MicroRNA biosensors

Figure illustrating the workflow of miRNA detection. miRNAs can be detected with complex biosensors
such as electrochemical biosensors and optical biosensors. miRNA Biosensors utilize nanomaterials,
recognition elements, and amplification elements for sensitive and specific detection of miRNAs. Created
with BioRender.com

MicroRNA (miRNA) biosensors are analytical devices that involve interactions between the target
miRNA strands and recognition element on a detection platform to produce signals that can be measured
to indicate levels or the presence of the target miRNA. Research into miRNA biosensors shows shorter
readout times, increased sensitivity and specificity of miRNA detection and lower fabrication costs than
conventional miRNA detection methods.[1]

miRNAs are a category of small, non-coding RNAs in the range of 18-25 base pairs in length.[1] miRNAs
regulate cellular processes such as gene regulation post-transcriptionally, and are abundant in body fluids
such as saliva, urine and circulatory fluids such as blood. Also, miRNAs are found in animals and plants
and have regulatory functions that affect cellular mechanisms. miRNAs are highly associated with
diseases such as cancers and cardiovascular diseases. In cancer, miRNAs have oncogenic or tumor
suppressor roles and are promising biomarkers for disease diagnosis and prognosis.[1] Many techniques
exist in clinical and research settings for analyzing miRNA biomarkers. However, inherent limitations
with current methods, such as high cost, time and personnel training requirements, and low detection
sensitivity and specificity, create the need for improved miRNA detection methods.[1]

Background
miRNAs are associated with physiological and pathological processes; hence, measuring them in fields
like human health, agriculture, and environmental testing is in demand. Here are some key aspects of the
necessity of detection of miRNAs:

Potential biomarkers: miRNAs have specific expression in diseases such as cancer,

cardiovascular diseases, and autoimmune diseases, which can be beneficial for early
detection, prognosis and monitoring for response to treatments.[2] Furthermore, because
miRNAs are in body fluids like urine, saliva, and blood, detecting miRNAs is less invasive
than methods such as biopsies. This is more comfortable for patients and can facilitate more
frequent monitoring of their disease.[3]
Molecular mechanisms: As miRNAs have regulatory roles in gene expression and
signaling pathways, studying them can give the etiology of diseases and targeting them can
provide therapeutic options.[4][5]
Personalized medicine: Because the specific expression of miRNAs offers a promising
avenue for enhancing personalized medicine, they provide a deeper understanding of
individual disease risk, treatment response, and prognosis, which help clinicians make
better informed clinical decisions.[6]

History of miRNA detection technology

Early and current detection methods

The first miRNA (lin-4) was detected by Victor Ambros in Caenorhabditis elegans in 1993.[7] The first
detection method was Northern blotting (1977), which had low sensitivity. Following that was Reverse
Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) (1990), which had high detection sensitivity.[8][9]

Northern Blotting: Northern blotting involves hybridizing miRNA probes (short nucleic acid
sequences) with miRNAs, followed by their separation on a gel and transfer to a membrane.
The probes are labeled with radioactive isotopes (raising safety and environmental
concerns), enzymes, or fluorescent markers. The quantity of RNA present is inferred from
the probe signal’s intensity. While Northern Blotting is highly specific and helpful for
validating high-throughput methods like RNA-seq, it requires a large sample volume, is time-
consuming, and lacks precision in quantification analysis.[10][11]
Real-Time Reverse Transcription–Polymerase Chain Reaction (Real-time RT-PCR):
This method starts with converting miRNA into cDNA using reverse transcriptase enzymes.
The cDNA is then amplified using sequence-specific primers, a process monitored by
fluorescent dyes or probes. Real-time RT-PCR is noted for its sensitivity and specificity.
However, it faces challenges such as the need for standardization, technical complexities
(e.g., primer design, sample preparation), time-intensive processes, and high costs.[12][13]
High-throughput Methods:

Microarrays (1990): Microarrays enable the detection of thousands of miRNAs in a single

experiment. They consist of a solid surface to which complementary miRNA sequences are
attached. Introducing miRNAs allows them to bind to these probes, with the amount of
miRNA measured by the fluorescence intensity. Microarrays are cost-effective compared to
real-time RT-PCR and NGS but have limitations in detecting low quantities of miRNAs and
distinguishing between miRNAs with similar sequences.[14][15]
Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) (2005): NGS begins with RNA extraction and reverse
transcription into cDNA, followed by adaptor ligation and amplification. The cDNA is then
sequenced on an NGS platform, producing millions of short reads. Expert bioinformaticians
 and sophisticated tools must align and analyze the data and map reads to reference miRNA
sequences for miRNA discovery and identification. NGS offers high sensitivity and specificity
for detecting low-quantity miRNAs and identifying miRNAs differing by a single
nucleotide.[16][17]

Principles of microRNA biosensors

Three essential elements make up miRNA biosensors:

Biological recognition element: they can detect specific target molecules and have
different types, including antibodies, antigens, DNA/RNA, aptamers, enzymes, and MIPs
(molecularly imprinted polymers).[18][19]
Transducer: following recognition, the transducer is an element required to convert
changes in the recognition element to a measurable signal. Based on the type of signal they
produce, they are categorized into electrochemical, optical, and mechanical transducers.[20]
Signal processor: computational elements that amplify and process the signals produced
from transducers and can be demonstrated by numerical values and digital readouts.[21][22]

Specificity in miRNA detection

The term “specificity” in the context of miRNA biosensors refers to the ability of the biosensor to identify
a particular miRNA within a sample that contains various components and miRNAs with similar
sequences. The challenge in achieving this specificity derives from the small size of miRNAs, which may
differ from each other by only one nucleotide. Consequently, designing biosensors capable of precisely
recognizing the target miRNA is essential.[23]

Sensitivity in miRNA detection

Sensitivity in miRNA biosensors refers to their ability to detect target miRNAs in low concentrations
within samples. Since miRNAs are typically found in small amounts, biosensors are engineered to
identify concentrations as low as femtomolar (10^-15) or attomolar (10^-18) levels. Achieving such high
sensitivity involves enhancements to recognition elements, amplification, and signal processing
techniques. The LoD (limit of detection) is used to determine the concrete value of sensitivity in
biosensors, which indicates the lowest concentration of miRNA that can be separated from the
background (zero) signal with a specified level of confidence.[24]

The dynamic range in miRNA biosensors refers to the concentrations over which the biosensor can
accurately detect the target miRNAs, extending from the lowest detectable LoD to the maximum
concentration that can be measured without necessitating sample dilution.[25][26]

Types of microRNA biosensors

Electrochemical biosensors
 General mechanism of a label-based electrochemical miRNA biosensor. Created with
BioRender.com

Electrochemical biosensors present significant advantages to miRNA detection over conventional miRNA
analysis methods. Using simple electronics reduces production costs and increases ease of use in portable
system configurations. This allows for a broader scope of use, including environmental, clinical and food
analysis applications.[27]

miRNA electrochemical biosensor detection relies on measuring the changes in the electrode-property or
electroactive compound redox signal in the transduction of electrochemically active reporter species and
hybridization between the target miRNA and complementary probe. Various materials can be made into
the transduction element, including silver, gold, graphite or nanoparticle variations of such materials.
Detection of electrochemical property changes allows for real-time analysis and kinetics data, an
advantage biosensor methods such as optical biosensors lack. Light pollution is not a limitation of
electrochemical miRNA biosensors. However, amplification techniques such as rolling circle
amplification (RCA) may be required when miRNA concentrations are insufficient to produce an
electrical signal.[28]

1. Voltammetric and amperometric electrochemical biosensors

Electrochemical miRNA biosensors can be designed to infer voltammetric or amperometric
measurements. Upon hybridization of the miRNA target with its complementary probe sequence,
voltammetric miRNA biosensors detect the change in current based on a controlled increase or decrease
in electric potential on the detection platform. Amperometric-based biosensors detect the change in
electric current at a fixed positive electric potential.[1] Recent developments in voltammetric and
amperometric miRNA biosensors can be classified as label-based or label-free biosensors, indicating
whether or not electroactive labels on the miRNA target are used as the naming suggests.[1]
 Voltammetric and amperometric label-free (direct detection) miRNA biosensors

First published in 2009, label-free (direct detection) electrochemical miRNA biosensors

function without labelling the target miRNA with electrocatalytic nanoparticle tags or
hybridization indicators.[29] Label-free miRNA biosensors were initially based on DNA
detection through guanine electrooxidation measurements, with the lower detection limit
being 5 nM of miRNA. Since then, electrode materials have been developed to increase
the sensitivity of detection down to less than 1 pM, such as with graphene and ionic-liquid
modified electrodes.[30][31] For example, Wu et al. (2013) increased the conductivity of the
electrode surface of an amperometric biosensor with a multilayer consisting of Nafion,
thionine and palladium nanoparticles, which immobilized the target miRNA on the
electrode surface for a lower limit of detection of 1.87 pM.[32] Label-free miRNA
biosensors detect signals before and after the hybridization of electroactive nucleic acid
bases.[33] For instance, doxorubicin-loaded gold nanoparticles (AuNps) have been
integrated with a double-loop hairpin probe that hybridizes with the target miRNA to form
heteroduplexes, in which duplex specific nucleases hydrolyze DNA in the heteroduplex
structures to released target miRNA strands for amplification in a signal amplification
system. The limit of detection in such a system is 0.17pM.[34]

Voltammetric and amperometric label-based (indirect detection) miRNA biosensors

Label-based (indirect detection) electrochemical miRNA biosensors require

electrocatalytic or redox active molecule or nanoparticle labelling of the miRNA target or
complementary capture probes for detection. Generally, label-based approaches offer
significantly greater sensitivity of miRNA detection than label-free methods, with sensitivity
reaching the fM-aM range.[35][36]

An example is AuNp-superlattice-based miRNA biosensors utilizing the small molecule

cationic dye toluidine blue to detect miRNA-21. Toluidine blue acts as a miRNA
intercalative label through electrostatic interaction with the negatively charged backbone
phosphate groups. On the biosensor, toluidine blue is a redox indicator to measure the
oxidation peak current of toluidine blue and indicated hybridization of miRNA. The LoD
levels reached 78 aM.[37]

2. Amplification (enzyme)-based electrochemical miRNA biosensors

Electrochemical detection or amplification strategies for miRNA biosensors have been developed using
enzyme-based methods. Amplification of miRNA is often a necessary component of biosensor detection
as miRNA concentrations are found in low abundance, and amplification of target miRNA strands will
increase the sensitivity of detection.[38] Additionally, inherent properties of miRNA include short strand
length and high sequence homology, which present a challenge with detection sensitivity and
specificity.[1]

Various methods, such as duplex-specific nuclease enzymes and polymerase extension, can amplify
miRNA targets to reach LoD in the fM range.[1] Isothermal amplification techniques are widely used
enzyme-based miRNA amplification techniques, given the advantages of cost and time-reduction
associated with ease of use compared to polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods. Isothermal methods
amplify nucleic acids at a constant temperature, which removes the thermal cycling requirement as used
in PCR and does not require specific enzymes for spatial recognition sites in the target miRNA.[1] A
commonly used isothermal technique for miRNA detection is rolling circle amplification (RCA). In the
RCA of miRNA targets, the miRNA binds to a complementary circular DNA template, which is
continuously and exponentially amplified through the synthesis of long single-stranded DNA.[1] Research
with gold electrode electrochemical biosensors has shown that RCA initiated on the electrode has
provided LoD levels of 50 aM.[39] RCA's isothermal nature and ease of use allow it to be used in clinical
diagnostic and resource-lacking laboratory settings and in point-of-care biosensor devices.[1]

Optical miRNA biosensors

Upon hybridization of the target miRNA tagged with a nucleic acid probe and an optically active reporter,
label-based optical biosensors transduce the absorbance or fluorescence optical signal into quantifiable
data. The reporters can be either quantum dots or dye labels.[1] On the other hand, label-free optical
miRNA biosensors detect changes in the refractive index (RI) at the recognition element, which are
caused by the binding of the target miRNA to its bioreceptor. The electromagnetic field probes the RI
changes, characterized as an evanescent wave. The electromagnetic fields are generated by guided or
resonant optical modes that travel in the transducer element.[40] Additionally, label-free optical miRNA
biosensors are insensitive to unbound or background RNA or DNA molecules, as optical detection is
confined to the sensing recognition surface. This is beneficial for miRNA detection in small volumes and
is an advantage over other label-based miRNA biosensors, as signal detection is based on measuring the
total number of miRNA in the sample.[40]

Surface Plasmon resonance-based optical miRNA biosensors

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based miRNA biosensors are a label-free method that
detects RI changes after target miRNA binds to its probes and forms a complex. Detection
involves propagating a surface plasmon wave (SPW) across the metal-dielectric interface
surface layer of the biosensor in a Kretschmann configuration.[40] The SPW decays
exponentially, where the changes in the SPW propagation constant are measured as the
constant is sensitive to change in the RI.[41] A practical example of a label-based SPR-
based miRNA biosensor is miR-21 detection with a LoD of 1 fM. The biosensor utilized
graphene oxide–gold nanoparticles integrated with the sandwiching of the target miRNA
between two DNA probes to amplify the SPR signal and have secondary hybridization
through miR-21 report probes.[42]

Electromechanical biosensors
Electromechanical biosensors represent an integration of electrical and mechanical engineering
disciplines, employing a detection strategy that hinges on the hybridization of miRNAs to specific probes
anchored on the sensor’s surface. Subsequent alterations in parameters such as stress or mass are then
transduced into electrical signals. A notable implementation involves Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM),
which has successfully identified has-mir-194 and has-mir-205 in samples related to colon and bladder
cancer.[43] The underlying mechanism of this approach is AFM’s ability to delineate the variations in
stiffness across the gold surface of the biosensor, facilitating the detection of miRNA hybridization
events. Another pivotal component in electromechanical biosensors is the gold-coated piezoelectric
cantilever sensor, which is adept at recognizing hybridized miRNA.[44] Although electromechanical
biosensors are highly sensitive to miRNAs, it is difficult to measure them in samples with high amounts
of different molecules.[1]

Nanomaterials used in miRNA biosensors

Nanomaterials are used for their unique characteristics to facilitate the detection of miRNAs. Here, we
discuss some features of nanomaterials used in miRNA biosensors.[35]

Gold nanoparticles (AuNps): AuNps enhance miRNA detection signals and facilitate the
stable conjugation of recognition elements into miRNAs.[45] AuNps have excellent catalytic
properties, conductivity, high surface area and interface energy and can be modified with
molecules such as oligonucleotide aggregates for high affinity binding with specific
substrates.[46]

In electrochemical miRNA biosensors, AuNps allow for ease of functionalization for

electrochemical reactions that involve changes in potential, current, conductivity, or
impedance in detecting target miRNA binding on the detection surface.[46] In optical
biosensors, AuNps exhibit unique and tunable optical properties beneficial for SPR miRNA
biosensors.[46] When AuNps are exposed to light, propagating surface plasmons needed
for detecting receptor-bonded miRNAs are created from a resonant interaction between
the electromagnetic field of light and the electron-charged oscillations on the metal
surface. This is due to AuNps exhibiting a high density of conduction band electrons and
its nanoparticle size allowing multiple angular shifts for more reflectance angles.[46][47]

Graphene: Graphene is a member of the carbon nanomaterials family and stands out for its
biocompatibility, electrical conductivity, light molecular weight, stability, and affordability,
making it an exceptional choice for miRNA biosensor applications. It demonstrates excellent
responsiveness to chemical, optical, and mechanical stimuli. Graphene is predominantly
utilized in electrical and optical miRNA biosensors.[48] A notable recent application involves
using laser-induced self-N-doped porous graphene in miRNA biosensors, capable of
detecting miRNA hsa-miR-486-5p at concentrations as low as 10 fM. This approach
combines cost-effectiveness with high reproducibility, offering significant advantages for
conditions like preeclampsia.[49]
Terahertz (THz) Metamaterial with Gold Nanoparticles: THz metamaterial is artificially
synthesized and designed to interact with THz frequency waves. When combined with
AuNps and after binding with target miRNA, they produce higher changes in THz spectral
regions. For instance, a miRNA biosensor based on these materials could detect the
miRNA-21 from clinical samples with a LoD of 14.54 aM.[45]

Technologies and principles of multiplex miRNA biosensors

Multiplex miRNA biosensors are designed to detect multiple types of miRNAs simultaneously with high
specificity and sensitivity. This capability is essential for several reasons: First, it allows for detecting
various miRNAs within a single sample that may contribute to disease, enabling comprehensive
monitoring during treatment while facilitating high-throughput screening. Second, it can significantly
reduce cost and time by allowing the simultaneous analysis of data from multiple miRNAs.[50][51] Here
are some recent technologies in multiplex miRNA biosensors:
 DNA-PAINT based using a DNA origami-based sensor platform - this miRNA biosensor has
a unique geometric barcoding system and can detect up to 4 miRNAs at the same time. The
52 nm distance intervals between strands enable the platform to distinguish between single
mismatches to the LoD of 11 fM to 388 fM.[52]
CRISPR-Multiplex Biosensor- this platform utilizes various technologies, including
electrochemical microfluidics and Cas13a, to enable the amplification-free detection of eight
miRNAs. It features a design with four divided channels for electrochemical analysis.[53]

Applications

Diagnostic and prognostic applications

Since the initial discovery of miRNAs, large databases of miRNAs have been identified in humans, plants
and animals. As many miRNAs are associated with disease onset and development, miRNAs are a
suitable biomarker for biosensor detection in clinical settings.[1] Considerations must be taken into
account of the biological sample source for miRNA targets. Clinical miRNA sample analysis commonly
comes in blood, plasma, serum, seminal fluid, saliva, urine, and tissue-derived miRNAs.[54] In the
context of cancer, biosensor detection of miRNAs is most conveniently performed in the form of liquid
biopsies, as circulatory miRNAs are found in the highest abundance in liquid samples.[55]

Point-of-Care (POC) testing

Research into POC diagnostic tests has resulted in the development of microfluidic
biosensors capable of early diagnostic clinical analysis of cancer-associated miRNAs,
which produce cost- and time-efficient results with increased sensitivity and specificity
over traditional methods.[56] Liquid biopsy droplet-based microfluidic biosensors can be
fabricated into POC devices for ease of use by integrating with pre-existing devices and
interfaces and can extend utilization beyond traditional laboratory settings and those
without sophisticated instruments.[57] An example of developments in POC testing for
prostate cancer is where miR-21 in low concentrations of urine samples was detected with
a limit of detection of 2 nM on screen-printed, label-based electrochemical biosensor
chips. Detection was rapid, with results produced in less than two hours.[58]

Agriculture management
Besides clinical usage, miRNA biosensors have been adapted for managing agriculture plant stress and
growth and disease analysis, as plant miRNAs are associated with growth regulatory mechanisms. An
example is electrochemical biosensors fabricated for detecting miR-319a, a miRNA associated with
phytohormone response that regulates rice seedling growth regulation. Isothermal alkaline phosphatase
catalytic signal amplification of the target miRNA strands was integrated with a three-electrode system to
detect miR319a to LoD levels of 1.7 fM.[59] AuNp label-based optical biosensors were tested for
detecting miRNA-1886, an indicator of drought stress in tomato plants. They found that decreasing
irrigation levels increased the concentration of miRNA-1886 at a range of 100 to 6800 fM.[60]

Research applications

1. Molecular and cellular biology

As miRNAs are one of the main regulators of genes, detection and measuring them in cells and molecular
levels can be helpful to decipher miRNA interactions with other molecules. For instance, a study by
Bandi et al. found that miR-15a and miR-16 function in tumorigenesis of non-small cell lung cancer
(NSCLC) cell lines.[61] miRNA biosensors also have a significant role in the elucidation of disease
mechanisms. For example, a study on cardiovascular diseases found that miRNA biosensors based on
DNA tetrahedron nanostructure can recognize miR-133a in aM levels, which is helpful for further studies
on myocardial infarction.[62]

2. Drug discovery and development

Because of their high-throughput potential, miRNA biosensors can significantly accelerate drug discovery
by evaluating various drugs on miRNA expression levels to observe which drug can target unregulated
miRNAs in diseases. Furthermore, miRNA biosensors can monitor the expression of miRNA expression
in real-time to observe which changes happen in different concentrations of drugs, and this is especially
crucial in early-phase clinical trials for drug dosage optimization. In addition, by testing various miRNA
expressions, researchers can discover relations between diseases and miRNAs’ expression[63][64][65]

Limitations to miRNA biosensors

While miRNA biosensors hold considerable promise for miRNA detection, several critical challenges
must be addressed:

Sensitivity and Specificity: The low abundance of miRNAs in complex biological samples,
such as blood, necessitates enhancing biosensor sensitivity to detect miRNAs at levels
beyond femtomolar concentrations. Additionally, due to the high sequence similarity among
miRNAs, improving the specificity of these biosensors is essential to differentiate between
miRNAs based on single nucleotide differences.[66]
Sample Preparation: Extracting miRNAs from samples presents significant difficulties. The
process is complex and requires optimization to ensure the purity and integrity of the
miRNAs for accurate detection.[67]
Stability of miRNA Biosensor: The stability of miRNA biosensors is compromised by
environmental conditions, particularly for components like aptamers and antibodies. This
issue is especially pertinent for point-of-care (POC) devices, which require robustness and
longevity to be effectively used in various settings.[68]
Standardization: A significant limitation in the field is the absence of standardized
guidelines and universal reference miRNAs for comparing results across blood and plasma
samples. Establishing reliable normalizers, characterized by consistent expression and
stability across all samples, is crucial for accurately interpreting miRNA levels.[69][70][71]
Addressing these challenges is essential for advancing and adopting miRNA biosensor technologies.

Future directions
The significance of miRNA in diagnostics and the recent advancements in miRNA detection from various
sample sources, particularly in clinical settings, underscore the need for enhancing miRNA biosensor
technologies. The future of miRNA biosensor optimization encompasses several key areas:
 Furthering nanomaterial integration research: The materials, including graphene, gold
nanoparticles, and quantum dots, can significantly improve the biosensors’ specificity and
sensitivity, making them more effective in detecting miRNAs.[72]
Multiplex detection: Efforts are underway to refine miRNA biosensors for the simultaneous
detection of multiple miRNA types, especially those within the same family, from small-
volume samples; in this regard, artificial intelligence can aid in distinguishing between
miRNA types and correlating them with clinical outcomes. Such advancements would be
particularly beneficial for point-of-care (POC) devices, simplifying sample preparation,
enhancing user-friendliness, and enabling physicians to monitor miRNA levels in real-time
remotely.[67]
Encapsulation technologies: Encapsulation technologies aim to safeguard the biosensors’
sensitive components from environmental threats, ensuring their durability and reliability.[73]
Standardization of miRNA research and development: The development of standardized
guidelines and the identification of universal genes for miRNA expression comparison will
facilitate the accurate evaluation of miRNA biosensors across different clinical scenarios.[1]
Clinical Sample Analysis: The study of prospective and retrospective analyses of clinical
samples and comparing miRNA biosensor results with those obtained via real-time qPCR
and sequencing technologies can assess biosensor performance under varied clinical
conditions.[74][75]
These advancements suggest a focused trajectory for miRNA biosensor development, aiming at
technological enhancements that promise improved diagnostic capabilities and clinical applications.

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