в мішку,
as well be hanged for a sheep as for a lamb. Сім бід – один одвіт; to call a spade a spade –
називати речі своїми іменами; let bygones be bygones – хто старе споминає, той щастя не
має.
3) The idioms that have no equivalent in one of the languages may be translated in three ways:
i. Transformation of remetaphorization. Translators create a proverb or a set phrase
of his own trying to preserve the sense of the original unit: Charity begins at home.
Though there is a dictionary equivalent for this proverb in the Ukrainian language своя
сорочка до тіла ближче the latter doesn’t fit all the contexts. For this reason, translators
may invent another saying, e.g.: милосердя починається з власного дому.
ii. Transformation of demetaphorization Translator use either a dictionary equivalent
represented by a single word or a free word combination (to put up – зводити (будівлі),
to take smb. in – приймати гостя, дати комусь притулок, to fall in love –
закохатися), or a descriptive translation to preserve the idea of the original idiom or
proverb: … her [the mother’s] place had been supplied by an excellent woman as
 governess, who had fallen little short of a mother in affection (Austen 2007:2). – … її
[матері] ж місце заступила дбайлива гувернантка, яка відзначалася справді
материнською добротою та чуйністю (Остін 2004:2). All looked up to them
(Austen 2007:2). – Усі їх поважали і мали за взірець (Остін 2004:2). If it is important
to preserve the expressiveness of an original set-phrase, translators may use other means
of TL wherever in the context, such as emphatic particles, epithets, inversions, etc.
iii. In certain contexts, neutral phrases of ST may be translated metaphorically either
by common idioms or by culturally marked set-phrases. This type of translation is called
transformation of metaphorization: It rained dreadfully hard for half an hour while we
were at breakfast (Остін 2004:2). – Ми саме сіли снідати, коли полило мов з відра
(Остін 2004:2).
 Ways of culture-bound words translation. In linguistics and translation studies
culture-bound words are culturally marked words describing and referring to objects and
phenomena which are typical of one culture and absent in another. Many referential words
including geographical and proper names, names of organizations, culinary dishes, parts of
garments, traditions, proverbs, metaphors, ways of expressing politeness, greeting, saying
farewells are a part of cultural culture-bound words reflecting the mentality and history of a certain
culture. To translate such words translators should not only have good command of the languages
they works with but also be competent at the cultural peculiarities of the countries in which these
languages are spoken. For this you have to be interested in literature, history, and traditions of the
English and Ukrainian people, be aware of the main features of their national characters, know the
main current events taking place in our countries.
There are four ways of rendering such words in translation depending on the type of culture-
bound words and the context:
1) Transcoding which is predominantly used in translating words and phrases with referential
meaning, e.g. geographical names, brand names, names of companies: Financial Times –
Файненшл Таймс, Oxford – Оксфорд, борщ – borsch, козак – cossack.
2) Calque translation or borrowing which is used in translating words and phrases with
denotative meaning: the Ivy League Universities – Ліга плюща (вісімка найпристижніших
університетів США).
3) Equivalent translation Westminster Abbey – Вестмінстерське абатство, St. Luke’s
hospital – лікарня Св. Луки.
4) Descriptive translation which is also used in translating words and phrases with denotative
meaning and when a context does not allow to borrow a SL word. It can be also used together with
transcoding and calque translation: Pencey Prep. – закрита школа-інтернат для хлопців у
штаті Пенсільванія.
 Ways of rendering of neologisms. There are cases when certain phenomena being well-
established in a SL culture have not come into existence in a TL culture yet. Words and phrases
naming these phenomena are called neologisms, i. e. the words which are new for a TL culture.
Neologisms are predominantly used in scientific and newspaper styles. While translating
neologisms you should stick to the same ways as while dealing with culture-bound words:
1) Transcoding: preventive medicine – превентивна медицина, shredder – шредер
(подрібнювач), google (гугл), etc.;
2) Calque or literal translation: robot-scientist – робот-вчений, medical waste – медичні
відходи.
3) Equivalent translation: think tank – аналітичний центр, cutting-edge technologies –
передові технології.
4) Descriptive transition: outsourcing – приваблення співробітників ззовні.

Grammatical Issues in Translation.

Morphologic transformations.
 Translators should take into account the difference in the word order rules in the
English and Ukrainian language. The English language, unlike Ukrainian one, sticks to the strict
word order, which very often determines the meaning of a sentence. That is why when translating
from Ukrainian into English translator should bear in mind that: 1) there are no impersonal
sentences in English (at least a formal subject should be present) and 2) English sentence should
have a definite structure: Subject – Predicate (at least as a link-verb) – object – adverbial modifier.
There are certain rules for positioning an adverbial modifier in English, which may have other
positions in Ukrainian. So, an adverbial modifier cannot separate the direct object from the
predicate in English unless the former is accompanied by an attribute. Usually, adverbial modifiers
in English are placed at the beginning of a sentence, between the subject and predicate or after the
first auxiliary verb, link-verb or a modal verb, before the word the adverb modifies, at the end of
a sentence. This you would do unless you are one of the blessed few in whom the pure spirit of
adventure is not dead. – Ви зробили б саме так, якщо тільки не належите до тих
небагатьох, у кому ще не зовсім вмер дух природи. Besides, there are certain stylistic rules
for positioning adjectives or attributes in English, which may not coincide with the Ukrainian
language. Thus, there are cases when adjectives in English are placed in post-position when in
Ukrainian, they are used in pre-position: Director General – Генеральний директор. If several
adjectives are used in the English language their order is as follows: epithet – size – shape – age –
colour – origin – substance – attribute forming a close sense-unit with a noun.
 One of the most frequent transformations occurring between the English and Ukrainian
languages is the change in the position between the Rheme and the Theme. In Ukrainian the
rheme indicates new information and tends to occupy the final position, and the theme expresses
known information and usually occupies initial positions in a sentence. In English the rheme and
theme are quite often expressed by the definite and indefinite articles, respectively, rather by the
position in a sentence. That is why, whereas in English a rhematic noun with an indefinite article
may occupy an initial position in a sentence in its Ukrainian translation it is usually moved to the
final position. Suddenly a hand is laid upon your arm. – Раптом на ваше плече лягає чиясь
рука.
 The Article. It may seem that the Article is the simplest category to translate. But
English Articles may have diverse implicit meanings which may have different translations in
different contexts. There is no category of ‘Article’ in Ukrainian grammar. In the Ukrainian
language there are other lexical elements serving as equivalents for English definite and indefinite
articles. Thus, the English definite article may be translated as:
1) the demonstrative pronoun: цей, це, такий, той самий;
2) the possessive pronoun: її, свій;
3) the identifying pronoun: весь, вся, все/цілий;
4) the relative pronoun: який (яка, яке, які);
5) the indefinite pronoun: якийсь, певний;
6) the identifying attributive pronoun: сам, сам собою, інший/інша;
7) a particle emphasizing the attributive pronoun, numeral or some other part of speech:
так, це той, же тощо.
The indefinite article which primary meaning is ‘one’ may be translated into Ukrainian with:
1) the cardinal numeral один;
2) the indefinite pronoun якийсь;
3) the demonstrative pronoun: цей (when the lexically meaningful indefinite article
precedes the noun under logical stress);
4) the possessive pronoun;
5) the negative pronoun жоден or the negative particle ані;
6) as the relative adjective цілий or the Ukrainian identifying pronoun весь;
7) the relative adjectives, the most common of them is справжній;
8) different adverbs: зовсім, навіть.
 Since in English the Article often serves as a stylistic marker and an intensifier it is
impossible to single out all of its Ukrainian equivalents.
 Passive Voice. Verbs can be used in active and passive voice both in English and in
Ukrainian. However, in the English language there are much more passive constructions than in
Ukrainian due to the ability of English indirect and prepositional objects to perform the function
of the subject, as well the ability of some intransitive verbs to become transitive. That is why
English passive constructions have different ways of rendering into Ukrainian. They are as
follows:
1) Ukrainian indefinite sentences;
2) verbs with endings -ся, -сь;
3) past participle forms with endings -но, -то;
4) active voice sentences.
In translation of the English passive constructions the English subject often turns into the
Ukrainian object in an indirect case. This is due to the structural difference between the two
languages, that is the analytical nature of English and synthetical or inflectional nature of
Ukrainian. English passive constructions with prepositional object, which are not typical of the
Ukrainian language, are often rendered by indefinite verbs and reflexive verbs in particular.
Across the pier glass had been scrawled with a diamond in staggering letters the name 'Marie'.
– На дзеркалі хтось криво нашкрябав алмазом ім'я «Марі».
 The difference in the word-formation rules between the English and Ukrainian
languages result in the fact that affixes in a ST may be replaced by other language forms in a target
text. Thus, as we have already mentioned the counterparts of Ukrainian verbs with prefixes are
very often English verbs with prepositions: They have been out after the things they wanted. –
Вони покидали свій дім, щоб здобути те, чого прагнули.
 Both English and in Ukrainian sentences are complicated with Non-finite forms of the
Verb or Verbals. However, functional and formal differences between the latter cause various
grammatical transformations in English to Ukrainian and Ukrainian to English translations. Very
often the verbals are rendered by:
1) finite forms of the verb;
2) nominal parts of speech;
3) other verbals (e.g. English gerund by Ukrainian infinitive).
This is mostly due to the fact that in Ukrainian there are no direct equivalents for English Gerund,
Infinitival and Participial Constructions, Infinitive in the function of an attribute (означення). On
the other hand, in many contexts Ukrainian Infinitive as well as дієприкметник and
дієприслівник do not always coincide with their English counterparts. For example, in Ukrainian
“the use of the preposed and postposed (to nouns) attributive present participles is restricted” that
is why in English to Ukrainian translation these participial forms are very often rendered by
Ukrainian attributive sub-clauses or with finite forms of a verb. English Verbals may have different
forms and functions in a sentence as well as be a part of complex constructions. It is their functions
and forms, as well as the context that predetermine their Ukrainian equivalents.
 A Single Infinitive in functions of the subject, nominal predicate, part of a compound
verbal predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier may be translated by Ukrainian infinitive,
Ukrainian infinitive as a part of a sub-clause, finite form of a verb within a sub-clause, verbal noun.
The rendering of the infinitive by the verbal noun occurs quite often in translation of non-fiction
texts.
 The Objective with the Infinitive Construction performing the function of the complex
object is rendered by a Ukrainian finite form of the verb within a subordinate clause, Ukrainian
infinitive, an objective infinitival word-group forming part of the compound verbal modal
predicate, a noun derived from the objective infinitive, a phrasal or simple verbal predicate.
 The Subjective with the Infinitive Construction is the predicative infinitival construction
consisting of the secondary subject expressed by a noun or pronoun and a secondary predicate
expressed by the infinitive (Корунець 2000). English sentences with this construction very often
correspond to Ukrainian complex sentences consisting of an impersonal one-member sentence and
subordinate clause with a finite form of the verb, two-member simple sentences with Ukrainian
adverbs and modal particles, and other types of personal and impersonal sentences.
 The For-to-Infinitive Construction is also a typical English construction of secondary
predication. As with all other English infinitival constructions, its Ukrainian equivalent depend on
the forms and syntactic functions of the latter. It is very often rendered by a Ukrainian infinitive
and infinitival phrase, a finite form of the verb, a subordinate clause, sometimes – a verbal noun.
The true adventurer goes forth aimless and uncalculating to meet and greet unknown faith. –
Справжній шукач пригод йде назустріч долі, не думаючи про мету і розрахунок.
 In English both Particple I (Present Participle) and Participle II (Past Participle) are
used in two main functions: that of an attribute (означення) and an adverbial modifier
(обставини). When used as an attribute they correspond to Ukrainian дієприкметник, when used
as an adverbial modifier, they correspond to Ukrainian дієприслівник. However, there may be
variations in different contexts. Participle І in the function of an attribute is translated by a sub-
clause with a finite form of the verb, an adjective, and дієприслівник. Participle I in the function
of an adverbial modifier is predominantly translated by Ukrainian дієприслівниковий зворот.
Participle II in the function an attribute is mostly translated by its direct Ukrainian equivalent,
that is дієприкметник минулого часу. Participle II in the function of an adverbial modifier is
translated either by a sub-clause with a finite form of the verb in the Past Tense or by
дієприкметник доконаного виду. In certain contexts, it may be rendered by a prepositional noun
phrase. Both Participle I and Participle II are used as predicatives or as parts of compound
verbal/nominal predicates. In this case their Ukrainian dictionary equivalents are дієприкметник
or adjective. However, interestingly enough, they may be translated by finite forms of the verb as
well.
 The translation of the Objective with the Participle Construction depends on lexical elements
it consists of. It is rendered with the help of finite forms of the verb, very often within subordinate
clauses. If this construction is based upon Participle II (e.g.: after such verbs as to consider, to
understand, to have etc.) it is often rendered by дієприкметник минулого часу.
 The Subjective Participial Construction, as the similar infinitival construction is very often
translated by complex sentences consisting of an impersonal one-member main clause and a
subordinate clause with the finite form of the verb. When used after such verbs as to appear, to
seem, to have it is translated by simple sentences. When translating, note should be taken to the
fact that with verbs of sense perception such as to see, to hear, to notice the objective and subjective
infinitival and participial constructions may have different meanings. Infinitival constructions
express an accomplished action, whereas participial constructions express an action in progress.
 English Participle may form the so-called Absolute Participial Construction, which, unlike
simple participle, has the subject of its own. This construction is very bookish and is typical of
scientific and official style. It is predominantly translated by Ukrainian subordinate clauses. In
case the absolute construction is based upon participle II it is rendered by дієприслівниковий
зворот with дієприсліник доконого виду на -но, -то. He wore his tie drawn through a topaz
ring instead of fastened with a stick pin. – Кроватку він не прикріплював булавкою, а
протягав крізь кільце з топазом. … In a sleeping thoroughfare we hear a cry of agony and fear
coming from an empty and shuttered house…. – На тихій сонній вулиці ми чуємо крик агонії і
жаху, який лине з порожнього, забитого будинку. He reached out his arms for it, all his
senses for the time confused and commingled. – Хлопець простяг руки схопити його, всі
почуття у нього враз змішалися й переплутались.
 Translation of the Gerund also depends on its form and function in a sentence. The
gerund shouldn’t be confused with the participle since the former in its attributive and adverbial
functions is preceded by a preposition and may be followed by an object. Besides, unlike the
participle, the gerund is used in the function of a subject and that of an object. The simple form of
the gerund in the functions of a subject, an object, an attribute, a predicative is usually translated
by a noun, particularly a verbal noun, infinitive, a subordinate clause. A simple gerund in the
function of an adverbial modifier is often translated by дієприслівниковий зворот. It also may be
translated by an adverb or a subordinate clause. The perfect gerund is usually translated with the
help of the sub-clause with a verbal predicate. Though there may be some other contextual
variations. A simple gerund may be a part of an idiom, in which case it is translated according to
the context.
 The predicative Gerundial Construction may also have various translations depending on its
form and function in a sentence. Very often it is translated by a subordinate clause with a finite
form of a verb or a nominal phrase. The gerund within this construction may be also translated by
an infinitive, especially when the latter is used in the function of a compound verbal predicate.
When used in the function of adverbial modifier, this construction may be translated either by
дієприслівниковий зворот or a subordinate clause. Without knowing why, we look up suddenly
to see in a window a face that seems to belong to our gallery of intimate portraits. – Ми раптом
не знати чому відводимо погляд і бачимо у вікні обличчя, яке немовби належить до галереї
наших сімейних портретів. One of his duties is attending meetings. – Одним з його обов’язків
є відвідання збрів.
 Working with the English language you might have noticed that its nouns often perform
the function of an attribute forming the Nominative Clusters which do not have their equivalents
in the Ukrainian language. There are from two up to seven-component clusters consisting of a core
element (elements) and an attributive group including various nominative parts of speech. To
translate such clusters, one should be able to single out a core element, which is very often placed
at the end of it. Besides, being very compact, they are very often translated with the help of
transformation of addition or descriptive translation: world-class service – обслуговування
світового рівня, in-room dining – можливість подачі страв у номер.