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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

137 views150 pages

Pe CONTROL SYS Handbook 1 2

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tometran85

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Copyright ©2022 by NCEES®. All rights reserved.

All NCEES material is copyrighted under the laws of the United States. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of NCEES. Requests for
permissions should be addressed in writing to [email protected].
Fourth post January 2024
Version 1.2
INTRODUCTION
About the Handbook
The Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) Control Systems exam is computer-based, and NCEES will
supply all the resource material you can use during the exam. Reviewing the PE Control Systems Reference
Handbook before exam day will help you become familiar with the charts, formulas, tables, and other reference
information provided. You will not be allowed to bring your personal copy of the PE Control Systems Reference
Handbook into the exam room. Instead, the computer-based exam will include a PDF version of the handbook
for your use. No printed copies of the handbook will be allowed in the exam room.

The PDF version of the PE Control Systems Reference Handbook that you use on exam day will be very similar
to this one. However, pages not needed to solve exam questions—such as the cover and introductory material—
may not be included in the exam version. In addition, the NCEES will periodically revise and update the
handbook, and each PE Control Systems exam will be administered using the updated version.

The PE Control Systems Reference Handbook does not contain all the information required to answer every
question on the exam. Theories, conversions, formulas, and definitions that examinees are expected to know
have not been included. The handbook is intended solely for use on the PE Control Systems exam.

Other Supplied Exam Material

In addition to the PE Control Systems Reference Handbook, the exam will include codes and standards for your
use. A list of the material that will be included in your exam is shown on the exam specifications. Any
additional material required for the solution of a particular exam question will be included in the question itself.
You will not be allowed to bring personal copies of any material into the exam room.

Updates on Exam Content and Procedures

NCEES.org is our home on the web. Visit us there for updates on everything exam-related, including
specifications, exam-day policies, scoring, and practice tests.

To familiarize yourself with the format, style, and navigation of a computer-based exam, visit the Exam
Resources section on the NCEES YouTube channel.

Errata
To report errata in this book, log in to your MyNCEES account and send a message. Examinees are not
penalized for any errors in the handbook that affect an exam question.

Contributors
The PE Control Systems Reference Handbook was developed by members of the International Society of
Automation (ISA) to support the NCEES PE Control Systems exam.

iii
CONTENTS
1 SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Variables List for Equations ....................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Area of a Circle ........................................................................................................................................................2
1.3 Ohm's Law ...............................................................................................................................................................2
1.4 Power .......................................................................................................................................................................2
1.5 Common Conversion Factors ..................................................................................................................................2
1.6 Standard Pressure and Temperature (STP) ..............................................................................................................3
1.7 Specific Gravity .......................................................................................................................................................3
1.8 Temperature Conversion ..........................................................................................................................................3
1.9 Ideal Gas Constant (R) .............................................................................................................................................4
1.10 Ideal Gas Relationships–PVT ..................................................................................................................................5
1.10.1 Boyle's Law .....................................................................................................................................................5
1.10.2 Charles' Law ....................................................................................................................................................5
1.10.3 Gay-Lussac's Law ...........................................................................................................................................5
1.11 Actual Flow Rate to Standard Flow Rate Conversion .............................................................................................5
1.12 Input/Output Definitions ..........................................................................................................................................5
2 MEASUREMENT ............................................................................................................................................................6
2.1 Temperature Elements .............................................................................................................................................6
2.2 Flow Elements .........................................................................................................................................................9
2.3 Analytical Sensor Technologies.............................................................................................................................10
2.3.1 Chemical Analytical Methods .......................................................................................................................10
2.3.2 Gas Detection—Flammable and Toxic .........................................................................................................14
2.3.3 Flame Detection ............................................................................................................................................16
2.3.4 Smoke Detection ...........................................................................................................................................17
2.4 Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Calculations ..........................................................................................17
2.4.1 General Flow Equation .................................................................................................................................17
2.4.2 General Flow-Pressure Drop Relationship ....................................................................................................17
2.4.3 Beta Ratio ......................................................................................................................................................18
2.4.4 Discharge Coefficient, General .....................................................................................................................18
2.4.5 Discharge Coefficient Factors .......................................................................................................................18
2.4.6 Differential Flow Element Sizing Equations and Factors .............................................................................19
2.4.7 Level .............................................................................................................................................................57
2.4.8 Pressure .........................................................................................................................................................64
3 CONTROL SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................................66
3.1 Analog Control ......................................................................................................................................................66
3.1.1 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control Definitions .........................................................................66
3.1.2 Proportional (P) Only ....................................................................................................................................66
3.1.3 Proportional Plus Integral (PI) Control .........................................................................................................66
3.1.4 Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) Control .............................................................................67
iv
3.1.5 Cascade .........................................................................................................................................................67
3.1.6 Feedforward ..................................................................................................................................................67
3.1.7 Open-Loop Tuning ........................................................................................................................................67
3.1.8 Closed-Loop Tuning .....................................................................................................................................69
3.1.9 Damping ........................................................................................................................................................72
3.2 Discrete Control—Boolean Logic Operations .......................................................................................................74
4 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS ...................................................................................................................................76
4.1 Valves ....................................................................................................................................................................76
4.1.1 Types .............................................................................................................................................................76
4.1.2 Trim Characteristics ......................................................................................................................................77
4.1.3 Valve Packing Selection Tables ....................................................................................................................78
4.1.4 Leakage Class ...............................................................................................................................................80
4.1.5 Control Valve Sizing .....................................................................................................................................81
4.2 Material Selection ..................................................................................................................................................85
4.2.1 Chemical Compatibility for Metals ...............................................................................................................85
4.2.2 Chemical Compatibility for Elastomers ........................................................................................................88
4.3 Pressure Relieving Devices....................................................................................................................................90
4.3.1 Orifice Sizing Calculations for Pressure Relieving Valves ...........................................................................90
4.3.2 Advantages and Limitations of Valve Types ................................................................................................92
4.3.3 Pressure Relieving Valve Chemical Sizing Data ..........................................................................................94
4.4 Back Pressure Sizing .............................................................................................................................................95
4.4.1 Rupture Disks ................................................................................................................................................97
4.4.2 Pressure Relief Valves ..................................................................................................................................98
4.5 Pneumatic Schematics ...........................................................................................................................................99
4.6 Vibration Analysis ...............................................................................................................................................100
5 SIGNALS, TRANSMISSION, AND NETWORKING ...............................................................................................101
5.1 Classified Electrical Area Purging Systems .........................................................................................................101
5.2 Network Model ....................................................................................................................................................102
5.3 Fieldbus Network Configuration Rules ...............................................................................................................102
5.4 Serial Communication Protocols .........................................................................................................................104
5.5 Fiber-Optic Cables ...............................................................................................................................................105
5.6 Copper Cabling ....................................................................................................................................................106
5.7 Cable Resistivity Table ........................................................................................................................................107
5.8 Intrinsic Safety .....................................................................................................................................................108
5.9 Grounding Transmission Circuits ........................................................................................................................110
5.10 Pneumatic Signal Transmission ...........................................................................................................................112
5.11 Standard References ............................................................................................................................................113

v
6 SAFETY INSTRUMENTED SYSTEMS (SIS) ...........................................................................................................114
6.1 Safety Integrity Levels (SILs)—Probability of Failure on Demand ....................................................................114
6.1.1 Demand Mode .............................................................................................................................................114
6.1.2 Continuous Mode ........................................................................................................................................114
6.2 Failure Rate ..........................................................................................................................................................115
6.3 Reliability Block Diagram (Probability of Failure) .............................................................................................115
6.4 Architectures/Configurations ...............................................................................................................................116
6.5 Hardware Fault Tolerance Tables ........................................................................................................................117
6.6 Reliability Modeling ............................................................................................................................................117
6.7 Standard References ............................................................................................................................................118
7 GENERAL INFORMATION .......................................................................................................................................119
7.1 NEMA 250-2014, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum) ...............................................119
7.2 IEC 60529 Ingress Protection Tables for Enclosures...........................................................................................122
7.3 Pipe Data ..............................................................................................................................................................124
7.4 Steam Tables ........................................................................................................................................................129
7.5 Decimal, Binary, Hexadecimal Conversion Chart ...............................................................................................141
7.6 Periodic Table of Elements ..................................................................................................................................143
BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................................................144

vi
1 SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
1.1 Variables List for Equations
Variable Description
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe
d = orifice bore
doc = orifice bore corrected for thermal expansion
D = pipe inner diameter
Dpc = pipe inner diameter corrected for thermal expansion
Fa = thermal expansion coefficient
G = specific gravity
Gb = specific gravity at base temperature
Gsg = gas specific gravity
hw = differential pressure at upper range value
N = sizing flow units
pf = pressure flowing
Q = flow rate
qgpm = flow-rate volumetric (gpm)
QM = flow rate, maximum
Re = Reynolds number
Tf = temperature flowing
URV = upper range value
V = velocity, fluid
Z = compressibility factor
ΔP = differential pressure
ΔP1 = differential pressure, condition 1
ΔP2 = differential pressure, condition 2
αfe = thermal expansion coefficient for flow element material
αp = thermal expansion coefficient for pipe material
β = beta ratio
µ = viscosity, centipoises

1.2 Area of a Circle

A = πr 2
π
A = ( ) D2
4
where
A = area

r = radius

D = diameter

1.3 Ohm's Law

V = IR

1.4 Power
2
P=I R
2
V
P=
R
P=IV

where
V = voltage (volts, V)

I = current (amperes, A)

R = resistance (ohms, )

P = power (watts, W)

1.5 Common Conversion Factors

1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 in = 25.4 mm
1 gal = 0.13368 ft3
1 gal = 231 in3
1 gal = 128 fl oz
1 gal = 0.00379 m3
42 gal = 1 bbl
1 psi = 2.31 ft of water
1 psi = 27.7 in of water
1 psi = 0.0689 bar
1 psi = 6.89 kPa
1 in. of mercury = 13.6 in of water

©2022 NCEES 2
Chapter 1: Symbols and Definitions
1 in. of mercury = 0.49 psi
1 in. of water = 0.036 psi
1 ft. of water = 0.433 psi
3
1 ft = 7.48 gal
1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3
14.7 psia = 0 psig
1 lb = 16 oz

1.6 Standard Pressure and Temperature (STP)

14.69 psia @ 60°F

1.7 Specific Gravity

specific gravity (G) of water @ 60°F = 1
specific gravity (G) of air = 1
molecular weight of air = 29
molecular weight of water = 18.02
gas specific gravity = molecular weight of gas divided by 29
density of water = 62.4 lb/ft3
density of air = 0.07649 lb/ft3
specific gravity of liquid = liquid density divided by 62.4
specific gravity of gas = gas density divided by 0.07649

1.8 Temperature Conversion

Fahrenheit: F = (1.8  C) + 32

F − 32
Celsius: C =
1.8
Rankine: R = F + 460
Kelvin: K = C + 273

1.9 Ideal Gas Constant (R)

This table is based on data from The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty website,
https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?r.

Values of R Units

SI Units

8.31446261815324 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1

8.31446261815324 m3⋅Pa⋅K−1⋅mol−1

8.31446261815324 kg⋅m2·K−1⋅mol−1s−2

8.31446261815324×103 L⋅Pa⋅K−1⋅mol−1

8.31446261815324×10−2 L⋅bar⋅K−1⋅mol−1

U.S. Customary Units

0.730240507295273 atm⋅ft3⋅lb mol−1°R−1

10.731557089016 psi⋅ft3⋅lb mol−1°R−1

1.985875279009 Btu⋅lb mol−1°R−1

Other Common Units

297.049031214 in. H2O⋅ft3⋅lb mol−1°R−1

554.984319180 Torr⋅ft3⋅lb mol−1°R−1

0.082057366080960 L⋅atm⋅K−1⋅mol−1

62.363598221529 L⋅Torr⋅K−1⋅mol−1

1.98720425864083…×10−3 kcal⋅K−1⋅mol−1

8.20573660809596...×10−5 m3⋅atm⋅K−1⋅mol−1

8.31446261815324×107 erg⋅K−1⋅mol−1

379.5 Scf/lb-mole

1.10 Ideal Gas Relationships–PVT

1.10.1 Boyle's Law

P1V1 = P2 V2

1.10.2 Charles' Law

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

1.10.3 Gay-Lussac's Law

P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

where
P = pressure

V = volume

T = temperature

1.11 Actual Flow Rate to Standard Flow Rate Conversion

 P   460 + Tstandard 
scfm = acfm  actual   
 Pstandard   460 + Tactual 

where
acfm = actual flow rate in cubic feet per minute

scfm = standard flow rate in cubic feet per minute

P = pressure

T = temperature

1.12 Input/Output Definitions

AI = analog input

AO = analog output

DI = discrete input

DO = discrete output

Temperature Sensor Comparison

Comparison of Contact Temperature Sensors

Relative Advantages of Contact Temperature Sensors

Quality T/Cs RTDs Thermistors

Temp Range –400 to 4200F –200 to 1475F –176 to 392F

Accuracy < RTD > T/C > T/C & RTD
Ruggedness Highly Rugged Sensitive to Shock NOT Rugged
Somewhat NON- Highly NON-
Linearity Highly NON-Linear
Linear Linear
Drift Subject to Drift < T/C < T/C
Cold Junction Required None None
Compensation Response Fast Relatively Slow Faster than RTD
Low, except for noble
Cost > T/C Low
metals

Source: Control Systems Engineer Technical Reference Handbook by Chuck Cornell.

Reproduced with permission from ISA.

Advantages

▪ Self-powered ▪ Most stable ▪ High output ▪ Most linear

▪ Simple ▪ Most accurate ▪ Fast ▪ Highest output
▪ Rugged ▪ More linear than ▪ Two-wire ohm ▪ Inexpensive
thermocouple measurement
▪ Inexpensive
▪ Wide variety of
physical forms
▪ Wide temperature
range

Disadvantages

▪ Nonlinear ▪ Expensive ▪ Nonlinear ▪ T <250°C

▪ Low voltage ▪ Slow ▪ Limited temperature ▪ Power supply
range required
▪ Reference required ▪ Current source
required ▪ Fragile ▪ Slow
▪ Least stable
▪ Small resistance ▪ Current source ▪ Self-heating
▪ Least sensitive
change required
▪ Limited
▪ Four-wire ▪ Self-heating configurations
measurement

©2022 NCEES 7
Chapter 2: Measurement
Temperature Sensor Calibration Selection Guide
Calibration Conductors Temperature Range Limits of Error Extension Wire Color
Type Positive Negative C Standard Special Jacket Color Coding
J Iron Constantan 0C to 750C ±2.2C ±1.1C Black White +
(Magnetic) (Non-magnetic) or ±0.75% or ±0.4% Red –
K Chromel Alumel –200C to 0C ±2.2C - Yellow Yellow +
(Non-magnetic) (Magnetic) or ±2% - Red –
0C to 1250C ±2.2C ±1.1C
or ±0.75% or ±0.4%
T Copper Constantan –200C to 0C ±1C - Blue Blue +
(Non-magnetic) (Non-magnetic) or ±1.5% - Red –
0C to 350C ±1C ±0.5C
or ±0.75% or ±0.4%
E Chromel Constantan –200C to 0C ±1.7C - Purple Purple +
(Non-magnetic) (Non-magnetic) or ±1% - Red –
0C to 900C ±1.7C ±1C
or ±0.5% or ±0.4%
N Nicrosil Nisil 0C to 1260C ±3/4% ±3/8% Orange Orange +
(Non-magnetic) (Non-magnetic) Red –
R Platinum Pure Platinum 0C to 1450C ±1.5C N/A Green Black +
13% Rhodium (Non-magnetic) or ±0.25% N/A Red –
(Non-magnetic)
S Platinum Pure Platinum 0C to 1450C ±1.5C N/A Green Black +
10% Rhodium (Non-magnetic) or ±0.25% N/A Red –
(Non-magnetic)
B Platinum Platinum 870C to 1700C ±0.5% N/A Gray Black +
30% Rhodium 6% Rhodium N/A Red –
(Non-magnetic) (Non-magnetic)
Calibration Notes
J- Iron Constantan - Reducing atmosphere recommended. Iron E- Chromel Constantan - Oxidizing atmosphere recommended.
oxidizes rapidly at elevated temperatures. A larger gage size will Highest emf output of thermocouples commonly used. Good
extend the life of the iron wire. corrosion resistance.
T- Copper Constantan - Can be used in oxidizing or reducing S, R- Use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres. Not recommended for
atmospheres. Rust and corrosion resistant. Best for sub-zero reducing atmospheres. Granular precipitation from metal protection
temperatures. tubes can cause failure or calibration drift.
K- Chromel Alumel - Oxidizing atmosphere recommended. Most N- Use in oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. Not
commonly used base metal thermocouple. Cycling at high recommended in sulfur environments. Improved resistance to drift
temperatures can cause calibration drift. Not recommended in sulfur and better stability over K and E at elevated temperatures.
environments.
Source: Technical Reference Manual by Smart Sensors, Inc. Reproduced with permission from SOR, Inc.

2.2 Flow Elements

Flow Element Comparison

Sensor Rangeability Accuracy Advantages Disadvantages Cost

Annubar 3:1 ±0.5% to • Low permanent • Smaller line
±1.5% of full pressure loss sizes, $$
scale • Cost when used in • Larger line
large line sizes sizes, $
Coriolis 100:1 ±0.05% to • Excellent rangeability • Not available in larger $$$$$
±0.15% of and accuracy line sizes
reading
Elbow 3:1 ±5% to ±10% • Low permanent • Accuracy $
of full scale pressure loss

Flow nozzle 5:1 ±2% of full • Resistant to plugging • Limited to smaller line $$
scale with slurries sizes
• Medium permanent
pressure loss
Magnetic 40:1 ±0.5% of • Excellent for slurries • Fluid must be $$
reading and corrosive liquids conductive
• Good rangeability and • Can be sensitive to
accuracy velocity
• Bidirectional
Orifice plate 5:1 ±2% of full • Useful in a wide variety • Can plug when used $
scale of applications with slurries
• High permanent
pressure loss
Pitot tube 3:1 ±0.5% to • Low permanent • Prone to plugging in • Smaller line
±5.0% of full pressure loss some services sizes, $
scale • Cost when used in • Larger line
large line sizes sizes, $
Positive 10:1 or better ±1% of • Good rangeability and $$
displacement reading accuracy
• Good in high viscosity
services
Turbine 20:1 ±0.25% of • Good rangeability and • Mechanical $$$
meter reading accuracy components are
subject to wear
• Lower accuracy at
start-up and shutdown
Ultrasonic 100:1 ±2% of full • Excellent rangeability • Susceptible to $$$$
scale and accuracy ultrasonic interference
from inline devices
• Needs adequate
space and piping
configuration to work
properly
Venturi 5:1 ±1% of full • Low permanent $$$
scale pressure loss
• Resistant to plugging
with slurries
Vortex meter 10:1 ±1% of • Good rangeability and • Flow not measurable • Smaller line
reading accuracy at all below meter low sizes, $
end cutoff • Larger line
sizes, $$$

2.3 Analytical Sensor Technologies

2.3.1 Chemical Analytical Methods

Analyzer Selection Chart, Part 1

Colorimeter, autoanalyzer or autotitrator

Electroconductivity, electrochemical,

Selective ion or acid analyzer

UV and visible photometers

Analyzer Selection

polarographic, or fuel cell

Amperometric (galvanic)
Electrolytic hygrometer
Chemical Name

Analytical Method(s)

Catalytic combustion
Thermal conductivity

Mass spectrometer

Diffusion elements

Atomic absorption
Chromatography

Flame ionization
Zirconium oxide
Refractometers
Polarographic

Paramagnetic
Capacitance
Infrared (IR)

Phototape
Acetaldehyde
Acetic anhydride
Acetone
Acidity
Acids in water
Acrylonitrile
Air humidity
Alcohol in water
Acyl chloride
Aldehydes
Alkalinity
Aluminum
Amines, ppm
Ammonia
Ammonia, ppb
Ammonium ions
Ammonium sulfate
Aniline
Argon
Aromatics in vapors or in water
Benzene moisture content
Benzene in ethanol or cyclohexane
Benzene in raffinate or in ethyl alcohol
Benzotriazole in water, ppm
Boron
Brine concentration
Bromide ions
Bromine
Butane
Butadiene
Butadiene in butanes and butylenes
Butadiene in styrene
Cadmium ions
Caffeine
Calcium ions
Carbon bisulfide
Carbon disulfide
Carbon dioxide in carbonated beverages
Carbon dioxide in gases
Carbon dioxide moisture content
Carbon monoxide in gases
Carbon monoxide moisture content
Carbon tetrachloride in air
Carbon tetrachloride, ppm
Catsup and tomato paste
Caustic concentration
Chloride
Chlorine
Chlorine in air

Colorimeter, autoanalyzer or autotitrator

Electroconductivity, electrochemical,

Selective ion or acid analyzer

UV and visible photometers

Analyzer Selection

polarographic, or fuel cell

Amperometric (galvanic)
Electrolytic hygrometer
Chemical Name

Analytical Method(s)

Catalytic combustion
Thermal conductivity

Mass spectrometer

Diffusion elements

Atomic absorption
Chromatography

Flame ionization
Zirconium oxide
Refractometers

Paramagnetic
Polarographic
Capacitance
Infrared (IR)

Phototape
Chlorine in ethylene dichloride
Chlorine, ppm, in off-gas or phosgene
Chlorine, ppm
Chlorine residual
Chloride
Chlorobenzene
Chloroform
Chromium in water (hexavalent or total)
Citrus juice
COD (chemical oxygen demand)
Color
Combustibles
Copper in water
Cyanide in water
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexane in h-hexane and methyl cyclopentane
Diolefin vapors
Divalent ions
Divinyl acetylenes in acrylonitrile
Ethane
Ethane moisture content
Ethanol
Ethanol in benzene or in water
Ethyl bromide
Ethyl chloride
Ethyl chloride moisture content
Ethylene in %
Ethylene in C1-C6, H2, CO2
Ethylene bromide, ppm
Ethylene chloride, ppm
Ethylene glycol
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene oxide in methane, ethane, propane
Fluoride in water
Fluorine, ppm
Freon
Freon moisture content
Furfural
Glycerine and salts in water
Green liquor or white liquor
Hardness (total) in water
Helium in oxygen, nitrogen
Helium moisture content
Hazardous gases
Hexane
Hexane moisture content
Hexavalent chromium
Hydrazine in water
Hydrazine, ppb

Colorimeter, autoanalyzer or autotitrator

Electroconductivity, electrochemical,

Selective ion or acid analyzer

UV and visible photometers

Analyzer Selection

polarographic, or fuel cell

Amperometric (galvanic)
Electrolytic hygrometer
Chemical Name

Analytical Method(s)

Catalytic combustion
Thermal conductivity

Mass spectrometer

Diffusion elements

Atomic absorption
Chromatography

Flame ionization
Zirconium oxide
Refractometers

Paramagnetic
Polarographic
Capacitance
Infrared (IR)

Phototape
Hydrocarbon in H2S, CO2, air
Hydrocarbon vapors in ambient air
Hydrogen in chlorine
Hydrogen in nitrogen, oxygen, inert gases
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen chloride, ppb
Hydrogen cyanide
Hydrogen fluoride
Hydrogen fluoride, ppm
Hydrogen impurities (in O2, N2, CO, H20)
Hydrogen sulfide in air
Hydrogen sulfide in hydrocarbon liquids
Hydrogen sulfide in natural gas or in stack gas
Iodide ions
Iron (total) in water
Isobutane in n-butane (liquid)
Isobutane in C3, nC4, iC5
Isoprene in solvents
Jams and jellies
Kerosene moisture content
Ketones
Lead ions
Mercury in air
Mercury in water
Methane
Methane moisture content
Methanol
Methanol in water
Methyl bromide
Methyl chloride
Methylene chloride
Naphtha
Natural gas moisture content
Neon moisture content
Nickel carbonyl, ppb
Nitrate and nitrite
Nitric acid in water
Nitric oxide in air
Nitrobenzene
Nitrogen
Nitrogen (ammonia, Kjeldahl, total, nitrite, nitrate, organic)
Nitrogen in argon
Nitrogen dioxide, ppm
Nitrous fumes
Nitrous oxide
Nitrogen moisture content
Nitrogen peroxide
Octane rating of gasoline
Oil in liquid freon
Oil in wax
Ortho- and meta-xylene in para-xylene

Colorimeter, autoanalyzer or autotitrator

Electroconductivity, electrochemical,

Selective ion or acid analyzer

Analyzer Selection

UV and visible photometers

polarographic, or fuel cell

Amperometric (galvanic)
Chemical Name

Electrolytic hygrometer
Analytical Method(s)

Catalytic combustion
Thermal conductivity

Mass spectrometer

Diffusion elements

Atomic absorption
Chromatography

Flame ionization
Zirconium oxide
Refractometers
Polarographic

Paramagnetic
Capacitance
Infrared (IR)

Phototape
Ortho-phosphate
Oxygen
Oxygen in argon, hydrogen
Oxygen in ethylene, argon
Oxygen in stack gases
Oxygen in water
Oxygen moisture content
Ozone in air
Phenol in water
Phosgene
Phosgene in air
Phosgene, ppm
Phosphoric acid concentration
Phosphorous (total or 0-phosphate) in water
Polymer
Potassium dichromate
Potassium ions
Propane
Propane moisture content
Propylene dichloride
Propylene glycol in water
Propylene moisture content
Proteins
Pyridine
Residual chlorine
Silicates in water and in seawater
Sodium carbonate in water
Sodium chloride in water
Sodium hydroxide in water
Sodium ions
Starch concentration
Steam in air
Styrene in ethyl benzene
Sucrose in water
Sugars in water, syrups
Sulfate and sulfite
Sulfur dioxide
Sulfur dioxide moisture content
Sulfur dioxide in stack gas
Sulfur dioxide, ppm
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid in water
Tetrachioroethylene, ppm
Tetraethyl lead, ppb
Tetranitromethane in air
Toluene in hydrocarbons
Toxic gases
Trans-unsaturation of vegetable oils, detergents
Trichloroethylene
Trichloroethylene, ppm
Vinyl acetate in polymer vapor
Vinyl chloride
Water hardness
Water in liquid SO2
Water in organic liquids
Water in methylene chloride liquid
Water vapor in air
Wax in oil
White liquor
Wine
Xylenes in hydrocarbon
Xylenes in isomers

2.3.2 Gas Detection—Flammable and Toxic

Gas Detector Comparison

Technology Gas Type Output Works in Resistant to Detects Performance Performance Performs in Response Maintenance
Detected Inert Poison Hydrogen in O2 in 100% All Time Requirement
Atmosphere Enriched Humidity Temperatures
Atmospheres

Catalytic bead Combustible % LEL No Susceptible to Yes Yes Yes Yes <20 s High
gas poisons like lead-
(Requires and sulfur-
presence of containing
oxygen) compounds,
silicone vapors,
and phosphates

Metal oxide Combustible PPM No Susceptible to No No No No <60 s High

semiconductor gas poisons like
(Requires Halide (Can be
Toxic gas presence of compounds, compromised
oxygen) silicone vapors, below 10°C
caustic and acid and above
liquids, and 40°C)
concentrated
vapors

Point infrared- Combustible % LEL Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes <6.5 s Low
short path gas

Open-path Combustible % LEL per Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes <3-5 s Low
infrared gas meter

Photoacoustic Combustible % LEL Yes Yes No Yes Yes No <7 s Low

infrared gas
% by
Toxic gas volume
PPM
PPB

Electrochemical Toxic gas PPM No Yes Yes No Yes No <30 s High

toxic gases readings
for toxic (Requires (Can be
gases presence of unstable in
oxygen) very low or
very high
temperatures)

Electrochemical Oxygen Percent No Yes Yes No Yes No <30 s High

oxygen deﬁciency/ volume (Requires (Can be
enrichment readings presence of unstable in
for oxygen oxygen) very low or
very high
temperatures)

Thermal Combustible PPM No No Yes Yes Yes Yes High

conductivity gas up to (Requires (Does not work
100% by presence of with gases with
Toxic gas volume oxygen) thermal
conductivities
close to that of
air, NH3, CO, NO,
O2, N2)

Paper tape Toxic gas PPM No Yes No No No No <10-30 s High

PPB (Requires (Can be
presence of compromised
oxygen) below 10°C
and above
40°C)

Photoionization Toxic PPM Yes Yes No Yes No Yes <5 s High

(organic sub-ppm
compounds)

2.3.3 Flame Detection

Fire Detector Comparison
Flame Detector Selection Guide
Detector Type Description Advantages Limitations Typical Usage
UV UV detector for indoor Fast response speed - Do not use in dusty or Clean burning
applications, detects airborne oil droplets hydrocarbon gas in
organic and inorganic - Susceptible to false indoor or select outdoor
flames detection from welding, non- locations
destructive x-ray testing,
lightning, and direct/reflected
sunlight
UV/IR Dual UV/IR for detection - Fast response - Cannot detect fire through Clean burning
of organic and inorganic - Combined UV/IR dense smoky fires hydrocarbon gas in
flames for indoor and technology reduces - Strong non-fire UV sources indoor or select outdoor
outdoor applications false detection can produce false detection locations
- Wide field of detection - UV/IR combinations can
produce false detection
IR Single IR detector for - Strong false signal - Certain heat/gas Hydrocarbon gas and/or
hydrocarbon fires rejection combination can cause false liquids, indoor or outdoor
- Long range detection detection locations
- Detects fire through - Cannot be used in sight of
dense smoke flare radiation
- Good layout coverage
reduces false detection
Multi Spectrum IR - Multi spectrum or triple - Virtually immune to - Typical response time is Hydrocarbon fires
IR (IR3) offers two to false alarms longer when compared to (liquids, gases, and
three times the detection - Fire response in the single frequency detectors solids)
distance of single IR or presence of modulated - Burning metals, ammonia,
UV/IR detectors infrared black body hydrogen, and sulphur do
- Designed for radiation with some not emit significant amounts
hydrocarbon fire brands of IR in the detector's
detection - Long detection range sensitivity range
- Special detector (60 meters to some - The detector should be
designed for invisible fires) used with caution when the
hydrogen fires presence of hot objects and
the potential for ice build up
on the detector are likely
Visual - CCTV Video analytics' - Provides means to - Not suitable for invisible Hydrocarbon gas and/or
algorithms for smoke confirm fire and assess flame, such as hydrogen or liquids, indoor or outdoor
detection monitor the severity alcohol fires locations
image for movement of - Technology exists to - Detection distance
light patterns relative to mask normal other flame - Sensitivity
a stable background. If source, such as flares, - Speed of response
the movement is allowing applications - Reliability
consistent with known normally not achieved
smoke movement with other flame
patterns. technology
UV/IR/Invisible UV/IR and visible for - UV/IR detection with - Visual cannot detect - Hydrocarbon fires
indoor or outdoor video smoke detection invisible flames (liquids, gases, and
hydrocarbon, hydrogen, system, visually detects - UV/IR susceptible to their solids)
silane, inorganic 120 the presence of flame or limitations - UV/IV can be tuned to
cone of vision smoke at its source and hydrogen invisible
reflected fire light flames
- Enables remote
personnel to confirm fire
and assess severity
*Maximum detection range based on a one square foot (0.1 square meter) gasoline/heptane pan fire
References:
http://www.associatedfire.net/source/documents/Products/Detection-Devices/FlameDetectionSystems.pdf
https://www.det-tronics.com/content/documents/Best-practices-tipsheet-global-AR-1000-1.4.pdf
https://www.thermocense.com/_www/_docs/smc_flame_detector_selection.pdf
https://instrumentationtools.com/flame-detectors-working-principle/#:~:text=The%20basic%20principle%20of%20
operation%20for%20a%20multi%20spectrum%20IR,sensor%20than%20the%20other%20two.
http://www.microtech.co.th/pdf/flame-detector.pdf
https://www.fike.com/products/fike-video-analytics/

2.3.4 Smoke Detection

Smoke Detector Comparison
Fire Risk Examples
Typical Multi- Typical Multi-
Optical
Example Ionization CO Heat Flame sensor Detection, sensor Detection,
Fire Risk (Scatter)
Fires Detection Detection Detection Detection Example: Optical Example: Optical
Detection
Heat Heat-CO

Smoldering
Electrical fire 2 5 1 1 1 5 5
white smoke
Smoldering
3 5 4 1 1 5 5
wood
Smoldering Smoldering
2 4 5 1 1 4 5
dark smoke furnishings
Smoldering
Wastepaper
changing to 4 4 2 2 3 4 4
bin fire
flame
Flaming – Burning
1 1 1 3 5 3 4
clean burn solvents
Flaming –
Burning oils 2 3 2 3 5 4 4
dirty
Fire risk detection key: very good = 5; good = 4; moderate = 3; poor = 2; very poor =1

2.4 Differential Pressure Flow Measurement Calculations

2.4.1 General Flow Equation

Q = AV

2.4.2 General Flow-Pressure Drop Relationship

𝑄~√Δ𝑃

𝑄1 Δ𝑃1
=√
𝑄2 Δ𝑃2
P
Q1 = C
MW1

where
C = flow coefficient of the flow primary

Q = flow rate

MW = molecular weight

2.4.3 Beta Ratio

𝑑
β=
𝐷
where
d = orifice bore diameter

D = pipe inner diameter

2.4.4 Discharge Coefficient, General

𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐶=
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒

2.4.5 Discharge Coefficient Factors

The velocity of the approach factor, E, is:
1
E=
√1−β4

where the beta ratio is:

𝑑
β=
𝐷
where
d = orifice bore diameter

D = pipe inner diameter

The discharge coefficient is:

K = EC
qgpm = Flow Rate

2.4.6 Differential Flow Element Sizing Equations and Factors

All differential flow element sizing calculations in this section are from the Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook,
third edition, by Richard Miller.

List of Symbols

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

a constant in specific-heat equation Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)

a constant in gas viscosity equation

A area ft2 m2

AL constant in liquid viscosity equation

constant in equation for specific heat at

b
constant pressure

constant in general form of discharge-

b
coefficient equation

BL constant in liquid-viscosity equation

c constant in liquid-density equation (F)–1 (C)–1

Cp specific heat at constant pressure Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)

specific heat at constant pressure for

(Cp)i Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)
ideal gas

specific heat at constant pressure of a

Cp,mix Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)
gas mixture

specific heat at constant pressure of a

(Cp)p Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)
perfect gas

Cp/Cv ratio of specific heats of a real gas

(Cp/Cv)i ratio of specific heats of an ideal gas

(Cp/Cv)p ratio of specific heats of a perfect gas

specific heat of a gas at constant

Cv Btu/(lbm•mol•R) J*/(kg•mol•K)
volume

discharge coefficient, true flow rate

C
divided by theoretical flow rate

discharge coefficient at infinite

C
Reynolds number

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

discharge coefficient for a drain (vent)

CDH
hole through a primary element

discharge coefficient at normal flowing

CN
conditions

Cmp mean molecular heat of a pure gas (F)–1 (C)–1

mean molecular heat at constant

Cmp,mix (F)–1 (C)–1
pressure of a gas mixture

bore of differential producer at flowing

d in. mm
conditions d = Faddmeas

bore of differential producer at flowing

conditions corrected for both
df in. mm
temperature and pressure,
d = Fad FP dmeas

dh pressure-tap-hole diameter in. mm

bore of a differential producer measured

dmeas at a reference temperature, usually 68F in. mm
(20C)

diameter of a thermal well or other

dw in. mm
protrusion into a pipe

dDH diameter of a drain or vent hole in. mm

differential producers bore at flowing

dM m
conditions

internal pipe diameter at flowing

D in. mm
conditions = FaDmeas

pipe diameter at flowing pressure and

Df in. m
temperature

bore of differential producer at flowing

DF ft
conditions DF = FaDmeas

pipe diameter (or upstream venturi inlet

Dmeas diameter) measured at a reference in. mm
temperature, usually 68F (20C)

bore of differential producer at flowing

DM conditions DM = FaD
DM,meas m

E velocity-of-approach factor, 1/ 1−4

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

F function used in Newton's solution

derivative of function in Newton's

F
solution of a zero root equation

thermal-expansion-factor correction for

Fa in./(in.•F) mm/(mm•C)
differential producers

thermal expansion factor for the bore of

Fad
the primary element

thermal expansion factor for the pipe

FaD
diameter

correction for real gas in an isentropic

Fk
expansion

specific-gravity factor in gas-factor

Fg equation, 1 G

specific-gravity factor in gas-factor

FGr equation, 1 G r

correction for liquid compressibility,

Fp
f/F

Fpv supercompressibility factor, Z b Zf

flow-coefficient Reynolds-number
FK
correction, K/Kref

FY gas-expansion-factor correction, Y/YN

Flowing pressure correction factor for

FDp
pipe diameter

FDH drain-hole (vent-hole) correction factor

pressure base correction factor gas

Fpb
factor equation, 14.73/pb

pressure base correction in gas factor

FPB
equation, 14.69595/pb

FRF recovery factor for dynamic pressure

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

temperature base correction factor in

Ftb gas-factor equation, Tb/519.67 or
TKb/288.7056

base-temperature correction factor in

FTB gas-factor equation, Tb/518.67 or
TKb/288.15

temperature correction factor in gas-

Ftf factor equation, 519.67 / Tf 1 or
288.7056 / TK1

flowing-temperature correction factor in

FTF gas-factor equation, 518.67 / Tf or
288.15 / TK

factor correcting static pressure to total

FTP
pressure

factor converting wet-gas volume to

FWV,dry
dry-gas volume

factor converting wet-gas mass to

FWVM,dry
dry-gas volume

orifice plate correction for applied

Fp
differential

correction for pressure to specific heat

Fp
at constant pressure

real-gas correction factor to ratio of

FR
specific heats

viscosity pressure-correction factor for

Fp
an oil or gas

dimensional conversion constant,

gc 32.17405 lbm•ft/(lbf•s2) or lbm•ft/(lbf•s2) kg•m/(N•s2)
1 kg•m/(N•s2)

local gravity at which a device is

gcalib ft/s2 m/s2
calibrated

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

gt local gravitational constant ft/s2 m/s2

standard acceleration due to gravity,

g0 ft/s2 m/s2
32.17405 ft/s2 or 9.806650 m/s2

G gas (vapor) specific gravity Mw,gas/Mw,air

liquid base specific gravity,

Gb
b/(w)60,g0

liquid base specific gravity at a

G b hydrometer temperature other than 60F
(15.6C)

flowing specific gravity of a liquid,

Gf
f/(w)60,g0

Gwv specific gravity of water vapor, 0.6220

specific gravity of dry gas in a gas-

Gdry
water vapor mixture

specific gravity of a gas mixture,

Gmix
Mw,mix/Mw,air

specific gravity of a gas mixed with

Gwgt
water vapor

flowing liquid specific gravity

GF
uncorrected for pressure F/(w)60,g0

GR real specific gravity of a gas, gas/air

differential pressure in inches of

hw water at 68F, 14.696 psia, and
g0 =32.17405 ft/s2

differential pressure in inches of water

hw,60 at 68F, 14.696 psia, and
g0 =32.17405 ft/s2

differential produced by gas phase in

(hw)g in.
two-phase (or two-component) flow

steady-state differential pressure in

(hw)ss in.
pulsating flow

indicated differential pressure,

(hw)ind in.
uncorrected for fluid head in lead lines

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

differential pressure at normal operating

(hw)N in.
flow rate

upper-range value of differential

(hw)URV pressure corresponding to upper-range in.
flow rate

HL pressure loss in feet of flowing fluid ft

k isentropic exponent for a real gas

ki ideal-gas isentropic exponent (Cp/Cv)i

kp perfect-gas isentropic exponent (Cp/Cv)p

K flow coefficient, C / 1 −4 = EC

flow coefficient at infinite Reynolds

K
number

flow coefficient at reference Reynolds

Kref
number

flow coefficient at normal operating

KN
Reynolds number

downstream tap length at a reference

l2 in. m
temperature

upstream tap length corrected for

l1f in. m
flowing temperatures

downstream tap length corrected for

l2f in. m
flowing temperatures

L development length for velocity profile ft m

length of straight pipe following a step

Ls ft m
between two pipes

dimensionless ratio l1f/Df for upstream

L1
tap location

dimensionless ratio l2f/Df for

L2
downstream tap location

m mass lbm kg

m exponent in specific-heat equation

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

mi mass of liquid lbm kg

M factor in Reynolds-number
M correction factor FRD with flow
coefficient C

M factor in Reynolds-number
MK correction factor FRD with flow
coefficient K

Mw molecular weight lbm/(lbm•mol) kg/(kg•mol)

Mw,air molecular weight of air, 29.96247 lbm/(lbm•mol) kg/(kg•mol)

Mw,gas molecular weight of a gas lbm/(lbm•mol) kg/(kg•mol)

Mw,mix molecular weight of a gas mixture lbm/(lbm•mol) kg/(kg•mol)

measured variable; pressure,

MV
temperature, flow rate, etc.

(MV)LRV lower-range value of measured variable

(MV)URV upper-range value of measured variable

n exponent in gas viscosity equation

n exponent in specific-heat equation

N factor for flowing volume with

NvG
specific-gravity determination, liquids

N factor for flowing volume with

Nvp density determination, liquids and
gases(vapors)

N factor for flowing volume in gas-

Nvhp
factor equation

N factor for flowing volume in pvT

NvpT
equation

N factor for mass flow with a specific-

NMG
gravity determination, liquids

N factor for mass flow with a density

NMp determination, liquids and gases
(vapors)

N factor for mass flow, gas-factor

NMhp
equation

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

NMpT N factor for mass flow pvT equations

N factor for base volume with specific-
NVG gravity determination; liquids at 60F
(15.6C) and 14.696 psia (101.325 kPa)
N factor for base volume with density
NVp determination, liquids and gases
(vapors)
N factor for standard (ISO 5024) gas
base volume, gas-factor equation;
NVhp pb = 14.69595 psia
(p*b = 101.325 kPa), Tb = 518.67R
(TKb = 288.15 K)
N factor for nonstandard base volume at
(NVhp)b selected base pressure and temperature,
gas-factor equation
N factor for standard (ISO 5024) gas
base volume, pvT equation; pb =
NVpT
14.69595 psia (p*b = 101.325 kPa),
Tb = 518.67R (TKb = 288.15 K)
N factor for nonstandard base volume at
(NVpT)b selected base pressure and temperature,
pvT equation
pb base absolute pressure for gas volume lbf/in2 kPa
2
pc critical absolute pressure of a substance lbf/in kPa
pc,atm critical pressure, in atmospheres
pseudocritical absolute pressure, Hall-
pca lbf/in2 kPa
Yarborough equation of state
pd pressure of dry gas in a wet gas mixture lbf/in2 kPa
pf absolute pressure at flowing conditions lbf/in2 kPa
upstream-tap absolute pressure at
pf1 lbf/in2 kPa
flowing conditions
upstream pressure before upstream
pf1 lbf/in2 kPa
pressure tap
downstream-tap absolute pressure at
pf2 lbf/in2 kPa
flowing conditions
downstream pressure after pressure
pf2 lbf/in2 kPa
recovery

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

pf3 fully recovered downstream pressure lbf/in2 kPa

absolute pressure at design flowing

(pf)des lbf/in2 kPa
conditions

pv vapor pressure lbf/in2 kPa

absolute pressure of water vapor in gas-

pwv lbf/in2 kPa
water vapor

saturation pressure corresponding to

psat lbf/in2 kPa
flowing temperature

prsat reduced saturation pressure, psat/pc

pB barometric pressure lbf/in2 kPa

pG gauge pressure, pf – pB lbf/in2 kPa

(p*)t permanent pressure loss kPa

differential pressure at normal operating

(p*)N kPa
conditions

upper-range value of differential

(p*)URV pressure corresponding to upper-range kPa
flow rate

Pf absolute pressure at flowing conditions lbf/ft2 Pa

Pf,Pa flowing pressure in Pascals Pa

upstream-tap absolute pressure at

Pf1 lbf/ft2 Pa
flowing conditions

downstream-tap absolute pressure at

Pf2 lbf/ft2 Pa
flowing conditions

upstream-tap absolute pressure at lead-

Pf1 lbf/ft2 Pa
line evaluation HLL

downstream-tap absolute pressure at

Pf2 lbf/ft2 Pa
lead-line evaluation HLL

saturation pressure corresponding to

Psat,Pa Pa
flowing temperature in Pascals

Pvap vapor pressure lbf/ft2 Pa

PB barometric pressure lbf/ft2 Pa

dynamic pressure, f Vp2 2g c or
PD lbf/ft2 Pa
f Vp2 2

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

PG gauge pressure, Pf – PB lbf/ft2 Pa

PT total (stagnation) pressure, Pf + PD lbf/ft2 Pa
P differential pressure, Pf1 –Pf2 lbf/ft2 Pa
mass flow rate: subscript M may be
qM
PPH, KPD, KPS, etc.
mass flow rate: subscript M may be
q M
PPH, KPD, KPS, etc.

qKPS , q KPM , kg/s, kg/min

 
liquid, gas (vapor) mass flow rate
q KPH ,q KPD kg/h, kg/24h

qPPS, qPPM, lbm/s, lbm/min

liquid, gas (vapor) mass flow rate
qPPH, qPPD lbm/h, lbm/24h
volumetric flow rate calculated at
qv standard (gas) or base (liquid)
temperature and pressure
volumetric flow rate calculated at
q v standard (gas) or base (liquid)
temperature and pressure
gas (vapor) volumetric flow rate
(qv)b calculated at selected base pressure
and temperature
qBPS, qBPM, liquid volumetric flow rate at bbl/s, bbl/min,
qBPH, qBPD TF = 60F and pb = 14.696 psia bbl/h, bbl/24h
qCFS, qCFM, liquid volumetric flow rate at ft3/s, ft3/min,
qCFH, qCFD TF = 60F and pb = 14.696 psia ft3/h, ft3/24h
qGPS, qGPM, liquid volumetric flow rate at gal/s, gal/min
qGPH, qGPD TF = 60F and pb = 14.696 psia gal/h, gal/24h

qLPH , q LPM , liquid volumetric flow rate at L/s, L/min

q 
,q  TC = 15.6C and p b = 101.3 kPa L/h, L/24h
LPH LPD

standard gas (vapor) volumetric flow

qCFS, qCFM, ft3/s, ft3/min,
rate at ISO-5024 base; Tb = 518.67R
qCFH, qCFD ft3/h, ft3/24h
and pb = 14.69595 psia

( qSCFS )b ,   ft 3 s,
( qSCFM )b , standard gas (vapor) volumetric flow  3
ft min,
( qSCFH )b ,   3
rate at selected base temperature and
pressure  ft h,
( qSCFD )b  
 ft
3
24h

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text
with a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

standard gas (vapor) volumetric flow

q SCMS , q SCMM

, m3/s, m3/min
rate at ISO-5024 base; TKb = 288.15 K
q SCMH , q SCMD and p b = 101.325 kPa
m3/h, m3/24h

(q 
SCMS b ) ,   m3 s,
(q 
SCMM b ) , standard gas (vapor) volumetric flow  3
m min,
 rate at selected base temperature and  3
(q 
SCMH b ) , pressure m h,
  m 3
(q ) 
 24h
SCMD b

standard gas (vapor) volumetric flow

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

Qkg total mass kg

Qlbm total mass lbm

total volume at standard (gas) or base

QV ft3 m3
(liquid) temperature and pressure

gas (vapor) total volume at selected

(QV)b ft3 m3
pressure and temperature

liquid total volume at TF = 60F and

QBBL bbl
pb = 14.696 psia

liquid total volume at TF = 60F and

QGAL gal
pb = 14.696 psia

liquid total volume at TC = 15.6C and

QL L
p b = 14.696 kPa

gas (vapor) total volume at ISO-5024

QSCF base: Tb =518.67R and pb = 14.69595 ft3
psia

gas (vapor) total volume at selected

(QSCF)b ft3
base temperature and pressure

gas (vapor) total volume at ISO-5024

QSL base: TKB = 288.15 K and L
p b = 101.325 kPa

(Q )

SL b
gas (vapor) total volume at selected
base temperature and pressure
L

gas (vapor) total volume at ISO-5024

QSCM base: TKB = 288.15 K and m3
p b = 101.325 kPa

(Q )

SCM b
gas (vapor) total volume at selected
base temperature and pressure
m3

total volume of wet gas at standard

(QSCF)wet ft3
conditions

(Q )

SCM wet
total volume of wet gas at standard
conditions
m3

total mass of two-component gas

(Qlbm)TC lbm
mixture

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

total mass of dry gas in a two-

(Qlbm)s lbm
component mixture

r radius to a point in mm

rb elbow radius at centerline in mm

rp pipe radius in mm

universal gas constant for BWR state

Rs atm dm3/(mol K)
equation

bore Reynolds number at flowing

Rd conditions using corrected pipe
diameter, d = Faddmeas

universal gas constant, 10.73151

R0 psia•ft3/(lbm•mol•R) or 8.31441
J*/(g•mol•K)

universal gas constant, in energy units

R0g 1.985862662 Btu/(lbm•mol•R) or
8314.41 J/(kg•mol•K)

pipe Reynolds number at flowing

RD conditions using corrected pipe
diameter, D = FaDDmeas

pipe Reynolds number using corrected

RDf
pipe diameter, Df

RH relative humidity, pwv/psat

sizing factor for differential producer,

SM
a constant

SH specific humidity, wv/dry

t time s s

minimum orifice plate thickness to

tmin in. m
prevent yielding

tp pipe wall thickness in. m

base absolute temperature for a gas

Tb R
volume

Tc critical temperature of a substance R K

reference temperature for bore

Td,ref R K
measurements

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

flowing absolute temperature,

Tf R
TF + 459.67

flowing absolute temperature

Tf1 R
measured at upstream tap

upstream temperature measured in a

Tf1 R K
pipe

flowing absolute temperature

Tf2 R
measured at downstream tap

downstream temperature measured in a

Tf2 R K
pipe

Tfi indicated flowing absolute temperature R

binary mixtures reduced temperature,

Tij
AGA-8 equation

reduced temperature of a gas (vapor),

TF
Tf/Tc

flowing absolute temperature at design

(Tf)des R
conditions

pseudocritical reduced temperature at a

Tpr
mixture of gases, Tf/Tpc

reciprocal of reduced temperature,

T R K
1/Tpr

TB boiling point, absolute temperature R K

TC temperature in degrees Celsius C

reference temperature for a pipe

TD,ref R K
measurement

flowing temperature in degrees

TF F
Fahrenheit

TF difference in temperature, TF – 60 F

flowing absolute temperature, Kelvin

TK K
scale

absolute temperature measured at

TK1 K
upstream tap

absolute temperature measured at

TK2 K
downstream tap

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

base absolute temperature for a gas

TKb K
volume

TKc critical temperature, in kelvins K

absolute temperature in degrees

TR R
Rankine

TWB wet-bulb temperature F C

u internal energy Btu/lbm J*/kg

v specific volume, 1/ ft3/lbm m3/kg

vf flowing specific volume ft3/lbm m3/kg

vmol molar volume ft3/(lbm•mol) m3/(kg•mol)

vwv specific volume of water vapor ft3/lbm m3/kg

Vp point velocity along pipe radius ft/s m/s

free-stream velocity, no confining

Vfree ft/s m/s
walls

Vmol molar volume dm3/mol, m3/mol

sonic velocity at throat of a critical

Vsonic ft/s m/s
nozzle

VSO velocity of sound in a liquid ft/s m/s

V volume ft3 m3

V change in volume with pressure ft3 m3

V0 liquid volume at zero pressure ft3 m3

Vl liquid volume ft3 m3

Vm volume of a standard mass ft3 m3

volume of dry gas in a wet (water) gas

Vdry ft3 m3
mixture

volume of wet (water) gas in a wet gas

Vwet ft3 m3
mixture

W energy W W

W weight force lbf N

W work Btu/lbm J*/kg

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

x mole fraction in gas (vapor) phase

mass fraction, mass of component ÷
xm
mass of total mixture
pressure ratio based on upstream tap
x1
pressure, p/pf1
pressure ratio based on downstream
x2
tap pressure, p/pf2
sensitivity coefficient of a measured
X
variable
sensitivity coefficient, where subscript
Xvar var (variable) is denoted as Gb, Gf, Z,
etc.
mixture quality, mass of gas phase ÷
X
mass of total mixture
y elevation above sea level ft
y mole fraction in liquid phase
Y gas expansion factor
gas expansion factor based on
Y1
upstream pressure
gas expansion factor at pressure ratio
Y1.0.66
of 0.66
gas expansion factor at pressure ratio
Y1.0.77
of 0.77, for pipe taps
gas expansion factor based on
Y2
downstream pressure
gas expansion factor at normal flowing
YN
conditions, usually designs conditions
YCR critical flow function
Z gas (vapor) compressibility factor
gas (vapor) compressibility factor at
Zb
base temperature and pressure
gas (vapor) compressibility factor at
Zc
critical point
gas (vapor) compressibility factor at
Zf
flowing conditions

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

gas (vapor) compressibility factor at

Zf1
flowing conditions, upstream

gas (vapor) compressibility factor at

Zf2
flowing conditions, downstream

gas (vapor) pseudocritical

Zpc
compressibility factor for a mixture

water-vapor compressibility factor in a

Zwv
wet gas

Zair compressibility factor for air

compressibility factor for dry

Zdry
components in a wet gas

Zwet compressibility factor of a wet gas

ZL liquid compressibility factor

thermal expansion factor for an

ann in./(in.F) mm/(mm C)
annubar

thermal-expansion coefficient for

HO in./(in.F) mm/(mm C)
meter housing

thermal-expansion coefficient for pipe

P in./(in.F) mm/(mm C)
material

thermal-expansion coefficient for

PE in./(in.F) mm/(mm C)
primary-element material

 beta ratio, d/D

differential producer's beta ratio df/Df

f
at flowing conditions

specific weight of a fluid, liquid, or a

f lbf/ft3 N/m3
gas (vapor), (gt/gc)f

apparent viscosity, S/S, absolute

app lbm/(ft•s) cP‡
viscosity units

absolute viscosity at atmospheric

()a lbm/(ft•s) cP‡
pressure

absolute viscosity corrected for

()p lbm/(ft•s) cP‡
pressure

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .
‡The poise (P) and the stokes (St) are cgs metric units, not SI metric; 1 P = 0.1 Pa•s; 1 St = 0.0001 m2/s.

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

cP absolute viscosity in centipoises cP‡

cP viscosity of a gas at low pressure cP

apparent absolute viscosity of a

cP,app cP
two-phase mixture

cP,l viscosity of saturated liquid cP

absolute viscosity of a mixture in

cP,mix cP‡
centipoises

absolute English-system viscosity,

(f)e lbf•s/ft2
force units

absolute English-system viscosity,

(m)e lbm(ft•s)
mass units

P absolute viscosity in poises P‡

p Poisson's ratio for pipe material in./in. m/m

Poisson's ratio for primary element

PE in./in. m/m
material

Pa•s absolute viscosity in Pascal seconds Pa•s

e kinematic viscosity in English units ft2/s

cSt kinematic viscosity in centistokes dSt‡

St kinematic viscosity in stokes St‡

density at base conditions: liquids,

60F (15.6C) and 14.7 psia
b (101.3 kPa); gases, 59F (15C) and lbm/ft3 kg/m3
14.69595 psia (101.325 kPa); or at
other selected base values

air air density at time of calibration lbm/ft3 kg/m3

air,c air density for calibrating a weigh tank lbm/ft3 kg/m3

f density at flowing conditions lbm/ft3 kg/m3

f1 upstream density at flowing conditions lbm/ft3 kg/m3

downstream density at flowing

f2 lbm/ft3 kg/m3
conditions

List of Symbols (cont'd)

Symbol Meaning U.S. units SI units†

(f)des density at design conditions lbm/ft3 kg/m3

upstream density of gas in

g1 lbm/ft3 kg/m3
two-component or two-phase flow

density of liquid in a two-component

l lbm/ft3 kg/m3
or two-phase flow

meas density of a standard mass lbm/ft3 kg/m3

mol molar density lbm•mol/ft3 kg•mol/m3

v density of water vapor at saturation lbm/ft3 kg/m3

r reduced density, /c

wet density of a wet gas lbm/ft3 kg/m3

density of fluid at flowing conditions,

F lbm/ft3 kg/m3
uncorrected for pressure

density of water at standard gravity

(w)T.g0 lbm/ft3 kg/m3
(32.174) and any temperature

density of water at 68F, standard

(w)68.g0 gravity, and atmospheric pressure: lbm/ft3 kg/m3
62.31572 lbm/ft3 (998.2019 kg/m3)

density of water at 60F, standard

(w)60.g0 gravity, and atmospheric pressure: lbm/ft3 kg/m3
62.36630 lbm/ft3 (999.0121 kg/m3)

 standard deviation % %

y yield stress of a material lbf/in2 Pa

 degrees latitude

†Except for dimensionless or defined SI unit symbols, as in T K, symbols that apply to SI units are shown in the text with
a superscript asterisk, as in Fn .

Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook,
Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 37
Chapter 2: Measurement
Relationship Between Fundamental Constant and Derived Flow-Rate Unit for Liquid Flow: U.S. Units
Letter Symbol
Conversion Relationship to Fundamental Unit
Flow Rate Definition
Constant Equation
Mass flow rate with density
qM determination
qM NMp qPPS = 0.09970190
N Mp Example: qM = qPPD = pounds-mass per
day
Mass flow rate with a specific-gravity
qM determination
qM NMG qPPS = 0.7873692
N MG Example: qM = qPPM = pounds-mass per
minute

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

qv conditions with a density determination
qv Nvp qPPS = 0.09970190[pf]
N vp Example: qv = qcfm = cubic feet per
minute (flowing)

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

qv conditions with a specific-gravity
qv NvG qPPS = 0.7873692[FP GF] determination
N vG Example: qv = qgpm = gallons per minute
(flowing)

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

qV (60°F and 14.696 psia) with a density
qV NVp qPPS = 0.09970190[pb] determination
NVp Example: qV = qGPM = gallons per minute
at base conditions

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

 q  (60°F and 14.69 psia) with a specific-
qV NVG qPPS = 0.7873692[Gb]  V  gravity determination
 NVG  Example: qV = qCFM = cubic feet per
minute at base conditions
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.2;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 38
Chapter 2: Measurement
Relationship Between Fundamental Constant and Derived Flow-Rate Unit for Liquid Flow: SI Units
Letter Symbol
Conversion Relationship to Fundamental Unit
Flow Rate Definition
Constant Equation
 Mass flow rate with density
   qM
qM N Mp qKPS = 0.00003512407 determination

N Mp Example: qKPD = kilograms per day

Mass flow rate with a specific-gravity

 determination
   qM
qM N MG qKPS = 0.001110172  

N MG Example: qM = qKPH = kilograms per
hour

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

 conditions with a density determination
    qv
qv Nvp qKPS = 0.00003512407[ p f ]  

Nvp Example: qv = qlpm = liters per minute
(flowing)
Volumetric flow rate at flowing
 conditions with a specific-gravity
   qv determination
qv N vG qKPS = 0.001110172[ FP GF ]
  
N vG Example: qv = qcmm = cubic meters
per minute (flowing)

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

 (15.6°C and 101.325 kPa) with a
    q density determination
qV NVp qKPS = 0.00003512407[ qb ] V
  
NVp Example: qV = qLPM = liters per
minute at base conditions

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

(15.6°C and 101.325 kPa) with a

 
qv 
 
qV NVG qKPS = 0.001110172[Gb ]   specific-gravity determination
    
 NVG  Example: qV = qCMM = cubic meters
per minute at base conditions

Symbols that apply to SI units are shown with a superscript asterisk, as in q*M.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.3;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 39
Chapter 2: Measurement
Relationship Between Fundamental Constant and Derived Flow-Rate Unit for Gas Flow: U.S. Units
Letter Symbol
Conversion Relationship to Fundamental Unit
Flow Rate Definition
Constant Equation
Mass flow rate with density
qM determination
qM NMp qPPS = 0.09970190
N Mp Example: qM = qPPD = pounds-mass per
day

Mass flow rate using the pvT density

qM equation
qM NMpT qPPS = 0.1637908
N MpT Example: qM = qPPM = pounds-mass per
minute

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

qv conditions with an upstream tap
qv Nvp qPPS = 0.09970190[pf1] measurement
N vp Example: qv = qacfm = actual cubic feet
per minute

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

 Gp f 1  qv conditions using the pvT density
qv NvpT qPPS = 0.1637908   equation for upstream tap measurements
 Z f 1T f 1  N vpT Example: qv = qacfm = actual cubic feet
per minute

Volumetric flow rate at standard base

conditions with a density determination
q
V (pb density at 14.696 and 59°F or other
qV NVp qPPS = 0.09970190[pb]
NVp selected base values)
Example: qV = qSCFM = standard cubic
feet per minute

Volumetric flow rate at standard base

conditions (14.69595 psia and 59°F)
 G  qV using the pvT density equation
qV NVpT qPPS = 0.1637908   (recommended standard base volume)
 Z b  NVpT
Example: qV = qSCFH = standard cubic
feet per hour

Volumetric flow rate at a selected base,

 Gp  qVb other than standard, using the pvT
qVb (NVpT)b qPPS = 0.1637908  b  equation
 ZbTb  ( NVpT )b Example: qVb = (qSCFD)14.4,70 = standard
cubic feet per day at 14.4 psia and 70°F
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.4;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 40
Chapter 2: Measurement
Relationship Between Fundamental Constant and Derived Flow -Rate Unit for Gas Flow: SI Units

Letter Symbol
Flow Conversion
Relationship to Fundamental Unit Equation Definition
Rate Constant
Mass flow rate with density
 determination
   qM
qKPS = 0.00003512407 
= qKPD
qM N Mp 
N Mp Example: qM = kilograms
per day

Mass flow rate using the pvT density

 equation
   qM
qM N MpT qKPS = 0.00006555517  

N MpT Example: qM = qKPM = kilograms
per minute

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

 conditions with an upstream tap
    qv density determination
qv Nvp qKPS = 0.00003512407[ p f 1 ]
  
N vp Example: qv = qacmm = actual cubic
meters per minute
Volumetric flow rate at flowing
conditions using the pvT density

 Gp*f 1  q equation for upstream tap
 
qv N vpT qKPS = 0.000065555517   v measurements
 f 1 K1  N vpT
Z T  
Example: qv = qacmm = actual cubic
meters per minute
Volumetric flow rate at standard or
 selected base conditions with a density
qV
qKPS = 0.00003512407  pb 
    determination
qV NVp   N  
Vp Example: qV = qSCMM = standard
cubic meters per minute

Volumetric flow rate at standard base

conditions (101.325 kPa and 15°C)
    G  qV using the pvT density equation
qV NVpT qKPS = 0.00006555517    (recommended standard)
 Zb  NVpT  
Example: qv = qSCMH = standard
cubic meters per hour
Volumetric flow rate at a selected
base, other than standard, using the
 
 Gpb  qVb  pvT equation
 = 0.00006555517 
qVb ( NVpT )b qKPS    
Example: qvb = (qSCMD )100,14 =
 ZbTKb  ( NVpT )b
standard cubic meters per day at 100
kPa, 14°C
Symbols that apply to SI units are shown with a superscript asterisk, as in q*M.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.5;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 41
Chapter 2: Measurement
Relationship Between Fundamental Constant and Derived Flow -Rate Unit for pvT Gas Flow Equation
Rearranged in Factor Form (F PB , F TB , T TF , F pv )

Letter Symbol
Flow Conversion
Relationship to Fundamental Unit Equation Definition
Rate Constant
U.S. Units
qM Mass flow rate
qM NMhp qPPS = 0.007191927 Example: qM = qPPH = pounds-mass
N Mhp per hour

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

 FTF
2 2
1 Fpv1 p f 1
 q
qv Nvhp qPPS = 0.007191927   v conditions
 Fg
2
 N vhp Example: qv = qacfs = actual cubic
feet per second

Volumetric flow rate at standard

base or at selected temperature and
 1  q pressure base
qV NVhp qPPS = 0.007191927   Vb Example: qV = qSCFD = standard
 Fg FPB FTB Z b  NVhp
2
cubic feet per day at standard base
(pb = 14.69595 psia, Tb =
518.67°R)
SI Units
 Mass flow rate
   qM  
qM N Mhp qKPS = 0.000003861870 Example: qM = qKPM = kilograms

N Mhp
per minute

Volumetric flow rate at flowing

 FTF
2 2  
1Fpv1 p f 1 q
 conditions

qv
 
N vhp qKPS = 0.000003861870   v  
 Fg
2 
 N vhp Example: qv = qacmh = actual
cubic meters per hour

Volumetric flow rate at standard or

selected base pressure and
 1  q temperature


qV

NVbp qKPS = 0.000003861870   Vb  
 
 Fg FPB FTB Zb  NVhp
2 * Example: qv = (qSCMH )102,16 =
standard cubic meters per hour at
102 kPa and 16°C
Symbols that apply to SI units are shown with a superscript asterisk, as in q*M.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.6;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

©2022 NCEES 42
Chapter 2: Measurement
N Factors for Mass Flow in U.S. Units (Note 1)
Time Pound-mass (lbm) Kilogram (kg) (Note 2) Gram (g) (Note 2)
NM Density Equation, liquid and gas (vapor)
p
s 0.0997019 0.04522402 45.22402
min 5.982114 2.713441 2713.441
h 358.9268 162.8065 162,806.50
24 h 8614.244 3907.36 3,907,356
NMG Specific Gravity Equation, liquid (Note 3)
s 0.7873692 0.3571447 357.1447
min 47.24215 21.42868 21,428.68
h 2834.529 1285.721 1,285.72
24 h 68,028.70 30,857.30 30,857,300
NM T pvT equation, gas (vapor)
p
s 0.1637913 0.07429449 74.29449
min 9.827478 4.4576769 4457.669
h 589.6487 267.4602 267,460.20
24 h 14151.57 6419.044 6,419,044
The U.S. units are pressure pf (psia), differential pressure hw (inches of water at 68 F, 14.696 psia,
Note 1 and standard gravity, 32.17405 ft/s2), temperature Tf (R), dimensions d and D (in), and density p
(lbm/ft3).
Note 2 Specific gravity base: water at 60 F; pressure = 14.69595 psia
For sizing and calculating mass flow in SI units, but with measurement in the U.S. units defined
Note 3
above.
Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.14, p. 9.33.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 43
Chapter 2: Measurement
N Factors for Mass Flow in SI Units (Note 1)
Time Kilogram (kg) Gram (g)
*
NMp Density Equation, liquid and gas (vapor)
s 0.00003512407 0.03512407
min .002107444 2.107444
h 0.1264467 126.4467
24 h 3.03472 3,034.720
*
NMG Specific Gravity Equation, liquid
s 0.001110172 1.110172
min 0.06661032 66.61031
h 3.996619 3996.619
24 h 95.91886 95,918.85
*
NMpT pvT equation, gas (vapor)
s 0.00006555517 0.06555517
min 0.003933310 3.933310
h 0.2359986 235.9986
24 h 5.663967 5663.967
The U.S. units are pressure p*f (kPa), differential pressure ∆p*
(kPa), temperature TK (K), dimensions d* and D* (mm), and
density p* (kg/m3). For differential pressure ∆p* in bars, multiply
Note 1 table values by 10. For pressure p*f in bars, multiply by 10. For
both differential pressure and pressure in bars, multiply by 100.
For Reynolds-number calculations (equations from Table 9.21)
do not change tabular values.
Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.15, p. 9.34.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

N Factors for Volume Flow: U.S. Units†

Cubic foot Cubic meter U.S. gallon U.K. liquid Barrel
Time (ft3) (m3)‡ Liter (L)‡ (gal) (Imp. gal) 42 gal 50 gal
Nvp, NVp, Density equation, liquid and gas (vapor)
s 0.09970190 0.002823244 2.823244 0.7458220 0.6210265 0.01775767 0.01491644
min 5.982114 0.1693946 169.3946 44.74932 37.26159 1.065460 0.8949864
h 358.9268 10.16368 10,163.68 2684.959 2235.696 63.92760 53.69919
24 h 8614.244 243.9283 243,928.3 64,439.02 53,656.69 1534.262 1288.780
NυG, NVG, Specific-gravity equation, liquid
s 0.01262491 0.0003574978 0.3574978 0.09444092 0.07863849 0.002248593 0.001888819
min 0.7574946 0.02144987 21.44987 5.666455 4.718309 0.1349156 0.1133291
h 45.44968 1.286992 1286.992 399.9873 283.0986 8.094936 6.799747
24 h 1090.793 30.88781 30,887.81 8159.696 6794.365 194.2785 163.1939
pvT equation, gas (vapor)
NvpT, (NυpT)b NVpT §
Cubic foot Cubic meter Cubic foot Cubic meter Liter
Time (ft3) (m3)‡ Liter (L)‡ (ft3) (m3)‡ (L)‡
s 0.0606898 0.001718545 1.718545 2.141951 0.06065330 60.65330
min 3.641391 0.1031127 103.1127 128.5171 3.639198 3639.198
h 218.4834 6.186763 6186.763 7711.023 218.3519 218,351.9
24 h 5243.603 148.4823 148,485.3 185,064.6 5240.445 5,240,445
†The U.S. units are pressure pf (psia), differential pressure hw (inches of water at 68°F, 14.696 psia, and standard gravity,
32.17405 ft/s2), temperature Tf (°R), dimensions d and D (in.), and density ρ (lbm/ft3).
‡For sizing and calculating volume flow in SI units, but with measurements in the U.S. units defined above.
§Standard base volume (ISO 5024): pb = 14.69595 psia; Tb = 518.67°R
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.16;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

N Factors for Volume Flow: SI Units†

   
Np , NVp Density equation, liquid and gas (vapor) N vG , NVG Specific-gravity equation, liquid
Time Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L) Time Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L)
s 0.00003512407 0.03512407 s 0.000001111270 0.001111270
min 0.002107444 2.107444 min 0.00006667619 0.06667619
h 0.1264467 126.4467 h 0.004000571 4.000571
24 h 3.034720 3034.720 24 h 0.09601371 96.01371
pυT equation, gas (vapor)
  
NvpT , § ( NVpt )b ‡ NVpT ‡
Time Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L) Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L)
s 0.00001881927 0.01881927 0.00005351861 0.05351861
min 0.001129156 1.129156 0.003211117 3.211117
h 0.06774938 67.74938 0.1926670 192.6670
24 h 1.625985 1625.985 4.624008 4624.008
†The SI units are pressure pf (kPa), differential pressure Δp* (kPa), temperature TK (K), dimensions d*
and D* (mm), and density ρ* (kg/m3). For differential pressure Δp* in bars, multiply table values by 10. For
Reynolds-number calculations (equations from Table 9.21), do not change tabular values.
‡For pressure pf in bars, multiply by 10. For both differential pressure and pressure in bars, multiply by
100.
§For pressure pf in bars, divide by 10. For both differential pressure and pressure in bars, there is no
change.
¶Standard base volume (ISO 5024): pb = 101.325 kPa; TKb = 288.15 K.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed.,
1996, Table 9.17; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

N Factors for Gas-Factor Equations (F PB , F TB , F TF , F pυ ): U.S. Units†

NMhp Mass-flow equation

Time Pound-mass (lbm) Kilogram (kg)§ Gram (g)§
s 0.007191927 0.003262203 3.262203
min 0.4315156 0.1957322 195.7322
h 25.89094 11.74393 11,743.93
24 h 621.3825 281.8544 281,854.4
Nvhp Volume flow at flowing conditions
Time Cubic foot (ft3) Cubic meter (m3)§ Liter (L)§
s 1.382170 0.03913871 39.13871
min 82.930213 2.348323 2348.323
h 4975.814 140.8994 140,899.4
24 h 119,419.5 3381.585 3,381.585
NVhp Volume flow at selected or standard base‡
Time Cubic foot (ft3) Cubic meter (m3)§ Liter (L)§
s 0.09405112 0.002663231 2.663231
min 5.643067 0.1597939 159.7939
h 338.5840 9.587633 9587.633
24 h 8126.016 230.1032 230,103.2
†The U.S. units are pressure pf (psia), differential pressure hw (inches of water at 68°F,
14.696 psia, and standard gravity, 32.17405 ft/s2), dimensions d and D (in), and density
p (lbm/ft3).
‡Standard base volume (ISO 5024, 1976): pb = 14.69595 psia; Tb = 518.67°R;
FPB = FTB = 1.0.
§For sizing and calculating flow in SI units, but with measurements in the U.S. units
defined above.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard
W. Miller, 3rd ed., 1996, Table 9.18; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.


N Mhp Mass-flow equation
Time Kilogram (kg) Gram (g)
s 0.000003861870 0.003861870
min 0.0002317122 0.2317122
h 0.01390273 13.90273
24 h 0.3336656 333.6656

Nvhp Volume flow at flowing conditions‡
Time Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L)
s 0.0003194568 0.3194568
min 0.01916741 19.16741
h 1.150044 1150.044
24 h 27.60107 27,601.07

NVhp Volume flow at selected or standard base§
Time Cubic meter (m3) Liter (L)
s 0.000003152793 0.003152793
min 0.0001891676 0.1891676
h 0.01135006 11.35006
24 h 0.2724013 272.4013
†The SI units are pressure pf (kPa), differential
pressure Δp* (kPa), temperature TK (K), and
dimensions d* and D* (mm). For differential pressure
in bars, multiply table values by 10. For Reynolds-
number calculations (equations from Table 9.22) do
not change tabular values.
‡For pressure in bars, divide by 10. For both
differential pressure and pressure in bars, there is no
change.
§Standard base volume (ISO 5024, 1976):
pb = 101.325 kPa; TKb = 218.15 K (15°C);

FPB = 1.0. For pressure in bars, multiply by 10. For
both differential pressure and pressure in bars,
multiply by 100.
Source: Used with permission of McGraw Hill LLC, from Flow
Measurement Engineering Handbook, Richard W. Miller, 3rd ed.,
1996, Table 9.19; permission conveyed through Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc.

3160  Q  G
Re = for liquids
D

where
Q = flow (gpm)
G = specific gravity
D = pipe diameter (in.)
μ = viscosity (cP)

6316  Q
Re = for gases
D

where
Q = flow (lb/hr)

©2022 NCEES 49
Chapter 2: Measurement
2.4.6.2 Thermal Expansion Factor
Pipe inner diameter corrected for thermal expansion:
Dpc = [1 + αp (TF − 68)]Dm
Orifice plate bore corrected for thermal expansion:
doc = [1 + αfe (TF − 68)]dm

Thermal Expansion Factors, α, for Flow Elements

Expansion Coefficients
Material
10–6 in/in F 10–6 m/m C
Aluminum, 6061 & 6063 13.00 23.40
Copper (ASTM B112, B124, B133) 9.3 16.7
Hastelloy 8.40 15.00
Inconel 6.40 11.50
Iron, Gray 5.70 10.50
Monel 7.80 14.00
Steel, Carbon 7.00 11.70
Steel, Stainless, 304 9.30 17.00
Steel, Stainless, 316 8.90 16.00
Titanium, Grade 5 5.20 9.36
Titanium, Grade 8 4.80 8.64

2.4.6.3 Discharge Coefficient, C, Based on Primary Device

b
C = C∞ + , where values are given as follows.
Rn
D

Equations and Values for C, b, and n

Reynolds-Number Term
Primary Device Discharge Coefficient C∞ at Infinite Reynolds Number
Coefficient b Exponent n
ISA 0.9900 – 0.2262 4.1 (–0.00175 2 + 0.033 4.15)106.9 1.15
Venturi Nozzle (ISA Inlet) 0.9558 – 0.196 4.5 0 0
Orifice:
Corner Taps 0.5959 + 0.312 2.1 – 0.184 8 91.706 2.5 0.75
Flange Taps (D in inches) 0.75
4 3
D  2.3 0.595 + 0.0312 2.1 – 0.184 8 + 0.09 − 0.337 91.706 2.5 0.75
D(1 −  )
4
D
4 3
2  D  2.3d 0.595 + 0.312 2.1 – 0.184 8 + 0.039 − 0.337 91.706 2.5 0.75
1−  4
D
Flange Taps (D* in millimeters)
4 3
D *  58.4 0.595 + 0.0312 2.1 – 0.184 8 + 2.286 − 0.856 * 91.706 2.5 0.75
D (1 −  )
* 4
D
4 3
50.8  D *  58.4 0.595 + 0.0312 2.1 – 0.184 8 + 0.039 − 0.856 * 91.706 2.5 0.75
1−  4
D
4
D and D/2 taps 0.595 + 0.0312 2.1 – 0.184 8 + 0.039 – 0.01584 3 91.706 2.5 0.75
1 − 4
1 4
2 D and 8D taps 0.595 + 0.461 2.1 + 0.48 8 + 0.039 91.706 2.5 0.75
2 1 − 4

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller, pp. 9.14 and 9.15. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 50
Chapter 2: Measurement
Reynolds Number Related to Derived Flow Rate in U.S. Units†
Liquid Gas (vapor)
Mass flow rate
1
𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970 ]𝑞 1
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑀𝜌 𝑀
Density (a) 𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970 ]𝑞 (g)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑀𝜌 𝑀

1
Specific gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [17,902.78 ]𝑞 (b)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑀𝐺 𝑚
1
𝑅𝐷 = [3724.200 ]𝑞
pVT equation μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑀𝑝𝑇 𝑀 (h)

Volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions

𝜌𝑓
𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970 ]𝑞 𝜌𝑓1
Density μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁νρ 𝑣 (c) 𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970 ]𝑞 (i)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁νρ 𝑣
𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹
Specific gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [17,902.78 ]𝑞 (d)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑣𝐺 𝑣
𝐺𝑝𝑓1 1
𝑅𝐷 = [3724.200 ]𝑞
pVT equation 𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑣𝑝𝑇 𝑣 (j)

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

𝜌𝑏
𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970 ]𝑞 1
Density μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑉𝜌 𝑉 (e) 𝑅𝐷 = [2266.970𝜌𝑏 ]𝑞 (k)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑉𝜌 𝑉
𝐺𝑏
Specific gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [17,902.78 ]𝑞 (f)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑉𝐺 𝑉
pVT equation
𝐺 1
𝑅𝐷 = [3724.200 ]𝑞
Standard base 𝑍𝑏 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷𝑁𝑣𝑝𝑇 𝑉 (l)

𝐺𝑝𝑏 1
𝑅𝐷 = [3724.200 ]𝑞
Selected base 𝑍𝑏 𝑇𝑏 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷(𝑁𝑣𝑝𝑇 )𝑏 𝑣𝑏 (m)

† D in these equations is at flowing conditions: D = FeD Dmeas = [1 + p(TF – 68)]Dmeas [Eq. (9.50)].

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.20, p. 9.39. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 51
Chapter 2: Measurement
Reynolds Number Related to Derived Flow Rate in SI units†
Liquid Gas (vapor)
Mass flow rate
1 1
Density 𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136 ] 𝑞∗ (a) 𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136 ] 𝑞∗ (g)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑀𝜌 𝑀 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑀𝜌 𝑀
1
Specific Gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [1413.515 ] 𝑞∗ (b)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑀
1 ∗
pVT equation 𝑅𝐷 = [83.46744 ] 𝑞𝑀 (h)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑀𝑝𝑇
Volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions
𝜌𝑓∗ ∗
𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136 ] 𝑞∗ 𝜌𝑓1
Density μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑣𝜌 𝑣 (c) 𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136 ] 𝑞∗ (i)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑣𝜌 𝑣
𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹
Specific Gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [1413.515 ] 𝑞∗ (d)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑣𝐺 𝑣
∗
𝐺𝑝𝑓1 1
pVT equation 𝑅𝐷 = [83.46744 ] 𝑞∗ (j)
𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 ∗ 𝑣𝑝𝑇 𝑣
∗

Volumetric flow rate at base conditions

𝜌𝑏∗
𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136 ] 𝑞∗ 1
Density μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑣𝜌 𝑉 (e) 𝑅𝐷 = [44.72136𝜌𝑏∗ ] 𝑞∗ (k)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑉𝜌 𝑉
𝐺𝑏
Specific Gravity 𝑅𝐷 = [1413.515 ] 𝑞∗ (f)
μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑉𝐺 𝑉
pVT equation
𝐺 1
𝑅𝐷 = [83.46744 ] 𝑞∗
Standard base 𝑍𝑏 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 𝑁 ∗ 𝑉𝑝𝑇 𝑉
∗ (l)

𝐺𝑝𝑏∗ 1
Selected base 𝑅𝐷 = [83.46744 ] 𝑞∗ (m)
∗ ∗
𝑍𝑏 𝑇𝑏 μ𝑐𝑃 𝐷 (𝑁𝑉𝑝𝑇 )𝑏 𝑉𝑏
† D and D* in these equations is at flowing conditions: D* = FaD
* *
Dmeas *
= [1 + P (TC − 20 )]Dmeas
*
Eq. ( 9.53 )  .

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.21, p. 9.40. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 52
Chapter 2: Measurement
Reynolds Number Related to Derived Flow-Rate Unit for Gas-Factor Equation: U.S. and SI Units†

pVT
U.S. units SI units
equation

   1 
Mass flow 1
RD = 4.917086  qM
*
RD = 163.5262  qM (a) (d)
rate  cPDNMhp    D *
N * 
 cP Mhp 

Volumetric
 2
FTF 2   *2 2 *2 
flow rate 1 F pv 1 pf 1 FTF 1 F pv 1 pf 1
RD = 163.5263 2  qv (b) RD =  4.917086 2  q* (e)
   * *  v
at flowing
 Zb cP DN vhp   Zb  cP D Nvhp 
conditions
Volumetric
flow rate
at
 1   
standard RD = 163.5262 2  qVb 1
(c) RD =  4.917086 2 *  qVb
*
(f)
or  F F F Z  DN   * * * 
F g FPB FTB Zb cP D NVhp 
 g PB TB b cP Vhp  
selected
base
conditions
†D and D* in these equations is at flowing conditions:
D = FaD Dmeas = 1+ P (TF − 68) Dmeas Eq. (9.50) ; D* = FaD
* *
Dmeas = 1+ P

*
(TC − 68) Dmeas
*
Eq. (9.52) .

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.22, p. 9.41. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 53
Chapter 2: Measurement
Sizing Factor (SM) Equations for U.S. Flow Units†
Liquid Gas (vapor)
Mass flow rate
𝑞𝑀 𝑞𝑀
𝑆𝑀 = 𝑆𝑀 =
Density 𝑁𝑀𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐹 ℎ𝑤 (a) (g)
𝑁𝑀𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷 2 √𝜌𝑓1 ℎ𝑤
𝑞𝑀
Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑀 = (b)
𝑁𝑀𝐺 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹 ℎ𝑤
√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 𝑞𝑀
pVT equation 𝑆𝑀 = (h)
𝑁𝑀𝑝𝑇 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √G ℎ𝑤 𝑝𝑓1
Volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions
√𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐹 𝑞𝑣 √𝜌𝑓1 𝑞𝑣
Density 𝑆𝑀 = (c) 𝑆𝑀 = (i)
𝑁𝑣𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √ℎ𝑤 𝑁𝑣𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √ℎ𝑤
√𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹 𝑞𝑣
Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑀 = (d)
𝑁𝑣𝐺 𝐹𝑎 𝐷 2 √ℎ𝑤
√𝐺𝜌𝑓1 𝑞𝑣
pVT equation 𝑆𝑀 = (j)
𝑁𝑣𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 ℎ𝑤
Volumetric flow rate at base conditions
𝜌𝑏 𝑞𝑉 𝜌𝑏 𝑞𝑉
𝑆𝑚 = 𝑆𝑚 =
Density 𝑁𝑉𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐹 ℎ𝑤 (e) (k)
𝑁𝑉𝜌 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝜌𝑓1 ℎ𝑤
𝐺𝑏 𝑞𝑉
Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑚 = (f)
𝑁𝑉𝐺 𝐹𝑎 𝐷2 √𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹 ℎ𝑤

pVT equation
√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 𝐺 𝑞𝑉
Standard base 𝑆𝑀 = (l)
𝑁𝑉𝑝𝑇 𝐹𝑎 𝑍𝑏 𝐷2 √ℎ𝑤 𝑝𝑓1

√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝑓1 𝐺 𝑝𝑏 𝑞𝑉𝑏

Selected base 𝑆𝑀 = (m)
(𝑁𝑉𝑝𝑇 )𝑏 𝐹𝑎 𝑍𝑏 𝑇𝑏 𝐷2 √ℎ𝑤 𝑝𝑓1
† Gas (vapor) equations are written for upstream pressure tap. For downstream pressure tap, change subscript 1 to
subscript 2, in ρf2, pf2, Zf2, etc. D in these equations is at flowing conditions: D = FaDDmeas = [1 + P (TF – 68) Dmeas
[Eq. (9.50)].
Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.23, p. 9.45.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

©2022 NCEES 54
Chapter 2: Measurement
Sizing Factor (SM) Equations for SI Flow Units†
Liquid Gas (vapor)
Mass flow rate
∗ ∗
𝑞𝑀 𝑞𝑀
𝑆𝑀 = 𝑆𝑀 =
Density ∗ (a) (g)
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑀𝜌 𝐷 ∗2 √𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝑓∗ ∆𝑝∗ ∗
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑀𝜌 ∗
𝐷 ∗2 √𝜌𝑓1 ∆𝑝 ∗
∗
𝑞𝑀
Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑀 = ∗ (b)
𝑁𝑀𝐺 𝐹𝑎∗ 𝐷 ∗2 √𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹∗ ∆𝑝∗
∗
√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝐾1 𝑞𝑀
𝑆𝑀 =
pVT equation ∗ ∗ (h)
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑀𝑝𝑇 𝐷 ∗2 √G∆𝑝∗ 𝑝𝑓1

Volumetric flow rate at flowing conditions

√𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐹∗ 𝑞𝑣∗ ∗
√𝜌𝑓1 𝑞𝑣∗
Density 𝑆𝑀 = (c) (i)
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑣𝑝
∗ 𝐷 ∗2 √∆𝑝 ∗ 𝑆𝑀 =
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑣𝑝
∗ 𝐷 ∗2 √∆𝑝 ∗

√𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹∗ 𝑞𝑣∗

Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑀 = ∗
(d)
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑣𝐺 𝐷 ∗2 √∆𝑝∗
∗
√𝐺𝑝𝑓1 𝑞𝑣∗
pVT equation 𝑆𝑀 = (j)
∗
𝑁𝑣𝑝𝑇 𝐹𝑎∗ 𝐷 ∗2 √𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝐾1 ∆𝑝∗
Volumetric flow rate at base conditions
𝜌𝑏∗ 𝑞𝑉∗ 𝜌𝑏∗ 𝑞𝑉∗
𝑆𝑀 = ∗
𝑆𝑀 =
Density 𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑉𝜌 𝐷 ∗2 √𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐹∗ ∆𝑝 ∗ (e) ∗
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑉𝜌 ∗
𝐷 ∗2 √𝜌𝑓1 ∆𝑝∗
(k)

𝐺𝑏 𝑞𝑉∗
Specific Gravity 𝑆𝑀 = ∗ (f)
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑉𝐺 𝐷 ∗2 √𝐹𝑝 𝐺𝐹 ∆𝑝 ∗

pVT equation
√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝐾1 𝐺 𝑞𝑣∗
𝑆𝑀 =
Standard base ∗
𝐹𝑎∗ 𝑁𝑉𝑝𝑇 ∗
𝑍𝑏 𝐷 ∗2 √∆𝑝 ∗ 𝑝𝑓1 (l)

∗ ∗
√𝑍𝑓1 𝑇𝐾1 𝐺 𝑝𝑏 𝑞𝑉𝑏
𝑆𝑀 =
Selected base ∗ ∗ (m)
𝐹𝑎∗ (𝑁𝑉𝑝𝑇 )𝑏 𝑍𝑏 𝑇𝐾𝑏 𝐷 ∗2 √∆𝑝 ∗ 𝑝𝑓1

† Gas (vapor) equations are written for upstream pressure tap. For downstream pressure tap, change subscript 1 to
subscript 2, in ρf2, pf2, Zf2, etc. D in these equations is at flowing conditions:
D* = FaD
* *
Dmeas = 1+ P

*
(TC − 20) Dmeas
*
Eq. (9.52) .

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.24, p. 9.46. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

Type Equations
Venturi
–1/4
0.995 2
Machined inlet  0 = [1 + ( ) ]
𝑆𝑀
Orifice
Corner, Flange, D-and D/2 taps

0.6 2 –1/4
RD < 200,000  0 = [1 + ( + 0.06) ]
𝑆𝑀
–1/4
0.6 2
RD > 200,000  0 = [1 + ( ) ]
𝑆𝑀

0.61 2 –1/4
2 1/2D and 8D tapes  0 = [1 + ( + 0.55) ]
𝑆𝑀

Source: Flow Measurement Engineering Handbook by Richard W. Miller. Table 9.28, p. 9.51.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill.

2.4.7 Level

2.4.7.1 Level Measurement Comparison—Continuous Level

Limitations
Accuracy

Cost***
Only extended diaphragm seals or repeaters can eliminate plugging.
Pressure ±0.1 to 0.5% of full scale*** $$ Purging and sealing legs are also used.
Accuracy will be affected by process specific gravity changes
±2% of full scale Interference between conductive layers and detection of foam is a problem.
Capacitance $
Does not yield an exact level.
±1–2% of full scale (0.1% in Strong industrial noise or vibration at the unit's operating frequency will affect performance.
Ultrasonic some units with temperature $$ In some designs dusts tend to give false readings.
compensation) Coating may affect performance since deposit buildup on the probe will attenuate the signal.
Interference from coating, agitator blade, spray, or excessive turbulence.
$$$ without
For interface level:
chamber
Guided wave radar ±1/4 in. A minimum of 4 in. of the upper-level liquid is required.
$$$$ with
The difference between the upper-layer and the lower-layer liquid must be greater than 10.
chamber
The dielectric constant of the liquid must be greater than 2.
Non-contacting radar ±0.1 in. $$ Interference from coating, agitator blade, spray, or excessive turbulence.
Nuclear Varies based on design $$$$$ Requires NRC license
Laser ±0.8 in. $$ Limited to cloudy liquids or bright solids in tanks with transparent vapor spaces
May be affected by coating, buildup, or dirt that can cling to the displacer.
Displacer ±1/4 in., or 0.25% full scale $$
Works on Archimedes' principle
Generally it is not recommended to be used in places with strong electromagnetic radiation
Magnetostrictive ±1 in. $$–$$$ such as power plants.
Works on buoyancy principle
Magnetic level indicator Requires recalibration if the liquid density changes.
±1 in. $$
(in chamber) Works on buoyancy principle
High level of maintenance and cleaning to ensure the tank contents do not penetrate the
Servo (in stilling well) ±1/8 in. $$$–$$$$
system instruments.

Low vessel pressures (vacuum)

Ambient temperature changes

High vessel pressure limits

Low process temperatures

High process temp limits

Viscous, sticky product

Internal obstructions

Noise (EMI, motors)

Dielectric changes
Density changes

Product coating
(<0°F, <–40)
Corrosion

Emulsion
Agitation

Interface
Aeration

Slurries

Vapors
Solids
Foam
Dust
Pressure M G M M M G G G G G G M-P G G M G P M P G M
Capacitance G M G G G P G G M G G M-P M G G G P G M M M
Ultrasonic M P M G G G P G P P P M M G P M M G M M G
Guided wave radar G P G M G G* G M** G G G G M G G G M M G G M
Non-contacting radar M G G G G G M G M M M P M G G G G G G G G
Nuclear M G G G M G G G G G G G M G G G M G G G G
Laser M M G G G G P G P G G P M G G M M G G M G
Displacer G G M M M G P G G G G M G M G G P P P G P
Magnetostrictive M M G M M G G M** G P P M G G G G P M P G P
Magnetic level indicator
G G G M M G P M** G G M M G M G G P M P G P
(in chamber)
Servo (in stilling well) M M G M P G P M** M M M G G G G G P P P G P
Rating of each technology based on its capability of handling each challenge.

G = Good: This condition has little or no impact on performance of this technology.

M = Moderate: This technology can handle this condition, but performance could be affected or special installation is needed.
P = Poor: This technology does not handle this condition well or does not apply.
* A changing dielectric value will impact interface measurement accuracy
** Overall level OK, interface level moderate
*** Instrument only—does not include flanges or bridles
Source: Adapted from The Engineer's Guide to Level Measurement for Power and Steam Generation, 2013 edition. Copyright © 2013 Rosemount, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission pending.

Limitations
Accuracy

Cost*
Interference between conductive layers
Capacitance ± 1/8 in. $$–$$$
and detection of foam is a problem.
Nuclear ± 1/4 in. $$$–$$$$ Requires license
Moving parts limit most designs to
Float switch 1% full span $–$$$ clean service. Only preset density floats
can follow interference.
Excessive material buildup can prevent
Vibrating fork 0.2 in. $–$$
operation.
*Instrument only—does not include flanges or bridles

Ambient temperature changes

High vessel pressure limits

Low vessel pressure limits

High process temp limits

Low process temp limits

Viscous, sticky product

Internal obstructions

Noise (EMI, motors)

Dielectric changes
Density changes

Product coating
Corrosion

Emulsion
Agitation
Aeration

Slurries

Vapors
Solids
Foam
Dust
Capacitance G M G G G P G G M G G M G G G P G M M M

Nuclear M G G G M G G G G G G M G G G M G G M G

Float switch G G G M M G G G G G G G G G M M M P G M

Vibrating fork G G G M G G G G M G G G G G M M M P G M
Rating of each technology based on its capability of handling each challenge.

G = Good: This condition has little or no impact on performance of this technology.

M = Moderate: This technology can handle this condition, but performance could be affected or special installation is needed.
P = Poor: This technology does not handle this condition well or does not apply.
Source: Adapted from The Engineer's Guide to Level Measurement for Power and Steam Generation, 2013 edition. Copyright © 2013 Rosemount, Inc. All rights reserved. Permission pending.

2.4.7.3 DP Level Transmitter Application

The figures in this section are from the Rosemount™ DP Level Transmitters and 1199 Diaphragm Seal Systems reference
manual, 00809-0100-4002, Rev EA, May 2020.

Liquid Level in Closed Tank—Tuned-System Assembly

Source: Reproduced with permission from Emerson Automation Solutions, Rosemount Measurement Division, and adapted for exam use

dH = vertical distance from transmitter to high-pressure seal

dL = vertical distance from transmitter to low-pressure seal
Lmax = maximum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 20-mA lower range value
Lmin = minimum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 4-mA lower range value
SGF = specific gravity of fill fluid
SGP = specific gravity of process fluid
Tank span = Lmax × SGP – Lmin × SGP
= (108 in. × 0.75) = 81 in. H2O
4 mA = Lmin × SGP – (dL × SGF)
= (0 in. × 0.75) – (120 in. × 0.934) = –112.08 in. H2O
20 mA = Lmax × SGP – (dL × SGF)
= (108 in. × 0.75) – (120 in. × 0.934) = –31.08 in. H2O
Span = 81 in. H2O (–112.08 to –31.08 in. H2O)
Note: Silicone 200 has a specific gravity of 0.934.

Liquid Level in Closed Tank—Balanced System with Transmitter Between Seals

Source: Reproduced with permission from Emerson Automation Solutions, Rosemount Measurement Division, and adapted for exam use

dH = vertical distance from transmitter to high-pressure seal

dL = vertical distance from transmitter to low-pressure seal
Lmax = maximum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 20-mA lower range value
Lmin = minimum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 4-mA lower range value
SGF = specific gravity of fill fluid
SGP = specific gravity of process fluid
Tank span = Lmax × SG
= (108 in. × 0.75) = 81 in. H2O
4 mA = Lmin × SGP – (dL × SGF) + (dH × SGF)
= (0 in. × 0.75) – (60 in. × 0.934) + (–60 in. × 0.934) = –112.08 in. H2O
20 mA = Lmax × SGP – (dL × SGF) + (dH × SGF)
= (108 in. × 0.75) – (60 in. × 0.934) + (–60 in. × 0.934) = –31.08 in. H2O
Span = 81 in. H2O (–112.08 to –31.08 in. H2O)
Note: Silicone 200 has a specific gravity of 0.934.

Liquid Level in Closed Tank—Balanced System with Transmitter Below Seals

Source: Reproduced with permission from Emerson Automation Solutions, Rosemount Measurement Division, and adapted for exam use

dH = vertical distance from transmitter to high-pressure seal

dL = vertical distance from transmitter to low-pressure seal
Lmax = maximum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 20-mA lower range value
Lmin = minimum level of process above high-pressure seal and typically 4-mA lower range value
SGF = specific gravity of fill fluid
SGP = specific gravity of process fluid
Tank span = Lmax × SG
= (108 in. × 0.75) = 81 in. H2O
4 mA = Lmin × SGP – (dL × SGF) + (dH × SGF)
= (0 in. × 0.75) – (180 in. × 0.934) + (60 in. × 0.934) = –112.08 in. H2O
20 mA = Lmax × SGP – (dL × SGF) + (dH × SGF)
= (108 in. × 0.75) – (180 in. × 0.934) + (60 in. × 0.934) = –31.08 in. H2O
Span = 81 in. H2O (–112.08 to –31.08 in. H2O)
Note: Silicone 200 has a specific gravity of 0.934.
Note: The transmitter location in a closed tank does not effect the 4-mA and 20-mA set points as shown in the three
examples above of liquid levels in closed tanks.

DP Transmitter Level Measurement for Closed Tank—Wet Leg Method

2.4.8 Pressure

2.4.8.1 Generalized Equation

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
where
𝑃 = pressure in psi
𝐹 = force
𝐴 = area

Volumetric

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇𝑍
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑍1 𝑇2 𝑍2
where
𝑅 = gas constant (value = 1544 divided by molecular weight)
𝑃 = pressure (psia)
𝑉 = volume (cubic feet)
𝑇 = temperature (degrees Rankine)
𝑍 = compressibility (dimensionless)

Density
𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇𝑍
where
𝑅 = gas constant (value = 10.73 divided by molecular weight)
𝑃 = pressure (psia)
𝑉 = volume (cubic feet)
𝑇 = temperature (degrees Rankine)
𝑍 = compressibility (dimensionless)

3.1.1 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control Definitions

• Process Gain – The change in the process variable divided by the change in controller output.
∆𝑃𝑉
𝐾𝑝 =
∆𝐶𝑂
where
PV = process variable

CO = controller output

• Integral Time – The time integration of a measured process error. Added to the control signal to stabilize the
process.
𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛−1 + 𝑃𝑛
• Derivative Time – The time derivative of a measured process error. Added to the control signal to stabilize the
process.
𝐷𝑛 = 𝑃𝑛 − 𝑃𝑛−1

3.1.2 Proportional (P) Only

Controller output is a function of the gain setting of the unit. The output contribution resulting from an input change will
be:
m = KCe + Bias
where
m = output of controller after input change
KC = controller gain setting (reciprocal of proportional band)
e = error or difference between set point and measurement
Bias = the value of the output prior to the error

3.1.3 Proportional Plus Integral (PI) Control

Controller output is based on the function of proportional action with an integral or reset factor to drive the loop back to the
set point.
1
𝑚 = 𝐾𝐶 [𝑒 + ∫ 𝑒𝑑𝑡] + 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠
𝑇𝑖
where
m = output of controller after input change
KC = controller gain setting (reciprocal of proportional band)

©2022 NCEES 66
Chapter 3: Control Systems
e = error or difference between set point and measurement
Bias = the value of the output prior to the error
Ti = reset time in minutes per repeat

3.1.4 Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) Control

Controller output is based on the function of proportional action with an integral or reset factor to drive the loop back to set
point and a derivative contribution based on the rate of change of the error.
1 𝑑𝑒
𝑚 = 𝐾𝐶 [𝑒 + ∫ 𝑒𝑑𝑡 + 𝑇𝑑 ] + 𝐵𝑖𝑎𝑠
𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑡
where
m = output of controller after input change
KC = controller gain setting (reciprocal of proportional band)

e = error or difference between the set point and measurement

Bias = the value of the output prior to the error
Ti = reset time in minutes per repeat
TD = derivative time in minutes

3.1.5 Cascade
Cascade control is a function where the output of one feedback controller sets the set point on a second feedback controller.

3.1.6 Feedforward
Feedforward control is when a final control element (valve or the set point of another controller) is manipulated by a
measurement of the process disturbance rather than by the output of a feedback controller.

3.1.7 Open-Loop Tuning

The object of tuning a control loop is to obtain an acceptable response to a set-point change. The desired result is minimal
overshoot or a one-quarter decay ratio. Two of the most common methods are the Ziegler-Nichols open-loop method and
the Ziegler-Nichols closed-loop method.
Open-Loop Tuning Parameters

P PI PID

𝜏 0.9 𝜏 1.2 𝜏
KC
𝐾𝑃 𝑇𝑑 𝐾𝑃 𝑇𝑑 𝐾𝑃 𝑇𝑑

Ti — 3.33 Td 2.0 Td

TD — — 0.5 Td

where
KC = controller gain setting (reciprocal of proportional band)
Ti = reset time in minutes per repeat
TD = derivative time in minutes

©2022 NCEES 67
Chapter 3: Control Systems
KP = process gain from the step change in the system; reaction rate (RR) may be used as shown in the
table above
τ = time constant (tau) for the step change (time for the process variable to reach 63.2% of the new
value)
Td = dead time for the step change

Process Analysis
Response rate per change in controller output
PV t % time 1
RR = = =
MV % time
Process dead time = Td = time

Zieglar-Nicols Optimum PID

P only
PB = 100 × RR × Td
PI
PB = 111.1 × RR × Td
I = 3.33 × Td
PID
PB = 83.3 × RR × Td
I = 2 × Td
D = 0.5 × Td

Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Methods

3.1.8 Closed-Loop Tuning

Closed-Loop Tuning Parameters

P PI PID

KCU 0.5 KCU 0.45 KCU 0.6 KCU

Ti — 0.83 PU 0.5 PU

TD — — 0.125 PU

where
KC = controller gain setting (reciprocal of proportional band)
Ti = reset time in minutes per repeat
TD = derivative time in minutes
KCU = ultimate gain from oscillating loop response
PU = ultimate period from oscillating loop response

With the loop in automatic, slowly increase the controller gain until sustained oscillations are obtained. The figure below
indicates the need to increase the gain more to sustain oscillations or decrease the gain when the oscillations become erratic.
The ultimate gain should be recorded as KCU, and the ultimate period should be recorded as PU.

Effects of Increasing and Decreasing Controller Gain

3.1.8.1 Cohen-Coon Tuning Rule

The Cohen-Coon tuning rule provides another method for estimating PID controller settings. This rule is applicable only for
systems that are inherently self-regulating or those that will settle out at a new process variable in response to a step change
in the output to the final control element. This change is made with the controller in manual or with an open-loop check.
Three parameters must be recorded to use the equations for the controller modes. These are:
Dead time – Td or θ
Time constant – TC or τ
Open-loop gain – k (% change in the process variable / % change in the output to the valve)

Process Response to Step Change and Response Factors

These values may then be used in the appropriate equations shown below to determine the starting point for the controller
settings. Use the equations for the configuration of the specific controller and the modes to be employed.

Tuning Constants Formulas

ke− s Ti Td
K
 s +1

P 1 
+ 0.35 
k   

PI 0.9    3.3 + 0.3

+ 0.92  
k     + 2.2

PD 1.24    0.27 − 0.09

+ 0.13  
k     + 0.13

PID 1.35    2.5 + 0.5 0.37

 + 0.18   
k    + 0.61  + 0.19

©2022 NCEES 70
Chapter 3: Control Systems
3.1.8.2 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning
Tuning Parameters for the Ziegler-Nichols Closed-Loop Method

Controller Type Gain, Kc Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

Proportional (P) 0.5 Ku
𝑇𝑢
Proportional-Integral (PI) 0.45 Ku
1.2
Proportional–Integral– 𝑇𝑢 𝑇𝑢
0.6 Ku
Derivative (PID) 2 8

Variable Description Units

K c, K u Gain –
Tu Time constant min
TI Integral time min/repeat
TD Derivative time min
TI = minutes per repeat
1/TI = repeats per minute

Tuning Parameters for the Ziegler-Nichols Open-Loop Method

Controller Type Gain, Kc Integral Time, TI Derivative Time, TD

𝑇
Proportional (P)
𝐾𝜃

0.9𝑇 θ
Proportional-Integral (PI)
𝐾θ 0.3

Proportional–Integral– 4𝑇 θ
0.5θ
Derivative (PID) 3𝐾θ 0.5

Variable Description Units

K c, K Gain –
A Steady-state value psi/°F
T Time constant min
θ Dead time min
TI Integral time min/repeat
TD Derivative time min
K = A/T
TI = minutes per repeat
1/TI = repeats per minute

3.1.9 Damping

Damping Equations

Variable Description Units

−𝜋𝜉 −2𝜋𝜉
𝐴%𝑂𝑆 = 100𝑒√1−𝜉 2 𝐶%𝑂𝑆 = 100𝑒√1−𝜉 2 τ Time constant s
A%OS Percent overshoot %
[𝟏𝒏(𝑶𝑺)]𝟐
ϛ = √𝝅𝟐+[𝟏𝒏(𝑶𝑺)]𝟐 H(s) = Zeros / Poles OS Overshoot psi
P Period s

√1 − 𝜉 2 2𝜋𝜏 Td Dead time s

𝜏 = 𝑇𝑆𝑅 − 𝑇𝑑 𝜏 = 𝑃𝑃=
2𝜋 √1 − 𝜉 2 tp Time to peak s
TSR Step response time s
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = 𝜔𝑛 = 𝝃 Damping ratio -
𝜔𝑛 √1−𝜉 2 𝑡𝑝 √1−𝜉 2
Natural frequency of
oscillation or
ωn
undamped resonant
frequency

Find the Damping from the Function

𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 25
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 ; 𝜔𝑛 = √25
25
𝐺(𝑠) = 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 = 5𝑠
𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 25
5 5 5
𝜉 = damping ratio ϛ= ;= = = 0.5
2𝜔𝑛 2√25 10
Damping: 0.5

Find the Poles from the Function

𝜔𝑛2 −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑝1 ; 𝑝2 =
𝑠 2 + 2𝜉𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 2
25 −5 ± √25 − 4(25)
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑝1 ; 𝑝2 =
𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 25 2
Pole1: –2.5 + j 4.33 −5 ± √|25 − 100|
𝑝1 ; 𝑝2 = = −2.5 ± 𝑗 4.33
Pole2: –2.5 – j 4.33 2

3.2 Discrete Control—Boolean Logic Operations

AND Gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND Gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NOR Gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

XOR Gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

S-R Flip-Flop
Input 1 Input 2 Q Qnot
0 0 Keep output state Keep output state
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 Unstable condition Unstable condition

4.1.1 Types

Control On-Off Valve Types

Control Valve Service, Guiding, Trim Characterization, and Actuators

4.1.2 Trim Characteristics

Valve Trim Characteristics Curve

4.1.3 Valve Packing Selection Tables

Packing Selection Guidelines for Sliding-Stem Valves

Maximum Pressure and Temperature Application Guideline for Non-

Limits for 100 PPM Service(1) Environmental Service(1)
Packing System
Metric Imperial Metric Imperial

20.7 bar 300 psi See Figure 5.15 See Figure 5.15
Single PTFE V-Ring
–18 to 93C 0 to 200F –46 to 232C –50 to 450F

See Figure 5.15 See Figure 5.15

Double PTFE V-Ring --- ---
–46 to 232C –50 to 450F

See Figure 5.14 See Figure 5.14 See Figure 5.15 See Figure 5.15
ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE
–46 to 232C –50 to 450F –46 to 232C –50 to 450F

51.7 bar 750 psi See Figure 5.15 See Figure 5.15
ENVIRO-SEAL Duplex
–46 to 232C –50 to 450F –46 to 232C –50 to 450F

138 bar 2000 psi 330 bar 4800 psi

ENVIRO-SEAL H2 Duplex
–46 to 149C –50 to 300F –46 to 149C –50 to 300F

KALREZ® with Vespel® 24.1 bar 350 psig See Figure 5.15 See Figure 5.15
CR-6100 (K-VSP 500)(3) 4 to 260C 40 to 500F –40 to 260C –40 to 500F

ENVIRO-SEAL 103 bar 1500 psi 207 bar 3000 psi

Graphite ULF –7 to 315C 20 to 600F –198 to 371C –325 to 700F

103 bar 1500 psi 290 bar(4) 4200 psi(4)

HIGH-SEAL Graphite ULF
–7 to 315C 20 to 600F –198 to 538C –325 to 1000F

Graphite Composite / 290 bar(4) 4200 psi(4)

--- ---
HIGH-SEAL Graphite –198 to 649C –325 to 1200F

Braided Graphite 290 bar 4200 psi

--- ---
Filament –198 to 538C(5) –325 to 1000F(5)

290 bar 4200 psi

Graphite ULF --- ---
–198 to 538C –325 to 1000F
1. The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased leakage might
result. The temperature ratings apply to the actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.
2. See Fisher Catalog 14 for actual friction values.
3. The KALREZ pressure/temperature limits referenced in this bulletin are for Fisher valve applications only. DuPont may claim higher
limits.
4. Except for the 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) stem, 110 bar (1600 psi).
5. Except for oxidizing service, –198 to 371C (–325 to 700F).

©2022 NCEES 78
Chapter 4: Final Control Elements
Packing Selection Guidelines for Sliding-Stem Valves (continued)
Packing System Seal Performance Index Service Life Index Packing Friction(2)
Single PTFE V-Ring Better Long Very low
Double PTFE V-Ring Better Long Low
ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE Best Very long Low
ENVIRO-SEAL Duplex Best Very long Low
ENVIRO-SEAL H2 Duplex Best Very long Medium
KALREZ with Vespel
Best Long Low
CR-6100 (K-VSP 500)(3)
ENVIRO-SEAL
Best Very long Medium
Graphite ULF
HIGH-SEAL Graphite ULF Best Very long Medium
Graphite Composite /
Better Very long Very high
HIGH-SEAL Graphite
Braided Graphite
Good Moderate High
Filament
Graphite ULF Better Very long Medium
1. The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased leakage might
result. The temperature ratings apply to the actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.
2. See Fisher Catalog 14 for actual friction values.
3. The KALREZ pressure/temperature limits referenced in this bulletin are for Fisher valve applications only. DuPont may claim higher
limits.
4. Except for the 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) stem, 110 bar (1600 psi).
5. Except for oxidizing service, –198 to 371C (–325 to 700F).
Source: The Fisher Control Valve Handbook, 5 ed. Reproduced with permission from Emerson Automation Solutions.

Packing Selection Guidelines for Rotary Valves

Maximum Pressure and Temperature Application Guideline for Non-

Packing System Limits for 100 PPM Service(1) Environmental Service(1)
Metric Customary U.S. Metric Customary U.S.
--- --- 103 bar 1500 psig
Single PTFE V-Ring
--- --- –46 to 232C –50 to 450F
103 bar 1500 psig 207 bar 3000 psig
ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE
–46 to 232C –50 to 450F –46 to 232C –50 to 450F
Live-Loaded PTFE 69 bar 1000 psig 155 bar 2250 psig
for V250 Valves –29 to 93C –20 to 200F –46 to 232C –50 to 450F
KALREZ with Vespel 24.1 bar 350 psig 51 bar 750 psig
CR-6100 (K-VSP 500)(3) 4 to 260C 40 to 500F –40 to 260C –40 to 500F
103 bar 1500 psig 207 bar 3000 psig
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite
–7 to 315C 20 to 600F –198 to 371C –325 to 700F
--- --- 103 bar 1500 psig
Graphite Ribbon
--- --- –198 to 538C(2) –325 to 1000F(2)
1. The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased leakage might
result. The temperature ratings apply to the actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.
2. Except for oxidizing service, –198 to 371C (–325 to 700F).
3. The KALREZ pressure/temperature limits referenced in this bulletin are for Fisher valve applications only. DuPont may claim higher
limits.

Packing System Seal Performance Index Service Life Index Packing Friction
Single PTFE V-Ring Better Long Very low
ENVIRO-SEAL PTFE Excellent Very long Low
Live-Loaded PTFE
Excellent Very long Low
for V250 Valves
KALREZ with Vespel
Excellent Long Very low
CR-6100 (K-VSP 500)(3)
ENVIRO-SEAL Graphite Excellent Very long Moderate
Graphite Ribbon Acceptable Acceptable High
1. The values shown are only guidelines. These guidelines can be exceeded, but shortened packing life or increased leakage might
result. The temperature ratings apply to the actual packing temperature, not to the process temperature.
2. Except for oxidizing service, –198 to 371C (–325 to 700F).
3. The KALREZ pressure/temperature limits referenced in this bulletin are for Fisher valve applications only. DuPont may claim higher
limits.
Source: The Fisher Control Valve Handbook, 5 ed. Reproduced with permission from Emerson Automation Solutions.

4.1.4 Leakage Class

Maximum Valve Seat Leakage Allowance for Class VI (according to ANSI/FCI 70-21)
Nominal Port Diameter Bubbles per Minute*
in mm mL per minute Bubbles per minute
1 25 0.15 1
1-1/2 38 0.30 2
2 51 0.45 3
2-1/2 64 0.60 4
3 76 0.90 6
4 102 1.70 11
6 152 4.00 27
8 203 6.75 45
*Bubbles per minute specified in this table are a suggested alternative based on a properly
calibrated measuring device, in this case a 1/4 inch (6.3 mm) O.D. × 0.032 inch (0.8 mm) wall
tube submerged in water to a depth of 1/8 to 1/4 inch (3 to 6 mm). The tube end must be cut
square and must be smooth with no chamfers or burrs, and the tube axis must be perpendicular to
the surface of the water. Other measuring devices may be utilized and the number of bubbles per
minute may differ from those listed as long as they correctly indicate the flow in mL per minute.

4.1.5 Control Valve Sizing

4.1.5.1 Liquid Control Valve Sizing

Volumetric Flow
𝑞
𝐶𝑣 =
Δ𝑃
𝑁1 √
𝐺

where

Cv = valve flow coefficient

G = fluid specific gravity
q = volumetric flow
N1 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84

Mass Flow
𝑤
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑁6 √Δ𝑃𝜌
where

Cv = valve flow coefficient

ρ = fluid density
w = mass flow rate
N6 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84

Check for critical flow conditions. Use ΔPallowable as your differential pressure sizing when it is less than the
calculated ΔP:

∆𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝐹𝐿2 (𝑃1−𝐹𝐹𝑃𝑉 )

where

FL = pressure recovery coefficient

P1 = inlet pressure
PV = vapor pressure
FF = liquid critical pressure ratio factor

𝑃𝑉
𝐹𝐹 = 0.96 − 0.28√
𝑃𝐶

where

PC = critical pressure

©2022 NCEES 81
Chapter 4: Final Control Elements
4.1.5.2 Gas Sizing—Volumetric Flow
When gas specific gravity is known:
𝑞
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑥
𝑁7 𝑃1 𝑌√
𝐺𝑇1 𝑍

When molecular weight is known:

𝑞
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑥
𝑁9 𝑃1 𝑌√
𝑀𝑇1 𝑍

where

q = volumetric flow rate

P1 = inlet pressure

T1 = inlet temperature

G = gas specific gravity

M = molecular weight

Z = compressibility factor

N7 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84

N9 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84

x = pressure drop ratio

xr = rated pressure drop ratio factor (dimensionless)

Y = expansion factor
∆𝑃
𝑥=
𝑃1

With expansion factor Y

𝑥
𝑌 = 1−
𝑘
3 𝑥
1.4 𝑇
where

Cp
k = specific heat ratio =
Cv

Cp = specific heat of gas at constant pressure

Cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume

𝑥𝑇 = pressure drop ratio factor (dimensionless) = 1 (unless otherwise noted)

©2022 NCEES 82
Chapter 4: Final Control Elements
4.1.5.3 Gas Sizing—Mass Flow
When gas density is known:
𝑤
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑁6 𝑌√𝑥𝑃1 𝜌1

When molecular weight is known:

𝑤
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑥𝑀
𝑁8 𝑃1 𝑌√
𝑇1 𝑍

where

w = mass flow rate

P1 = inlet pressure
T1 = inlet temperature
ρ1 = inlet density
M = molecular weight
Z = compressibility factor
N6 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84
N8 = use Valve Sizing Equation Constants Table on p. 84
x = pressure drop ratio
Y = expansion factor
∆𝑃
𝑥=
𝑃1

Check for choked flow conditions. Use xchoked when sizing if it is less than the calculated value for x:
𝑘
𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 = 𝑥
1.4 𝑇
With expansion factor Y:
𝑥
𝑌 = 1−
𝑘
3 𝑥
1.4 𝑇
where

Cp
k = specific heat ratio =
Cv

Cp = specific heat of gas at constant pressure

Cv = specific heat of gas at constant volume
𝑥𝑇 = pressure drop ratio factor (dimensionless) = 1 (unless otherwise noted)

©2022 NCEES 83
Chapter 4: Final Control Elements
Valve Sizing Equation Constants1
N w q P2  T d, D
0.0865 --- m3/h kPa --- --- ---
3
N1 0.865 --- m /h bar --- --- ---
1.00 --- gpm psia --- --- ---
0.00214 --- --- --- --- --- mm
N2
890 --- --- --- --- --- inch
0.00241 --- --- --- --- --- mm
N5
1000 --- --- --- --- --- inch
2.73 kg/h --- kPa kg/m3 --- ---
3
N6 27.3 kg/h --- bar kg/m --- ---
63.3 lb/h --- psia lb/ft3 --- ---
3
Normal Conditions 3.94 --- m /h kPa --- deg K ---
TN = 0°C 394 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---

Standard Conditions 4.17 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---

N 73
Ts = 15.5°C 417 --- 3
m /h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions
1360 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
Ts = 60°F
0.948 kg/h --- kPa --- deg K ---
N8 94.8 kg/h --- bar --- deg K ---
19.3 lb/h --- psia --- deg R ---
Normal Conditions 21.2 --- m3/h kPa --- deg K ---
TN = 0°C 2120 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
3
Standard Conditions 22.4 --- m /h kPa --- deg K ---
N 93
Ts = 15.5°C 2240 --- m3/h bar --- deg K ---
Standard Conditions
7320 --- scfh psia --- deg R ---
Ts = 60°F
1. Many of the equations used in the sizing procedures in Section 4.1.5 of this document contain a numerical constant,
N, with a numerical subscript. The numerical constants provide a means of using different units in the equations.
Values for the constants and the corresponding applicable units are provided here. For example, if the flow rate is
given in U.S. gpm and the pressure is in psia, the value of N1 is 1.00. If the flow rate is in m3/hr and the pressure is in
kPa, the value of N1 is 0.0865.
2. All pressure values shown are absolute.
3. The pressure base is 1013 kpa (1.013 bar or 14.7 psia).

4.2 Material Selection

4.2.1 Chemical Compatibility for Metals

Alloy 20

Alloy 6
Brass
FLUID

Rosin A A B A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Silver Nitrate C C C C B A A A A A C A A A A A
Soda Ash (see Sodium Carbonate)
Sodium Acetate A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sodium Carbonate C C A B A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sodium Chloride C A C C B B B A A A A A A A A A
Sodium Chromate A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sodium Hydroxide C C A B B B A A A A A A A A A A
Sodium Hypochlorite C C C C C C C C C C C A B C A A
Sodium Thiosulfate C C C C B B A A A A A A A A A A
Stannous Chloride C C C C C C B A A A C A A B A A
Steam A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Stearic Acid C B B B B A A A A A A A A B A A
Sulfate Liquor (Black) C C A C C B A A A A A A A A A A
Sulfur A B A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Sulfur Dioxide, Dry C C C C C C B A A A C A A B A A
Sulfur Trioxide, Dry C C C C C C B A A A B A A B A A
Sulfuric Acid (Aerated) C C C C C C C A A A C A C B C A
Sulfuric Acid (Air Free) C C C C C C C A A A B A A B C A
Sulfurous Acid C C C C C B B A A A C A A B A A
Tar A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Trichloroethylene B B B B B B A A A A A A A A A A
Turpentine A A B A A A A A A A A A A A A A
Vinegar B B C C A A A A A A A A A A A A
Water, Boiler Feed, Amine Treated A A A A A A A A A A A A A C A A
Water, Distilled A A C C A A A A A A A A A A A A
Water, Sea C A C C C C B A A A A A A A A A
Whisky and Wines A A C C A A A A A A A A A A A A
Zinc Chloride C C C C C C C B B B A A A B A A
Zinc Sulfate C C C C A A A A A A A A A A A A

4.2.2 Chemical Compatibility for Elastomers

The following table rates and compares the compatibility of elastomer materials with specific fluids. Chemical
compatibility tends to decrease with increases in service temperature so a material may not be suitable over the entire range
of its capability. Full details of pressure, temperature, chemical considerations, and mode of operation must be considered
in selection. These recommendations are to be used as a general guide only.

Elastomer Ratings for Compatibility with Fluids

LEGEND: A+ = Best Possible Selection, A = Generally Compatible, B = Marginally Compatible, C = Not Recommended, — = NO DATA

FKM Fluoro-elastomer Viton(1)

CR Chloroprene Neoprene(1)

TFE/P Terafluoroethyelene-
FFKM Perfluoro-elastomer
ELASTOMER

CO, ECO Epichlorohydrin

ACM, ANM Poly-acrylic

AU, EU Poly-urethane

propylene copolymer
EPM, EPDM Ethylene

NBR Nitrile BUNA N

NR Natural Rubber
FLUID

VMQ Silicone
Propylene

IIR Butyl
Acetic Acid (30%) C C C C A+ C A+ A A B B C
Acetone C C C C A C A A C C C C
Air, Ambient A A — A A A A A A A B A
Air, Hot (200F, 93C) B B — C A A A C A A B A
Air, Hot (400F, 204C) C C — C C A A C A C C A
Alcohol, Ethyl C C — A A C A A A A A A
Alcohol, Methyl C C B A+ A C A A A A A A
Ammonia, Anhydrous, Liquid C C — A+ A C A A B B C A
Ammonia, Gas (Hot) C C — B B C A B A C C A+
Beer (Beverage) C C A A A A A A A A A A
Benzene C C C C C A A C C C C C
Black Liquor C C — B B A+ A C C B B A
Blast Furnace Gas C C — C C A+ A C A C C A
Brine (Calcium Chloride) A A A A A A A A A A A A
Butadiene Gas C C C C C A+ A C C C C —
Butane Gas A C A A C A A C C A+ C B
Butane, Liquid A C A B C A A C C A C C
Carbon Tetrachloride C C B C C A+ A C C C C C
Chlorine, Dry C C B C C A+ A C C C C C
Chlorine, Wet C C B C C A+ A C C C C B
Coke Oven Gas C C — C C A+ A C B C C A
Dowtherm A(2) C C C C C A+ A C C C C B
Ethyl Acetate C C C C B C A B B C C C
Ethylene Glycol C B A A A+ A A A A A A A
Freon 11(1) A C — C C B+ B C C B C C
Freon 12(1) B A A A+ B B B B C A B C
Freon 22(1) B C A A+ A C A A C C A C
Freon 114(1) — A A A A A B A C A A C
Freon Replacements(1) (See Suva)(1)
Gasoline C B A C C A A C C A+ C C
Hydrogen Gas B A — A A A A A C A B A
Hydrogen Sulfide (Dry) C B B A A+ C A A C A A A
Hydrogen Sulfide (Wet) C C B A A+ C A A C C C A
Jet Fuel (JP–4) B B A C C A A C C A C B
Methylene Chloride C C — C C B+ A+ C C C C B
Milk C C — A A A A A A A+ A A
Naphthalene — B — C C A+ A C C C C B
Natural Gas B B A A C A A C C A+ B A
Natural Gas + H2S (Sour Gas) C B A A+ C C A C C B C A
Natural Gas, Sour + Ammonia C C — B+ C C A C C B C A+
Nitric Acid (10%) C C C C B A+ A A C C C A
Nitric Acid (50–100%) C C C C C A+ A A C C C B
Nitric Acid Vapor C C C B B A A B C C C A
Nitrogen A A A A A A A A A A A A
Oil (Fuel) B C A B C A A C C A+ C A
Ozone B A A B A A A B A C C A
Paper Stock — C — B B A A B C B C —
Propane A B A A C A A C C A+ C A
Sea Water C B — B A A A A A A B A
Sea Water + Sulfuric Acid C B — B B A A B C C C A
Soap Solutions C C A A A A A A A A B A

©2022 NCEES 88
Chapter 4: Final Control Elements
Elastomer Ratings for Compatibility with Fluids (continued)
LEGEND: A+ = Best Possible Selection, A = Generally Compatible, B = Marginally Compatible, C = Not Recommended, — = NO DATA

FKM Fluoro-elastomer Viton(1)

CR Chloroprene Neoprene(1)

TFE/P Terafluoroethyelene-
FFKM Perfluoro-elastomer
ELASTOMER

CO, ECO Epichlorohydrin

ACM, ANM Poly-acrylic

AU, EU Poly-urethane

propylene copolymer
EPM, EPDM Ethylene

NBR Nitrile BUNA N

NR Natural Rubber
FLUID

VMQ Silicone
Propylene

IIR Butyl
Steam C C C C B+ C A B C C C A+
Sulfur Dioxide (Dry) C — — C A+ — — B B C B —
Sulfur Dioxide (Wet) C B — B A+ C A A B C C B
Sulfuric Acid (to 50%) B C B C B A+ A C C C C A
Sulfuric Acid (50–100%) C C C C C A+ A C C C C A
Suva HCFC-123(1) — C — A+ A+ B — A+ B C C —
Suva HFC134a(1) — — — B A C — B B A+ B —
Water (Ambient) C C B A A A A A A A A A
Water (200F, 93C) C C B C A+ B A B A C A —
Water (300F, 149C) C C — C B+ C A B C C C —
Water (De-ionized) C A — A A A A A A A A A
Water, White C B — B A A A A B B B —
1
Registered trademark of DuPont Performance Elastomers
2
Trademark of Dow Chemical Co.

4.3 Pressure Relieving Devices

4.3.1 Orifice Sizing Calculations for Pressure Relieving Valves

4.3.1.1 Conventional Relief Valve—Orifice Calculations for Vapors or Gases

𝑊 𝑇
𝐴= √
𝐶𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝑃 𝑀

𝑉√𝐺𝑇
𝐴=
1.175 𝐶𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝑃

Steam
𝑊
𝐴=
51.5 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑛 𝑃

Liquids

𝑄 𝐺
𝐴= √
38 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝛥𝑃

4.3.1.2 Bellows Relief Valve—Orifice Calculations for Vapors or Gases

𝑊 𝑇
𝐴= √
𝐶𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝑃 𝑀

𝑉√𝐺𝑇
𝐴=
1.175 𝐶𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝑃

Steam
𝑊
𝐴=
51.5 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑛 𝑃

Liquids

𝑄 𝐺
𝐴= √
38 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝐾𝑤 𝛥𝑃

where
A = required orifice area (in.2)

W = required flow capacity (lb/hr)

V = required flow capacity (scfm)

Q = required flow capacity (gpm)

G = specific gravity

P = set pressure in pounds per square inch absolute + overpressure; minimum overpressure is
3 psi

Δ𝑃 = set pressure + overpressure-inlet loss-backpressure (psig)

T = inlet temperature absolute

C = gas or vapor flow constant based on the ratio of specific heats (K)

K = ratio of specific heats, Cp/Cv. If this ratio is unknown, the value k = 1.0, C = 315 will result
in a safe valve size.

Kb = vapor or gas flow factor for variable back pressures

Kc = combination correction factor for installation with a rupture disk upstream of relief valve:
1.0 if a rupture disk is not installed; 0.9 when a rupture disk is installed in combination with
a relief valve and the combination does not have a certified value

Kd = coefficient of discharge: air, steam, vapor, and gas = 0.858; liquid = 0.652

Kn = Napier steam correction factor: 1.0 if P < 1500 psia

Kw = Liquid flow factor for variable and constant backpressures

4.3.2 Advantages and Limitations of Valve Types

Weighted-Pallet Type
Advantages Limitations
Low initial cost Set pressure not readily adjustable
Very low set pressures available Long simmer and poor tightness
Simple High overpressure required for full lift
Cryogenic fluids can freeze seat close
Set pressure limited to 1 or 2 psi (69 mbar or 138 mbar)
Conventional Metal-Seated Type
Advantages Limitations
Low initial cost Seat leakage
Wide chemical compatibility Simmer and blowdown adjustment interactive
High-temperature compatibility Vulnerable to inlet pressure losses
Standardized flanged center-to-face dimensions Opening pressure changes with superimposed back
Accepted for ASME Sections I and VIII pressure
In-situ testing can be inaccurate
Built-up back pressure limitations
Balanced Bellows Metal-Seated Type
Advantages Limitations
Wide chemical compatibility Seat leakage
High-temperature compatibility Simmer and blowdown adjustment interactive
Standardized flanged center-to-face dimensions Vulnerable to inlet pressure losses
Protected guiding surfaces and spring In-situ testing can be inaccurate
No change in opening pressure at any superimposed back Bellows can limit amount of superimposed back pressure
pressure High initial cost
Withstand higher built-up back pressures High maintenance costs
Conventional Soft-Seated Type
Advantages Limitations
Low initial cost Simmer and blowdown adjustment interactive
Standardized flanged center-to-face dimensions Vulnerable to inlet pressure losses
Good seat tightness before relieving and after reseating Opening pressure changes with superimposed back
Low maintenance costs pressure
Built-up back pressure limitations
High process fluid temperatures
Chemical compatibility
Balanced Bellows Soft-Seated Type
Advantages Limitations
Standardized flanged center-to-face dimensions Simmer and blowdown adjustment interactive
Protected guiding surfaces and spring Vulnerable to inlet pressure losses
No change in opening pressure at any superimposed back Bellows can limit amount of superimposed back pressure
pressure High initial cost
Withstand higher built-up back pressures High maintenance costs
Good seat tightness before relieving and after reseating High process fluid temperatures
Chemical compatibility
Balanced Piston Soft-Seated Type
Advantages Limitations
No change in opening pressure at any superimposed back Simmer and blowdown adjustment interactive
pressure Vulnerable to inlet pressure losses
Withstand higher built-up back pressures High process fluid temperatures
Good seat tightness before relieving and after reseating Chemical compatibility
Low initial cost
Low maintenance cost

Pilot-Operated Soft-Seated Type

Advantages Limitations
Standardized flanged center-to-face dimensions High initial cost
No change in opening pressure at any superimposed back High process fluid temperatures
pressure Chemical compatibility
Withstand higher built-up back pressures Polymer or viscous fluids
Good seat tightness before relieving and after reseating Complexity
Higher set pressures available
Maximum capacity per inlet valve connection
Smaller and lighter valves in higher pressure classes and sizes
In-line maintenance of main valve
Pop or modulating action
Remote pressure sensing
Accurate in-situ testing
Full lift at zero overpressure available
Operational pressure can be within 98% of set pressure
Source: Adapted from Pressure Relief Valve Engineering Handbook, Anderson Greenwood, Crosby and Varec Products, Technical Publication No.
TP-V300. Copyright © 2012 Emerson.

4.3.3 Pressure Relieving Valve Chemical Sizing Data

The data in this table is for use in the PE Control Systems exam only and is not intended for any other purpose or use.
Curtiss-Wright makes no claims to the accuracy or content of the reference data provided.

Fluid Data

Molecular Specific Gravity k C

Fluid Formula Weight (Cp/Cv) (Constant)
Liquid Gas
Acetic Acid HC2H3O2 60.05 1.049 2.073 1.15 332
Acetone C3H6O 58.08 0.791 — — —
Acetylene C2H2 26.04 0.62 0.899 1.26 343
Air — 28.97 0.86 1 1.4 356
Ammonia NH3 17.03 0.817 0.588 1.33 350
Argon A 39.94 1.65 1.388 1.67 378
Benzene C6H6 78.11 0.879 2.696 1.12 329
Butane/n-Butane C4H10 58.12 0.579 2.006 1.094 326
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.01 1.101 1.519 1.3 347
Carbon Disulfide CS2 76.13 1.263 2.628 1.21 338
Carbon Monoxide CO 28 0.814 0.966 1.4 356
Chlorine Cl2 70.9 1.58 2.45 1.36 353
Cyclohexane C6H12 84.16 0.779 2.905 1.09 326
Dowtherm A — 165 1.064 — — —
Dowtherm J — 134 0.931 — — —
Ethane C2H6 30.07 0.546 1.04 1.22 339
Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) C2H6O 46.07 0.789 1.59 1.13 330
Ethyl Chloride C2H5Cl 64.52 0.903 2.227 1.19 336
Ethylene (Ethene) C2H4 28.05 0.566 0.968 1.26 343
Freon 12 CCl2F2 120.9 1.35 4.17 1.14 331
Helium He 4 — 0.138 1.66 377
Hexane C6H14 86.17 0.659 2.974 1.06 322
Hydrochloric Acid HCl 36.5 1.64 — — —
Hydrofluoric Acid HF 20.01 0.92 — — —
Hydrogen H2 2.016 0.0709 0.069 1.14 357
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 34.07 0.79 1.176 1.32 349
Kerosene C9H2O 128.3 0.815 — — —
Methane CH4 16.04 0.415 0.554 1.31 348
Methyl Alcohol CH4O 32.04 0.792 1.111 1.2 337
Methyl Chloride CH3Cl 50.49 0.952 1.743 1.2 337
Natural Gas (typical) — 19 0.45 0.656 1.27 344
Nitric Acid HNO3 63.02 1.502 — — —
Nitrogen N2 28 1.026 0.967 1.4 356
Nitrous Oxide N2O 44 1.226 1.519 1.3 347
Oxygen O2 32 1.426 1.104 1.4 356
Pentane C5H12 72.15 0.631 2.49 1.07 323
Propane C3H8 44.09 0.585 1.522 1.13 330
Styrene C8H8 104.14 0.906 3.6 1.07 323
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.06 1.434 2.21 1.29 346
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 98.08 1.83 — — —
Therminol D-12 — 162 0.76 — — —
Therminol VP-1 — 166 1.061 — — —
Toluene C7H8 92.1 0.87 3.18 1.1 327
Water H2O 18.02 1 0.622 1.31 348
Source: Series 2600 Farris Engineering Pressure Relief Valves brochure, 2015. Reproduced with permission from Curtiss-Wright.

4.4 Back Pressure Sizing

Back Pressure Correction Factor (Kb) for Balanced, Spring-Loaded Relief Valves
in Vapor or Gas Service
Source: API Std 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices, 10 ed., Figure 31. Reproduced courtesy of the
American Petroleum Institute.

Capacity Correction Factor (Kw) Due to Back Pressure on Balanced, Spring-Loaded,

Pressure-Relief Valves in Liquid Service
Source: API Std 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices, 10 ed., Figure 32.
Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

4.4.1 Rupture Disks

Pressure Level Relationships for Rupture Disk Devices

Source: API Std 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices, 10th edition, Figure 19. Reproduced courtesy of the
American Petroleum Institute.

4.4.2 Pressure Relief Valves

Pressure Level Relationships for Pressure Relief Devices

Source: API Std 520, Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices, 8th edition.
Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

4.5 Pneumatic Schematics

Pneumatic Schematics

Symbol Description
Solenoid operator

Spring return

Pneumatic operator

Two-port, two-position,
solenoid-operated valve with a
spring return

Three-port, two-position,
solenoid-operated valve with a
spring return

Symbol Description
Four-port, two-position,
solenoid-operated valve with a
spring return

Three-port, two-position,
pneumatically operated valve
with a spring return

4.6 Vibration Analysis

The following is from Control Systems Engineer Technical Reference Handbook by Chuck Cornell.
The two most important criteria of vibration to monitor are amplitude and frequency.
Amplitude or displacement is the magnitude of the equipment vibration. The larger the amplitude (i.e., the
larger the displacement), the greater the movement or stress that is experienced by the equipment.
• Velocity amplitude is the rate of change of the displacement (i.e., how fast something is vibrating back
and forth). The velocity amplitude is the criteria that provides the best indication of the condition of
the equipment being monitored. The unit associated with velocity amplitude is inches per second
(in/sec).
• A velocity vibration transducer (velomitor) measures how fast the displacement is moving.
• An acceleration transducer (accelerometer) measures how fast the velocity is changing.
• Vibration transducers are typically mounted near the bearings of the equipment. The closer the
transducer is mounted to the centerline of a bearing, the less likely the transducer will pick up distorted
signals.

5 SIGNALS, TRANSMISSION, AND NETWORKING
5.1 Classified Electrical Area Purging Systems
Purging Systems Descriptions and Requirements
Type Z Purge Type Y Purge Type X Purge
Reduces Enclosure from Division 2 to Reduces Enclosure from Division Reduces Enclosure from Division
Nonhazardous 1 to Division 2 1 to Nonhazardous
1. Label stating four volumes of purge 1. Label stating four volumes of 1. Timer to allow four volumes of
gas needed before power purge gas needed before power purge gas
2. Pressure of 0.1 inch water 2. Pressure of 0.1 inch water 2. Pressure of 0.1 inch water
3. Enclosure temperature < 80% of 3. Fused based on enclosure 3. Fused based on enclosure
ignition temperature of gas thickness to ensure enclosure thickness to ensure enclosure
temperature < 80% of ignition temperature < 80% of ignition
4. Purge failure alarm or indicator (no
temperature of gas temperature of gas
automatic power-off necessary)
4. Purge failure alarm or indicator 4. Power disconnect on purge loss
5. Warning nameplate
(no automatic power-off (pressure or flow actuated)
6. 1/4-inch tempered glass window necessary)
5. Warning nameplate
5. Warning nameplate
6. 1/4-inch tempered glass
6. 1/4-inch tempered glass window
window
7. Automatic power disconnect
7. Equipment mounted within switch on door
enclosure must meet Division 2
(hermetically sealed switches,
relays, and contacts)

Source: Data obtained from The Art of Intrinsic Safety, Figure 3-4, page 7, by Ronan Systems (originally published under Ronan Engineering Co.).
Used with permission from Ronan Systems.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.2 Network Model

OSI and IEC 61158 Network Layers
OSI layer Function IEC 61158 layer
7 Application Translates demands placed on the communications stack into a form Application
understood by the lower layers and vice versa (IEC 61158-5-tt,
IEC 61158-6-tt)
6 Presentation Converts data to/from standardized network formats 
5 Session Creates and manages dialogue among lower layers 
4 Transport Provides transparent reliable data transfer (end-to-end transfer across a
 or 
network which may include multiple links)
3 Network Performs message routing  or 
2 Data-link Controls access to the communication medium. Performs error Data-link
detection (point-to-point transfer on a link) (IEC 61158-3-tt,
IEC 61158-4-tt)
1 Physical Encodes/decodes signals for transmission/reception in a form
Physical
appropriate to the communications medium. Specifies communication
(IEC 61158-2)
media characteristics
Note 1. -tt is a placeholder for the part numbers representing types.
Note 2.  and  indicate that the functionality of this layer, when present, is included in the fieldbus layer that is
nearest in the direction of the arrow. Thus, it is possible that the network and transport functionality are included in
either the data-link or application layers, and it is possible that the session and presentation functionality are
included in the application layer but not in the data -link layer.

5.3 Fieldbus Network Configuration Rules

The following information is Section 13.3.3 "Work configuration rules," from IEC 61158-2:2014.
Source: IEC 61158-2 ed 6.0, copyright © 2014 IEC Geneva, Switzerland, www.iec.ch. Reproduced with permission from the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).

An MAU that claims conformance to Clause 13 shall meet the requirements of Clause 13 when used in a network
that complies with these rules.
Rule 1: One fieldbus shall be capable of communication between two and 32 devices, all operating at the same bit
rate, both for a powered and a non-powered bus and in a hazardous area using distributed barriers.
Note 1: The use of a single barrier in the safe area may limit the number of devices in the hazardous area.
Note 2: This rule does not preclude the use of more than the specified number of devices in an installed system.
The numbers of devices were calculated on the assumption that a bus-powered device draws 100 mW.
Rule 2: A fully loaded (maximum number of connected devices), current-mode fieldbus segment shall have a total
cable length, between any two devices, of up to 750 m.
Note 3: 750 m maximum cable length is the requirement for conformance to Clause 13 but this does not preclude
the use of longer lengths in an installed system.
Rule 3: The total number of waveform regenerations by repeaters and active couplers between any two devices is
repeater implementation dependent.
Note 4: Prior editions of this standard limited this total number to four.
Rule 4: The maximum propagation delay between any two devices shall not exceed 40 T bit.
For efficiency of the network, that part of the turn-around time of any device on the network caused by a PhE
between the end of a received frame and the beginning of the transmitted frame containing an associated
immediate response should not exceed 5 bit times, no more than 2 bit times of which should be due to the MAU.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking
Note 5: As it is not mandatory to expose the DLL – PhL interface or the MDS – MAU interface, that part of the
turn-around time of a fieldbus device caused by the PhL or the MAU is not specified and thus not available for
conformance testing.
Rule 5: The fieldbus shall be capable of continued operation while a device is being connected or disconnected.
Data errors induced during connection or disconnection shall be detected.
Rule 6: Failure of any communication element or spur (including a short circuit or open circuit, but excluding
jabber) shall not interfere with transactions between other communication elements for more than 1 ms.
Rule 7: The network shall not be polarity sensitive with or without power injected on the line.
Rule 8: The degradation of the electrical characteristics of the signal, between any two devices, due to attenuation,
attenuation distortion and mismatching shall be limited to the values indicated below.
a) Signal attenuation: The signal attenuation due to each device shall not exceed 0,2 dB. The configuration of the
bus (trunk and spur lengths, number of devices, IS barriers, galvanic isolators, and possible matching devices)
shall be such that the attenuation between any two devices at the frequency corresponding to the bit rate shall
not exceed 16 dB.
b) Attenuation distortion: The configuration of the bus (trunk and spur lengths and number of devices) shall be
such that between any two devices:
[Attenuation (1,25 fr) – Attenuation (0,25 fr)] ≤ 6 dB
Attenuation (1,25 fr) ≥ Attenuation (0,25 fr)
where fr is the frequency corresponding to the bit rate. Attenuation shall be monotonic for all frequencies from
0,25 fr to 1,25 fr (250 kHz to 1,25 MHz).
c) Mismatching distortion: Mismatching (due to spurs or any other effect, including one open circuit spur of
maximum length) on the bus shall be such that, at any point along the trunk, in the frequency band 0,25 f r to
1,25 fr (250 kHz to 1,25 MHz):
|Z – Zfr| / |Z + Zfr| ≤ 0,2
where
Zo is the characteristic impedance of the trunk cable;
Z is the parallel combination of Zo and the load impedance at the coupler.
Note 6: This rule minimizes restrictions on trunk and spur length, number of devices etc. by specifying only the
transmission limitations imposed by combinations of these factors. It is possible to use different combinations
depending on the needs of the application.
Rule 9: The following rules shall apply to systems implemented with redundant media:
a) each channel (cable) shall comply with the network configuration rules;
b) there shall not be a non-redundant segment between two redundant segments;
c) repeaters shall also be redundant;
d) if the system is configured (by Systems management) to transmit on more than one channel simultaneously
then the propagation time difference between any two devices on any two channels shall not exceed five bit
times;
e) channel numbers shall be maintained throughout the fieldbus, that is, channels 1,2,3… from Systems
management shall always connect to physical channels 1,2,3…

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.4 Serial Communication Protocols

Protocol Comparisons

Name Sync Type Duplex Max Max Max Pin

/Async devices speed distance count (1)
(kbps) (kbpft)

RS-232 async peer full 2 20(2) 30(3) 2(4)

RS-422 async multi-drop half 10(5) 10,000 4,000 1(6)

RS-485 async multi-point half 32(5) 10,000 4,000 2

I2C sync multi-master half -7 3,400 <> 2

SPI sync multi-master full -7 >1,000 <> 3+1(8)

Microwire sync master/slave full -7 >625 <> 3+1(8)

1-Wire async master/slave half -7 16 1,000 1s

Notes

-1 Not including ground.

-2 Faster speeds available but not specified.

-3 Dependent on capacitance of the wiring.

-4 Software handshaking. Hardware handshaking requires additional pins.

-5 Device count given in unit loads (UL). More devices are possible if fractional-UL received.

-6 Unidirectional communication only. Additional pins needed for each bidirectional communication.

-7 Limitation based on bus capacitance and bit rate.

-8 Additional pins needed for every slave if slave count is more than one.

Source: Embedded, "Serial Protocols Compared," http://www.embedded.com/design/connectivity/ 4023975/Serial-Protocols-Compared.

Reproduced with permission from Embedded.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.5 Fiber-Optic Cables

Multimode Cable Characteristics
• The larger diameter core > 10 μm (typically 50 μm or 62.5 μm) allows the rays of light to travel along several different
angles between the core and cladding.
• The larger core size simplifies connections and also allows the use of lower-cost electronics such as light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) and vertical-cavity, surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), which operate at the 850-nm wavelength.
o LEDs emit incoherent light: light waves that lack a fixed-phase relationship.
o VCSELs emit coherent light: light waves with a fixed-phase relationship (both spatial and temporal) between points
on the electromagnetic wave.
• Due to the modal dispersion in the fiber, multimode fiber has higher pulse spreading rates than single-mode fiber, which
limits the multimode fiber's information transmission capacity.
• Multimode fiber is used for shorter distance communication links (typically < 500 m), such as within a building.
• Typical multimode links have data rates of 10 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s.
• Multimode fiber is used when higher power must be transmitted.
• Multimode fiber is typically less expensive than single-mode.
• To distinguish multimode cables from single-mode, multimode patch cable jackets are typically orange and single-mode
cable jackets are usually yellow.

Single-Mode Cable Characteristics

• The smaller-diameter core, 8 to 10 μm (typically 9 μm), allows only one path for the rays of light to travel through the
fiber.
• The light source is typically a single-mode laser.
• Single-mode is typically used for communication links > 200 m.
• Single-mode fibers are most often used in high-precision areas because the allowance of only one propagation mode of
the light makes the light easier to focus properly.
• Single-mode fibers are better at retaining the fidelity of each light pulse over long distances than multimode fibers. For
these reasons, single-mode fibers can have a higher bandwidth than multimode fibers.
• Single-mode fibers have the broadest bandwidth.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.6 Copper Cabling

Characteristics of STP/UTP Cables

Cable Type Data Rate Common Usage

Category 1 N/A Voice Grade Analog
Category 2 4 Mbps Digital Voice
Category 3 10 Mbps 10BaseT
Category 4 16 Mbps Token Ring
Category 5 100 Mbps* 100BaseT
Category 5e 1000 Mbps 1000BaseT
Category 6 10 Gbps
Category 6A 10 Gbps 10GBaseT
* Indicates has been successfully used at 1000 Mbps (though Cat
5e is the better choice).

Category 1, 2 & 4 Cables: These are no longer commonly used. They have
been replaced by higher category cables.

Source: Table 4-1 from Control Systems Engineer Technical Reference Handbook by Chuck Cornell.
Reproduced with permission from ISA.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.7 Cable Resistivity Table

Electrical Resistance in Copper Wire

Electrical Resistance
Area Diameter (Ohms/1000 ft)
AWG Gauge* (Circular Mils) (mils, 1000th in)
Weight
(lb/1000 ft)
at 77oF (25oC) at 149oF (65oC)

0000 (4/0) 212000 460 0.0500 0.057 641

000 (3/0) 168000 410 0.0630 0.073 508
00 (2/0) 133000 365 0.0795 0.092 403
0 (1/0) 106000 325 0.100 0.116 319
1 83700 289 0.126 0.146 253
2 66400 258 0.159 0.184 201
3 52600 229 0.201 0.232 159
4 41700 204 0.253 0.292 126
5 33100 0.319 100
6 26300 162 0.403 0.465 79.5
7 20800 0.508 63.0
8 16500 128 0.641 0.739 50.0
9 13100 0.808 39.6
10 10400 102 1.02 1.18 31.4
11 8230 1.28 24.9
12 6530 81 1.62 1.87 19.8
13 5180 2.04 15.7
14 4110 64 2.58 2.97 12.4
15 3260 3.25 9.86
16 2580 51 4.09 4.73 7.82
17 2050 5.16 6.20
18 1620 40 6.51 7.51 4.92
19 1290 8.21 3.90
20 1020 32 10.4 11.9 3.09
21 810 13.1 2.45
22 642 25.3 16.5 19.0 1.94
23 509 20.8 1.54
24 404 20.1 26.2 30.2 1.22
25 320 33.0 0.970
26 254 15.9 41.6 48.0 0.769
27 202 52.5 0.610
28 160 12.6 66.2 76.4 0.484
29 127 83.4 0.384
30 101 10 105 121 0.304
31 79.7 133 0.241
32 63.2 8 167 193 0.191
33 50.1 211 0.152
34 39.8 6.3 266 307 0.120

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

Electrical Resistance
Area Diameter (Ohms/1000 ft)
AWG Gauge* (Circular Mils) (mils, 1000th in)
Weight
(lb/1000 ft)
at 77oF (25oC) at 149oF (65oC)

35 31.6 335 0.095

36 25.0 5 423 488 0.076
37 19.8 533 0.060
38 15.7 4 673 776 0.048
39 12.5 848 0.038
40 9.9 3.1 1070 1230 0.020
* solid strand
• 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m
American Wire Gauge (AWG) is a U.S. standard for wire conductor size. The "gauge" is related to the diameter of the wire.
Source: Engineering ToolBox, (2008). Copper Wire - Electrical Resistance vs. Gauge. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ copper-wire-d_1429.html.
Accessed December 16, 2021.

5.8 Intrinsic Safety

General Intrinsic Safety Installation

I.S. barriers generally fall into two classifications, active and passive:

Passive: Passive barriers are typically of the Zener diode design. If there should be a short circuit within the wiring
or instrumentation in the hazardous area, there will be a corresponding drop in voltage going through the barrier.
This short circuit will cause the fuse within the barrier to open and the Zener diode will conduct current to ground,
thereby eliminating all possibility of any spark or thermal energy sufficient to ignite a flammable atmospheric
condition. (Note the use of ground in the generic schematic shown below).

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

Passive Barrier

Active: Active barriers are typically of the galvanic isolator design. There is no physical connection between the
input and output. A generic schematic of an active barrier is shown below.

Active Barrier

Barrier Types
Source: Figures of barrier types from Control Systems Engineer Technical Reference Handbook by Chuck Cornell.
Reproduced with permission from ISA.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.9 Grounding Transmission Circuits

There are two types of grounding practices in instrumentation: those concerned with personnel safety and those concerned
with signal accuracy and dependability. Both types must conform to the National Electric Code (NEC) and the regulations
of any local governing bodies.
Electrical interference is any spurious voltage or current from external sources that appears in the signal transmission
circuit. When these voltages are excessive, signals are changed or cannot be detected. According to API RP 552, Section
5.1, "Sources of Electrical Interference":
Unwanted voltages enter an electronic signal transmission system by the following means:
a. Inductive pickup from alternating-current (ac) fields and/or radio-frequency (RF) interference.
b. Electrostatic or capacitive coupling with other circuits.
c. Direct coupling with other circuits by means of leakage current paths, ground current loops, or a common return
lead for more than one circuit.
Methods for Minimizing Unwanted Voltages in Signal Transmission Circuits

Source of Electrical Interference Recommended Methods for Minimizing Interference

Use twisted pair wires.

Routing away from strong AC fields.

Electromagnetic coupling Eliminate or reduce the source.

Install signal wiring in steel conduit or covered trays.

Shield the power line.

Use grounded signal cable.

Use a single point signal ground.

Eliminate resistances common to multiple circuits.

Electrostatic or capacitive coupling
Use single, shielded, twisted pair copper wire.
Use multipair, overall shielded cable of shielded twisted
pairs.
Use individually isolated (floating) circuits when using
single or multipair unshielded cables.
Eliminate moisture in cable by using properly insulated
Direct coupling by leakage paths
wire, terminal strips, and dry air purges.
Remove multiple grounds, only a single ground should be
Direct coupling by ground current loop
established.
Use single pairs. Common return leads can introduce
Direct coupling by common return lead
additive resistance to circuits.
Use proper spacing between circuits of different power
Separation of instrument and power circuits
levels. See Wire Separation Table below.

Source: Section 4, "General Information on Electronic Systems," and Section 5, "Reducing Electrical Interference in Electronic Systems," in
API RP 552, Transmission Systems, 1 ed. Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking
Wire Separation Table from API RP 552, Section 5.3

Power and signal run in separate steel conduit; signal: individual shielded twisted pairs with overall cable shield
(API Type III and VI)a
Power Cable(s) Low Level (millivolts) mA DC (4–20 or 10–50)
Up to 125 V @20 A 4" None Required
125 V to 500 V @200 A 12" 6"
Over 500 V 36" 18"

Power and signal run in separate steel conduit; signal: twisted pair (API Type II and V) b
Power Cable(s) Low Level (millivolts) mA DC (4–20 or 10–50)
Up to 125 V @20 A 8" 4"
125 V to 500 V @200 A 15" 6"
Over 500 V 48" 24"

Power and signal in tray; signal: shielded twisted pair (API III and VI)
OR
Power and signal in tray with metallic barrier; signal: twisted pair (API II and Vc)
Power Cable(s) Low Level (millivolts) mA DC (4–20 or 10–50)
Up to 125 V @20 A 30" 15"
125 V to 500 V @200 A 60" 30"
Over 500 V 180" 96"

Power: steel conduit; signal: tray shielded twisted pair (API III and VI)
OR
Power in tray; signal in steel conduit; signal: shielded twisted pair (API III and VI) d
Power Cable(s) Low Level (millivolts) mA DC (4–20 or 10–50)
Up to 125 V @20 A 30" 15"
125V to 500 V @200 A 30" 15"
Over 500 V 60" 30"

Notes: mA = milliampere, DC = direct current, A = ampere

a
The above tables are for parallel runs up to 500 feet long; for longer runs increase spacing proportionately to the parallel length.
b
120-volt instrument circuits for alarms, solenoids, and similar circuits should be treated as power circuits in the above tables.
c
Group wiring by type and level: low-level signals farthest from power, next mA DC circuits, next alarms; next 120V alarms;
closest are 120V solenoid valves and limit switches.
d
This information is based partly on data and partly on accepted and proven experience.

Source: Data taken from Table 3 in API RP 552, 1 ed., Section 5.3, "Instruments to be Interconnected." Reproduced courtesy of the
American Petroleum Institute.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

Types of Wire or Cable for Signal Transmission

Type Description
I Untwisted copper wire
II Single, unshielded twisted-pair copper wire
III Single, shielded twisted-pair copper wire
IV Multipair cable of Type II wire
V Multipair, overall shielded cable of Type II wire
VI Multipair, overall shielded cable of Type III wire

Note: In the above, replace the word pair with triple or triad for wiring certain items
such as some resistance bulb sensors (RTD), or strain gauges, and others like these.

Source: Table 4 in API RP 552, 1 ed., Section 6, "Engineering Factors in Selection of Wire Types for Electronic Systems."
Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

5.10 Pneumatic Signal Transmission

The following information is from Section 21.2.6, "General Information on Pneumatic Systems," API RP 552,
Transmission Systems, 1st edition.
The capacity of an instrument air system is based on the total requirements of all connected loads, assuming all
instruments operate simultaneously. Where accurate figures are not available, 1.0 standard cubic foot per minute (1.7
cubic meters per hour) shall be used for each consumer of instrument air. At least 100 percent extra capacity shall be
provided for miscellaneous instrument purges and leaks in the distribution system. Instrument air is to be used for
instruments and instrument purges only.
The use of instrument air for other purposes such as for pneumatically operated tools, air cleaning, or vessel purging
can reduce the safety and reliability of the plant system.

Line Sizing Guide for Pipe Headers

Nominal
Number of Nominal Pipe Size
Pipe Headers Pipe Size
Users (Inches)
(mm)
80 1½ 40
Main 150 2 50
300 3 75

4 ½ 15
20 ¾ 20
Branch
25 1 25
80 1½ 40

Source: Table 7, in API RP 552, 1 ed., Section 21.2.11, "Distribution Systems." Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

Chapter 5: Signals, Transmission, and Networking

5.11 Standard References

API Std 520. Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices. 10th ed. Washington, DC: API (American
Petroleum Institute), October 2020.
API RP 552. Transmission Systems. 1st ed. Washington, DC: API (American Petroleum Institute), October 1994.
IEC 61158-2:2014. Industrial Communication Networks - Fieldbus Specifications – Part 2: Physical Layer Specification
and Service Definition. Geneva 20 – Switzerland: IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).
IEC 61158-1:2019. Industrial Communication Networks Fieldbus Specifications – Part 1: Overview and Guidance for the
IEC 61158 and IEC 61784 Series. Geneva 20 – Switzerland: IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).
ISA-62443-1-1-2007. Security for Industrial Automation and Control Systems – Part 1-1: Terminology, Concepts, and
Models. Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA (International Society of Automation).
NEMA 250-2014. Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum). Rosslyn, VA: NEMA (National Electrical
Manufacturers Association).

6 SAFETY INSTRUMENTED SYSTEMS (SIS)
6.1 Safety Integrity Levels (SILs)—Probability of Failure on Demand

6.1.1 Demand Mode

Safety Integrity Requirements: PFDavg

Demand Mode of Operation

Safety integrity level
PFDavg Required risk reduction
(SIL)
4  10–5 to < 10–4 > 10 000 to  100 000
3  10–4 to < 10–3 > 1 000 to  10 000
2  10–3 to < 10–2 > 100 to  1 000
1  10–2 to < 10–1 > 10 to  100

Source: ANSI/ISA-61511-1-2018 / IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV, Functional Safety – Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry
Sector – Part 1: Framework, Definitions, System, Hardware and Application Programming Requirements (IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017).
Reproduced with permission from ISA.

6.1.2 Continuous Mode

Safety Integrity Requirements: Average Frequency of Dangerous Failures of the
Safety Instrumented Function (SIF)

Continuous Mode or Demand Mode of Operation

Safety integrity level Average frequency of dangerous failures
(SIL) (failures per hour)
4  10–9 to < 10–8
3  10–8 to < 10–7
2  10–7 to < 10–6
1  10–6 to < 10–5

Chapter 6: Safety Instrumented Systems

6.2 Failure Rate

Failure rate = number of failures / total time
Failure rates, however, are normally expressed as failures per hour.
Example:
To calculate for a 10-year interval:
Because 1 year = 8,760 hours
a 10-year interval = 87,600 hours
Therefore:
1 failure / 87,600 hours becomes
1.14 E–5 failures/hour

6.3 Reliability Block Diagram (Probability of Failure)

When calculating the probability of a safety instrumented function (SIF) using reliability block diagrams (RBDs),
probabilities are added or multiplied depending upon whether the blocks are shown in series or in parallel.
• Add probabilities of items in series.

• Multiply probabilities of items in parallel.

Availability calculations are multiplied in series and added in parallel.

Chapter 6: Safety Instrumented Systems

6.4 Architectures/Configurations

Configurations and Examples of Performance

Source: Figure 9-7 from Safety Instrumented Systems: A Life-Cycle Approach by Paul Gruhn and Simon Lucchini. Reproduced with Permission from ISA.

Notes:
1. The term "architecture" can apply to any subsystem, for example, sensors, logic solvers, and final elements.
2. The probability figures shown above do not account for common cause, they are merely based on adding or
multiplying probabilities of single events.
3. The probabilities for 2oo3 are three times greater than probabilities for certain dual configurations (as there are
three times as many dual failure combinations), again, not accounting for common cause failures.
4. 1oo2D (one out of two with diagnostics) is based on the best of both dual probabilities (0.0004 and 0.0001 in the
example above), again, not accounting for common cause failures.
5. 1oo2 offers the best safety, at the expense of more nuisance trips. 2oo2 offers the best protection against nuisance
trips, but the worst safety protection. 2oo3 (and 1oo2D) offer very good performance in both modes.

Chapter 6: Safety Instrumented Systems

6.5 Hardware Fault Tolerance Tables

The HFT requirements below represent the minimum system or, where relevant, the SIS subsystem redundancy. Depending
on the application, device failure rate and proof-testing interval, additional redundancy can be required to satisfy the failure
measure for the SIL of the SIF according to 11.9.
Minimum HFT for a SIS (or its SIS subsystems) Implementing a Safety Instrumented Function (SIF)

SIL Minimum required HFT

1 (any mode) 0
2 (low demand mode) 0
2 (high demand or continuous mode) 1
3 (any mode) 1
4 (any mode) 2

Source: Section 11.4.5 of ANSI/ISA-61511-1-2018 / IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV. Reproduced with permission from ISA.

6.6 Reliability Modeling

Basic formulas for MTTFsp (mean time to fail spurious)
1oo1 1 / λS
1oo2 1 / (2 * λS)
2oo2 1 / ((2 * λS2 * MTTR) + (β * λS))
2oo3 1 / ((6 * λS2 * MTTR) + (β * λS))
where
λDU = dangerous undetected failure rate

λS = safe failure rate

MTTR = mean time to repair

β = beta (common cause) percentage

λ = (1/MTTF)

Basic formulas for PFD (probability of failure on demand)

1oo1 λDU * TI/2

1oo2 [((λDU)2 * (TI)2) / 3] + [λDU * β * TI/2]
2oo2 [λDU * TI] + [λDU * β * TI/2]
2oo3 [(λDU)2 * (TI)2] + [λDU * β * TI/2]

Chapter 6: Safety Instrumented Systems
where
λDU = dangerous undetected failure rate

TI = manual test interval (yr)

β = beta (common cause) percentage

MTTR = mean time to repair

MTTF = mean time to failure

MTBF = mean time between failures

λ = (1/MTTF)

λDU = (1 – DC) λD

DC = diagnostic coverage

λD = λDD + λDU

λD = dangerous failures

λDD = dangerous detected failure rate

λSLF = λsensor + λlogic solver + λfinal element

6.7 Standard References

ANSI/ISA-61511-1-2018 / IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV. Functional Safety – Safety Instrumented Systems for the
Process Industry Sector – Part 1: Framework, Definitions, System, Hardware and Application Programming
Requirements (IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV, IDT). Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA (International Society
of Automation).
ISA-TR84.00.02-2015, Safety Integrity Level (SIL) Verification of Safety Instrumented Functions. Research Triangle Park,
NC: ISA (International Society of Automation).

7 GENERAL INFORMATION
7.1 NEMA 250-2014, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum)
Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Nonhazardous (Unclassified) Locations

Provides a Degree of Protection Type of Enclosure

against the Following Conditions 1 2 4 4X 5 6 6P 12 12K 13
Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X
Ingress of solid foreign objects X X X X X X X X X X
(falling dirt)
Ingress of water (dripping and light … X X X X X X X X X
splashing)
Ingress of solid foreign objects … … X X … X X X X X
(circulating dust, lint, fibers, and
flyings**)
Ingress of solid foreign objects … … X X X X X X X X
(settling airborne dust, lint, fibers,
and flyings**)
Ingress of water (hosedown and … … X X … X X … … …
splashing water)
Oil and coolant seepage … … … … … … … X X X
Oil or coolant spraying and … … … … … … … … … X
splashing
Corrosive agents … … … X … … X … … …
Ingress of water (occasional … … … … … X X … … …
temporary submersion)
Ingress of water (occasional … … … … … … X … … …
prolonged submersion)
**These fibers and flyings are not considered Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings. For Class III type
ignitable fibers or flyings see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.5(D).

Source: NEMA 250-2014, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum), Table 2-1. Reproduced with permission of the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).

Chapter 7: General Information
Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor and Outdoor Nonhazardous (Unclassified) Locations

Provides a Degree of Protection Type of Enclosure

against the Following Conditions 3 3X 3R 3RX 3S 3SX 4 4X 6 6P
Access to hazardous parts X X X X X X X X X X
Ingress of solid foreign objects X X X X X X X X X X
(falling dirt)
Ingress of water (dripping and light X X X X X X X X X X
splashing)
Ingress of water (rain, snow, and X X X X X X X X X X
sleet**)
Sleet*** … … … … X X … … … …
Ingress of solid foreign objects X X … … X X X X X X
(windblown dust, lint, fibers, and
flyings****)
Ingress of water (hosedown and … … … … … … X X X X
splashing water)
Corrosive agents … X … X … X … X … X
Ingress of water (occasional … … … … … … … … X X
temporary submersion)
Ingress of water (occasional … … … … … … … … … X
prolonged submersion)
** External operating mechanisms are not required to be operable when the enclosure is ice covered.
*** External operating mechanisms are operable when the enclosure is ice covered. See subsection 5.6.
****
These fibers and flyings are not considered Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings. For Class III type
ignitable fibers or flyings see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.5(D).

Source: NEMA 250-2014, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum), Table 2-2. Reproduced with permission of the
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).

Chapter 7: General Information
Comparison of Specific Applications of Enclosures for Indoor Hazardous (Classified) Locations
If the installation is outdoors and/or additional protection is required by tables on pp. 119-120,
a combination-type enclosure is required.

Provides a Degree of Protection against Enclosure Types 7 and 8, Enclosure Type 9,

Atmospheres Typically Containing Class Class I Groups** Class II Groups
(See NFPA 497 & 499 for Complete Listing) A B C D E F G 10
Acetylene I X … … … … … … …
Hydrogen, manufactured gas I … X … … … … … …
Diethyl ether, ethylene, cyclopropane I … … X … … … … …
Gasoline, hexane, butane, naphtha, propane, I … … … X … … … …
acetone, toluene, isoprene
Metal dust II … … … … X … … …
Carbon black, coal dust, coke dust II … … … … … X … …
Flour, starch, grain dust II … … … … … … X …
Fibers, flyings* II … … … … … … X …
Methane with or without coal dust MSHA … … … … … … … X
* For Class III type ignitable fibers or combustible flyings see the National Electrical Code, Article 500.
**
Due to the characteristics of the gas, vapor, or dust, a product suitable for one Class or Group may not be suitable for
another Class or Group unless marked on the product.

Source: NEMA 250-2014, Enclosures for Electrical Equipment (1000 Volts Maximum), Table B-1. Reproduced with permission
of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA).

Area Classification Definitions

Class Division Definition

A location where an ignitable concentration of flammable gases, vapors, or liquids can exist all of
I 1 the time or some of the time under normal operating conditions.
A location where an ignitable concentration of flammable gases, vapors, or liquids are handled,
I 2 processed, or used but not normally present in concentrations high enough to be ignitable.
A location where combustible dust may be in suspension in the air under normal conditions in
sufficient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures (emitted into the air continuously,
intermittently, or periodically), or where failure or malfunction of equipment might cause a
II 1 hazardous location to exist and provide an ignition source with the simultaneous failure of
electrical equipment, including locations in which combustible dust of an electrically conductive
nature may be present.
A location in which combustible dust will not normally be in suspension nor will normal
operations put dust in suspension, but where accumulation of dust may interfere with heat
II 2 dissipation from electrical equipment or where accumulations near electrical equipment may
be ignited.
A location where fiber and flyings may exist (manufactured, stored, or handled) that have the
III 1 potential to become flammable or ignitable.
A location where fiber and flyings may exist (stored or handled) that have the potential to become
III 2 flammable or ignitable.

Chapter 7: General Information
Class 1 Material Groups
For the purpose of testing, approval, and area classification, various air mixtures (not oxygen enriched) are subdivided into
Groups A, B, C, or D for Class 1, Division 1 and Class 1, Division 2 locations.
a. Group A—Atmospheres containing acetylene.
b. Group B—A typical Class 1 Group B material is hydrogen.
c. Group C—A typical Class 1 Group C material is ethylene.
d. Group D—Atmospheres containing butane, gasoline, hexane, methane, natural gas, propane, and many other
hydrocarbon gases and vapors encountered in oil and gas production, refining, and pipeline operations.
Source: API Recommended Practice 500, 3rd ed., (R 2021) Reaffirmed July 2021.
Reproduced courtesy of the American Petroleum Institute.

7.2 IEC 60529 Ingress Protection Tables for Enclosures

Degrees of Protection Against Solid Foreign Objects Indicated
by First Characteristic Numeral
First Degree of protection Test
characteristic conditions,
numeral Brief description Definition see
0 Non-protected – –
1 Protected against solid foreign The object probe, sphere of 50 mm , 13.2
objects of 50 mm  and shall not fully penetrate 1)
greater
2 Protected against solid foreign The object probe, sphere of 12,5 mm , 13.2
objects of 12,5 mm  and shall not fully penetrate 1)
greater
3 Protected against solid foreign The object probe, sphere of 2,5 mm , 13.2
objects of 2,5 mm  and shall not penetrate at all 1)
greater
4 Protected against solid foreign The object probe of 1,0 mm , shall not 13.2
objects of 1,0 mm  and penetrate at all 1)
greater
5 Dust-protected Ingress of dust is not totally prevented, 13.4
but dust shall not penetrate in a quantity 13.5
to interfere with satisfactory operation of
the apparatus or to impair safety
6 Dust-tight No ingress of dust 13.4
13.6

1) The full diameter of the object probe shall not pass through an opening of the enclosure.

Chapter 7: General Information
Degrees of Protection against Water Indicated
by Second Characteristic Numeral
Second Degree of protection Test
characteristic conditions,
numeral Brief description Definition see
0 Non-protected – –
1 Protected against vertically Vertically falling drops shall have no 14.2.1
falling water drops harmful effects
2 Protected against vertically Vertically falling drops shall have no 14.2.2
falling water drops when harmful effects when the enclosure is
enclosure tilted up to 15° tilted at any angle up to 15° on either
side of the vertical
3 Protected against spraying Water sprayed at an angle up to 60° on 14.2.3
water either side of the vertical shall have no
harmful effects
4 Protected against splashing Water splashed against the enclosure 14.2.4
water from any direction shall have no harmful
effects
5 Protected against water jets Water projected in jets against the 14.2.5
enclosure from any direction shall have
no harmful effects
6 Protected against powerful Water projected in powerful jets against 14.2.6
water jets the enclosure from any direction shall
have no harmful effects
7 Protected against the effects Ingress of water in quantities causing 14.2.7
of temporary immersion in harmful effects shall not be possible
water when the enclosure is temporarily
immersed in water under standardized
conditions of pressure and time
8 Protected against the effects Ingress of water in quantities causing 14.2.8
of continuous immersion in harmful effects shall not be possible
water when the enclosure is continuously
immersed in water under conditions
which shall be agreed between
manufacturer and user but which are
more severe than for numeral 7
9 Protected against high Water projected at high pressure and 14.2.9
pressure and temperature high temperature against the enclosure
water jets from any direction shall not have
harmful effects

Chapter 7: General Information

7.3 Pipe Data

Carbon Steel Pipe Schedules

Pipe Weights and Dimensions of Seamless and

OD OD Welded Steel Pipe (P.E.)
Size
(in.) (mm)
(in.) 10 20 30 40 STD. 60 80 XS 100 120 140 160 XXS
0.068 0.068 0.095 0.095
1/8 0.405 10.3
.024 .024 0.31 0.31
0.088 0.088 0.119 0.119
1/4 0.540 13.7
0.43 0.43 0.54 0.54
0.091 0.091 0.126 0.126
3/8 0.675 17.1
0.57 0.57 0.74 0.74
0.109 0.109 0.147 0.147 0.188 0.294
1/2 0.840 21.3
0.85 0.85 1.09 1.09 1.31 1.72
0.113 0.113 0.154 0.154 0.219 0.308
3/4 1.050 26.7
1.13 1.13 1.48 1.48 1.95 2.44
0.133 0.133 0.179 0.179 0.250 0.358
1 1.315 33.4
1.68 1.68 2.17 2.17 2.85 3.66
0.140 0.140 0.191 0.191 0.250 0.382
1-1/4 1.660 42.2
2.27 2.27 3.00 3.00 3.77 5.22
0.145 0.145 0.200 0.200 0.281 0.400
1-1/2 1.900 48.3
2.72 2.72 3.63 3.63 4.86 6.41
0.154 0.154 0.218 0.218 0.344 0.436
2 2.375 60.3
3.66 3.66 5.03 5.03 7.47 9.04
0.203 0.203 0.276 0.276 0.375 0.552
2-1/2 2.875 73.0
5.80 5.80 7.67 7.67 10.02 13.71
0.216 0.216 0.300 0.300 0.438 0.600
3 3.500 88.9
7.58 7.58 10.26 10.26 14.34 18.60
0.226 0.226 0.318 0.318 0.636
3-1/2 4.000 101.6
9.12 9.12 12.52 12.52 22.85
0.237 0.237 0.281 0.337 0.337 0.438 0.531 0.674
4 4.500 114.3
10.80 10.80 12.67 15.00 15.00 19.02 22.53 27.57
0.258 0.258 0.375 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750
5 5.563 141.3
14.63 14.63 20.80 20.80 27.06 32.99 38.59
0.280 0.280 0.432 0.432 0.562 0.719 0.864
6 6.625 168.3
18.99 18.99 28.60 28.60 36.43 45.39 53.21

To convert the inch dimensions of outside diameters and wall thickness to millimeters, multiply the inch dimensions
by 25.4.
MEDIUM TYPE = WALL THICKNESS IN INCHES
BOLD TYPE = WEIGHT PER FOOT IN POUNDS

Chapter 7: General Information
Carbon Steel Pipe Schedules (continued)

Pipe Weights and Dimensions of Seamless and

OD OD Welded Steel Pipe (P.E.)
Size
(in.) (mm)
(in.) 10 20 30 40 STD. 60 80 XS 100 120 140 160 XXS
0.250 0.277 0.322 0.322 0.406 0.500 0.500 0.594 0.719 0.812 0.906 0.875
8 8.625 219.1
22.38 24.22 28.58 28.58 35.67 43.43 43.43 51.00 60.77 67.82 74.76 72.49
0.250 0.307 0.365 0.365 0.500 0.594 0.500 0.719 0.844 1.000 1.125 1.000
10 10.750 273.1
28.06 34.27 40.52 40.52 54.79 64.49 54.79 77.10 89.38 104.23 115.75 104.23
0.250 0.330 0.406 0.375 0.562 0.688 0.500 0.844 1.000 1.125 1.312 1.000
12 12.750 323.9
33.41 43.81 53.57 49.61 73.22 88.71 65.48 107.42 125.61 139.81 160.42 125.61
0.250 0.312 0.375 0.438 0.375 0.594 0.750 0.500 0.938 1.094 1.250 1.406
14 14.000 355.6
36.75 45.65 54.62 63.50 54.62 85.13 106.23 72.16 130.98 150.93 170.37 189.29
0.250 0.312 0.375 0.500 0.375 0.656 0.844 0.500 1.031 1.219 1.438 1.594
16 16.000 406.4
42.09 52.32 62.64 82.85 62.64 107.60 136.74 82.85 164.98 192.61 223.85 245.48
0.250 0.312 0.438 0.562 0.375 0.750 0.938 0.500 1.156 1.375 1.562 1.781
18 18.000 457.2
47.44 58.99 82.23 104.76 70.65 138.30 171.08 93.54 208.15 244.37 274.48 308.79
0.250 0.375 0.500 0.594 0.375 0.812 1.031 0.500 1.281 1.500 1.750 1.969
20 20.000 508.0
52.78 78.67 104.23 123.23 78.67 166.56 209.06 104.23 256.34 296.65 341.41 379.53
0.250 0.375 0.562 0.688 0.375 0.969 1.219 0.500 1.531 1.812 2.062 2.344
24 24.000 609.6
63.47 94.71 140.81 171.45 94.71 238.57 296.86 125.61 367.74 429.79 483.57 542.64
0.312 0.500 0.375 0.500
26 26.000 660.4
85.68 136.30 102.72 136.30
0.312 0.500 0.625 0.375 0.500
30 30.000 762.0
99.02 157.68 196.26 118.76 157.68
0.312 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.375 0.500
36 36.000 914.4
119.03 189.75 236.35 282.62 142.81 189.75
0.375 0.500
42 42.000 1067.0
166.86 221.82
0.375 0.500
48 48.00 1219.0
190.92 253.89
To convert the inch dimensions of outside diameters and wall thickness to millimeters, multiply the inch dimensions
by 25.4.
MEDIUM TYPE = WALL THICKNESS IN INCHES
BOLD TYPE = WEIGHT PER FOOT IN POUNDS

Source: Chicago Tube & Iron website, https://www.chicagotube.com/products-2/stainless-pipe-tube-bar/seamless-pipe-a-312/,

accessed December 14, 2021. Reproduced with permission from Chicago Tube & Iron.

Chapter 7: General Information
Seamless Stainless Pipe
ASTM/ASME SA312
Schedule 40S
Iron Pipe Diameter (in.) Wall
Weight Type Type
Size Thickness
OD ID (lb/ft) 304/304L 316/316L
(in.) (in.)
1/8 0.405 0.269 0.068 0.244 X X
1/4 0.504 0.364 0.088 0.424 X X
3/8 0.675 0.493 0.091 0.567 X X
1/2 0.840 0.622 0.109 0.851 X X
3/4 1.050 0.824 0.113 1.131 X X
1 1.315 1.049 0.133 1.679 X X
1-1/4 1.660 1.380 0.140 2.273 X X
1-1/2 1.900 1.610 0.145 2.718 X X
2 2.375 2.067 0.154 3.653 X X
2-1/2 2.875 2.469 0.203 5.793 X X
3 3.500 3.068 0.216 7.576 X X
3-1/2 4.000 3.548 0.226 9.109 X X
4 4.500 4.026 0.237 10.790 X X
5 5.563 5.047 0.258 14.620 X X
6 6.625 6.065 0.280 18.970 X X
8 8.625 7.981 0.322 28.550 X X
10 10.750 10.020 0.365 40.480 X X
12 12.750 12.000 0.375 49.560 X X

Source: Chicago Tube & Iron website, https://www.chicagotube.com/products-2/stainless-pipe-tube-bar/seamless-pipe-a-312/, accessed

December 17, 2021. Reproduced with permission from Chicago Tube & Iron.

Chapter 7: General Information
Seamless Stainless Pipe
ASTM/ASME SA312
Schedule 80S
Iron Pipe Diameter (in.) Wall
Weight Type Type
Size Thickness
OD ID (lb/ft) 304/304L 316/316L
(in.) (in.)
1/8 0.405 0.215 0.095 0.314 X X
1/4 0.540 0.302 0.119 0.535 X X
3/8 0.675 0.423 0.126 0.738 X X
1/2 0.840 0.546 0.147 1.088 X X
3/4 1.050 0.742 0.154 1.474 X X
1 1.315 0.957 0.179 2.172 X X
1-1/4 1.660 1.278 0.191 2.997 X X
1-1/2 1.900 1.500 0.200 3.631 X X
2 2.375 1.939 0.218 5.022 X X
2-1/2 2.875 2.323 0.276 7.661 X X
3 3.500 2.900 0.300 10.250 X X
3-1/2 4.000 3.364 0.318 12.500 X X
4 4.500 3.826 0.337 14.980 X X
5 5.563 4.813 0.375 20.780 X X
6 6.625 5.761 0.432 28.570 X X
8 8.625 7.625 0.500 43.390 X X

Source: Chicago Tube & Iron website, https://www.chicagotube.com/products-2/stainless-pipe-tube-bar/seamless-pipe-a-312/,

accessed December 17, 2021. Reproduced with permission from Chicago Tube & Iron.

Chapter 7: General Information
Seamless Stainless Pipe
ASTM/ASME SA312
Schedule 160
Iron Pipe Diameter (in.) Wall
Weight Type Type
Size Thickness
OD ID (lb/ft) 304/304L 316/316L
(in.) (in.)
1/2 .840 .466 .188 1.309 X X
3/4 1.050 .614 .219 1.944 X X
1 1.315 .815 .250 2.844 X X
1-1/4 1.660 1.160 .250 3.765 X X
1-1/2 1.900 1.338 .281 4.859 X X
2 2.375 1.689 .344 7.462 X X
2-1/2 2.875 2.125 .375 10.010 X X
3 3.500 2.624 .438 14.320 X X
4 4.500 3.438 .531 22.510 X X
5 5.563 4.313 .625 32.960 X X
6 6.625 5.189 .719 45.350 X X

Source: Chicago Tube & Iron website, https://www.chicagotube.com/products-2/stainless-pipe-tube-bar/seamless-pipe-a-312/,

accessed December 17, 2021. Reproduced with permission from Chicago Tube & Iron.

Seamless Stainless Pipe

ASTM/ASME SA312
XX HVY
Iron Pipe Diameter (in.) Wall
Weight Type Type
Size Thickness
OD ID (lb/ft) 304/304L 316/316L
(in.) (in.)
1/2 .840 .252 .294 1.714 X X
3/4 1.050 .434 .308 2.441 X X
1 1.315 .599 .358 3.659 X X
1-1/2 1.900 1.100 .400 6.408 X X
2 2.375 1.503 .436 9.029 X X

Source: Chicago Tube & Iron website, https://www.chicagotube.com/products-2/stainless-pipe-tube-bar/seamless-pipe-a-312/,

accessed December 17, 2021. Reproduced with permission from Chicago Tube & Iron.

Decimal Binary Hex Decimal Binary Hex Decimal Binary Hex Decimal Binary Hex
Bits > 76543210 Bits > 76543210 Bits > 76543210 Bits > 76543210
52 00110100 34 116 01110100 74 180 10110100 B4 244 11110100 F4
53 00110101 35 117 01110101 75 181 10110101 B5 245 11110101 F5
54 00110110 36 118 01110110 76 182 10110110 B6 246 11110110 F6
55 00110111 37 119 01110111 77 183 10110111 B7 247 11110111 F7
56 00111000 38 120 01111000 78 184 10111000 B8 248 11111000 F8
57 00111001 39 121 01111001 79 185 10111001 B9 249 11111001 F9
58 00111010 3A 122 01111010 7A 186 10111010 BA 250 11111010 FA
59 00111011 3B 123 01111011 7B 187 10111011 BB 251 11111011 FB
60 00111100 3C 124 01111100 7C 188 10111100 BC 252 11111100 FC
61 00111101 3D 125 01111101 7D 189 10111101 BD 253 11111101 FD
62 00111110 3E 126 01111110 7E 190 10111110 BE 254 11111110 FE
63 00111111 3F 127 01111111 7F 191 10111111 BF 255 11111111 FF

Chapter 7: General Information

7.6 Periodic Table of Elements

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANSI/ISA-61511-1-2018 / IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV. Functional Safety – Safety Instrumented Systems for the
Process Industry Sector – Part 1: Framework, Definitions, System, Hardware and Application Programming
Requirements (IEC 61511-1:2016+AMD1:2017 CSV, IDT). Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA (International Society
of Automation).
API Std 520. Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-relieving Devices. 10th ed. Washington, DC: API (American
Petroleum Institute), October 2020.
API RP 552. Transmission Systems. 1st ed. Washington, DC: API (American Petroleum Institute), October 1994.
Cornell, Chuck. Control Systems Engineer Technical Reference Handbook. Research Triangle Park, NC: ISA (International
Society of Automation), 2012.
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therein.

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