Unit

WIND ENERGY

Wind energy principles,wind site and its resource assessment, wind

components,
assessment, Factors influencing wind, wind turbine
wind energy conversion systems
(WECS), Classification of WECS
control systems,
devices, wind electric generating and
characteristics and applications.

1
 3

WIND ENERGY

wIND ENERGY PRINCIPLES

energy is an indirect form of solar energy. In the world, it is around 1% of solar
Wind
various
a
m converted to wind energy. Wind is kind of
solarpower that owes its origin to
rays. It
terrains get unequally heated by the sun
nental factors. The
uneven Earth's
warmer regions becomes
kes some warmer rthan others. The hot air in the
regions the
of
earth a vacuum
of hot air creates
es dense up. This upyard movement
and light and thus it rises
ich is from the adjacent cooler realms.
immediately filled up by cold air
as using
energy into a useful form of energy such
power is the conversion of wind power, wind pumps for
water
viad d
turbines to make electricity, windmills for
mechanical
extractable
amount of economically
The total
pmping
or drainage or sails to propel ships. human power
use from all
more than present
wer considerably distributed,
available from
the wind is plentiful, renewable, widely
Wtces, fuels is cost per unit
of
Wind power as an alternative to fossil operation and the
greenhouse gas emissions during production.
lit produces no natural gas power
ergy and
produced cost for coal
is similar to the

2
 Renewable Energy
Syten
3.2
Wind
3.1.1. Source or Origin of surface by energy from
uneven heating of the Earth's he Sim
Wind is produced
by the equator. Among
energy from the Sun than the these
The poles
of
the Earth receive less differential heating
down) more quickly than sea. The drin
up (and cools
the dry land heats from earth's surface to thesstratosphere
atmospherie convection system reaching whid
a
global
acts as a virtual ceiling.
made of different types of land and
water, it absorbs
Since the Earth's surface is ass
su'
Much of this energy is converted into heat it is absorbed
rates. by
radiant energy different
at

over these formations. On a global scale, the non-unifom

land areas, bodies of water andthe air
from the Earth's rotation to nrd
thermal effects combine with the dynamic effects
as a result of s.
prevailing wind patterns. There are also minor changes in the flow of the air
differential heatingof sea and land. The nature of terrain ranging from mountain and vale
to more local obstacles such as buildings and trees also has an important effect on the originf
wind.

Generally, during day time, the air above land mass tends to heat up more rapidly than the
air above water. In coastal regions, it manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. In night time
the process is reversed because of the air cools down more rapidly over the land and the brecz
therefore, blows off-shore similar process occurred in mountains and valleys. Thus, it creats
local wind. The speed of wind is affected by the surface over which it
blows. Rough surfacs
such as areas with trees and buildings produce more friction and turbulence than smooth surfacr
such as lakes or open cropland. The greater friction means
that the wind speed near the groun
is reduced.

Most of the energy stored in these wind movements can

be found at high altitude whs
the continuous wind speed of over 160 km/h
(99 mph) occurs. Eventually, the wind eners
converted through friction into
difuse heat throughout earth's surface
and atmosphere.
3.1.2. Characteristics Wind
of Energy
1. Wind-power systems
do not pollute the atmosphere.
2. Fuel provision
and transport are not required in wind-power
systems.
3. Wind energy a
is renewable source
of energy.
4. Wind energy when
produced on small scale
conventional power generating is cheap but it is competitive
system when produced on
a large scale.

3
Wind Energy
3.3
3.1.3. Wind Speed
Power in the wind is proportional
to the cube of the wind speed.
highest wind velocities are generally It is well known that the
found on hill tops, exposed coasts
Darameters nced to be known and out at sea Various
regarding wind including the mean
and variations about the mean in the short-term wind speed diectional data
(drafts), daily, seasonal and annual
As well as variations variations
with height. These parameters are highly
site specific and they can only
be determined with sufficient accuracy by measurements at a
particular site over a sufficiently
long period. They are used to assess the performance
and economics of a wind energy
conversion system.
General meteorological statistics may overestimate
the wind speed at a specific site.
Therefore, not only the mean wind speed published by the meteorological
organisations but
also the wind-frequency distribution have to be taken into account in
order to calculate the
amount of electricity that can be produced by wind turbines a
in certain region.

3.14. Vertical Wind Speed Gradient

The wind speed varies with the height above the ground. It is called wind shear. The wind
speed at the surface due to the friction between air and surface of the ground is zero. The wind
speed increases most rapidly near the ground with height and it increases less rapidly with
greater height. The change in wind speed becomes nearly zero at a height of about 1 km above
the ground. The vertical variation of the wind speed and the wind-speed profile can be
expressed by many functions. The two more common functions that have been eveloped to
describe the change in mean wind speed with height are based on experiments.

) Power exponent function:

The power exponent function is given by

where z= Height above the ground level,

z above the ground level.
V,= Wind speed at the reference height
a
A typical value of is 0.1.

() Logarithmic function:

V(O)
given by
Ihe power exponent function is

4
 Renewable Energy

3.4
Syn
level,
where z- Height above the ground
length
2 Roughness height z above the ground level
V,= Wind speed at the reference
types of terrain. A
typical value of aisfron
The parameters a and z varies with different
of zo is from 0.00lto 0.3.
0.01 to 0.28 and the value

3.1.5. Distribution of Wind Speed

For the wind industry, it is
very necessary to be able to describe the variation in
speeds. Turbine designers need the information to optimise the design of
their wind turbin
cost. Wind-speed variations and their r distributions at any given
order to minimise the generator
site can be described in terms ofa Weibull distribution. The probability that the wind wil M
at some wind speed including zero must be 100% since the area under the curve is alwis
1

The Weibullfunction can be expressed as

where P()- Frequency of thewind at wind speed V,

C- Scale parameter or characteristic wind speed,
k= Shape parameter.
The Weibull distribution also expresses the proportion
of time for which the wind speet
exceeds the value V and is expressed as

For a typical value of

k=1, the distribution is called a cumulative
Rayleigh distribution:

The probability of wind distribution

between wind speeds Vi and
V can be given by

The plot of
in Vversus
In (-(In V) gives the parameters C
distribution. The graph and k forthe Weibull frequeney
gives a straight line
equal to exp (In in which the slope is equalto k andd parameterCs
)or Vwhere In (-(In D)is zero.

5
wid Energy
3.6
800
700
600
Energy cuve
500

400
300 Frequency
Curve
200

100

5 10 15 20 25
Wind speed (m/s)

Figure 3.1 Distribution of wind power

The strength of wind varies and an average value for a given location does not alone
indicate the amount of energy of a wind turbine. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a
paticular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data, Diferent
lcaions will have different wind speed distributions. The Rayleigh model closely mirrors the
actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. Figure 3.1 shows the typical
Rayleigh distribution. Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much
of
the
energy available
energy comes in short bursts. The Lee Ranch sample proved that half of the
consequence is that wind energy from a particular
arived in just 15% of the operating time. The
an output as fuel-fired power plants. Making
turbine or wind farm does not have as consistent
are
wind power more consistent requires that
various existing technologies and methods
inter-regional transmission lines to link widely
extended in particular the use of stronger
are addressed by grid energy storage, batteries,
distributed wind farms. Problems of variability
energy demand management.
pumped-storage hydroelectricity and

WIND SYSTEMS
J2sITE SELECTION FOR energy. They
extract of wind
Mainly, four sites are selected
to install windmills for the
are as follows:

0 Plane site
(ü) Hill top site

(ii) Sea-shore site

(iV) Off-shore shallow water site.

6
 Renewable Energy
Syten
36 to be considered
selection, some other factors need such
Apart from the
location The main considerations
other factors.
social, economic and
technical, environmental, are as follows:
turbine installation
selecting a site for wind resistance to the
are located away from main cities to avoid air moveme
I. Wind farms
area is advisable to locate windmill. There
So, the flat
created by buildings. shol
obstruct wind for distance of3 km to the windmil.
a 1
not be any high structure to
wind power
2. Wind power is based on wind velocity as
the the
a
is
proportional
to e
basic requirement for successful use of a windmi
cubic power of wind speed. The
is an adequate supply of wind speed.
The selected site should provide good
average of vwind velocity throughout
3. theyea
for continuous generation of energy.
4. The proposed site should be checked for high altitude due to strong winds which w
increase the electric power output of wind energy conversion system.
A
5. stable ground is selected.
6. Small trees and grass are avoided under windmill in order to minimise the installatio
cost because the height of tower needs to be increased in such case.
7. The selected site should be easily accessible to provide a transport facility for the
erection of equipment and structures as well as for maintenance.
8 The site should be near the consumer for reducing the cost
and transmission losses f
the generated power.
9. The land cost should be favourable so
that the total project cost is minimal.
10. Wind direction is
also considered for the site selection.
11. Topography such as
mountain gap helps to channelise and speed up winds.
12. The selection
of coastal area or lake area for windmill installation
because differential heating water is favournb
of and land generates wind sufficient
of
wind blows from the land to speed l
the sea during day time and it
time.
is reversed during hy

3.3. WIND RESOURCES

ASSESSMENT
Wind resource
assessment
because
is the important step in prgiet
it is the basis for determining initial
planning a community wind

several stages in wind feasibility and cash There at

assessments as follows. flow projections.

7
Wind Energy

3.7
1 Initial assessment
2 Detailed site characterization
3.
Long-term validation of data

4 Detailed cash
low projection and acquiring financing

3.3.1. Initial Assessment

It is the first step which utilizes existing
data from state wind resource maps,
ubicly available resource nearby
wind data and other weather measurement sites to
projections about the financials the project. make rough
of This step should be used as an indicator to justify
a more substantial investment to
install equipment and hire professionals for a detailed
site
characterization.

Usually, initial assessment of the site is simple in most states with

publicly available high
resolution wind resource data. Through recent advances
in computer modeling and internet
accessibility to public, wind data sources are easily accessible.

The availability and reliability

of wind speed data is extremely poor in many regions of the
world. Large arcas of the world appear annual average wind speeds below 3 ms and they are
unsuitable for wind power systems, and almost equally large areas have wind speeds in the
intermediate range from 35 mls to 4.5 mls where wind power may or may not be an attractive
option. In addition, significant land areas have average annual wind speeds more than 4.5 mis
where wind power will be economically competitive.

3.32. Detailed Site Characterization

a turbines is
After completing the preliminary evaluations, promising site to install wind
detailed
Becessary to assure the investors and banker about the project feasibility. The level of
larger is the project
analysis about site requirement depends on the size of intended project. The
resource assessment effort is
or investment under consideration, the larger and more expensive
warranted.

resource assessment includes three major components

The instrumentation used for wind
such as
vane sensors to measure the wind speed and direction
I. Anemometers and wind direction
2. A data logger and

A meteorological mast or
3.
tower.

8
 Renewable
Energy
3.8 Sph
sensors
Measurement oftemperature and pressure needs additional of standard
m or
monopole towers supported
Meteorological towers are at least 50 lattice byguy wine

Site-specific measurements using anemometers

are considered the reliable estimates
one to ofte
wind resources for a project. However, they are costly and require from severalyyean
complete. other methods also exist where large scale computer weather models areshaed
extrapolate wind conditions at a specific site from historical data. Many times, these comptle
models of a site's wind resource can be less expensive than meteorologicalIreadings
foray
or' more. Sometimes, they may need a combination of site-specific meteorologja
measurements coupled with computer models from long-term weather data for valida

conditions at the site.

Also, wind turbines require locations where constant high wind speeds occurs. The tm
"Wind Power Density (WPD)" is used to decide the întensity of wind speeds. It is a caleulam
including the effective force of the wind at a particular location. In addition, wind velociy
mass are also considered to calculate the wind power
a
density. Color coded maps are also use
for a particular area mentioned. The calculated results are added in an index developed by te
National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS."

3.3.3. Long-Term Validation of Data

In this stáge, data are compared at the site to long term

weather data over the course ofta
years or more. It will help to determine
whether the data represents a low, medium or high win
year and allow adjustments to your
long-term production estimates.
Once both short-term and long-term data from the
site and from other sources have be
collected, some comparisons are made between
historical data and collected data at your
Ifthere is an airport or a weather station within several
miles of the site with similar topogra
s
to the site, the on-site data is determined
with the help of meteorological consultant
year that was windier or duus
less windy than the historical average.
It will help to esu
production estimates which are descriptive
of the site and not inflated due to an abnon
windy year.

Computer models are developed based on andit

more and more cases can
many years of historical weather data
stand on their own or meteorologica
complement data taken with a
tower with instrumentation at a
project site.

9
 Wind Energy

Detailed Production Estimates 3.9

3.3.4.
and Cash-flow Projections
The detailed site profiles are
combined for
om the sale of electricity produced with initialthe validated production and revenue
sources
estimates
financing and any incentives available
D the project. This projection is to help the lenders and
investors to cover debt and generate
equired returns. The revenue estimates are
refined as the project progresses. After
Solid estimation of the wind at obtaining a
the site and the project is financially viable. ensure
To a positive
project cash low, the projected cost, cost
of financing. required returns from investors and
price of energy are considered.

34 FACTORS INFLUENCING WIND

Wind is horizontal movement of air. Winds are the
mechanism by whiçh uneven
distribution of pressure is balanced globally. Also, winds are an integral part of
thermodynamie
mechanism of atmosphere through which hecat, moisture and other properties are transferred
from one place to another.

The sun is the ultimate force to drive the wind. The pressure difference causes the wind to
flow from high pressure to low pressure. Pressure difference is caused by uneven heating of
the Earth's surface by solar radiation. If the earth was stationary and had a uniform surface, air
would flow directly from high pressure areas to low pressure areas because the direction and
speed of wind are controlled by a number of factors such as pressure gradient, Coriolis effect
centripetal acceleration and friction.

Surface wind is subjected to friction. The rotation of the earth also affects the movement
as Horizontal
of the wind. The force exerted by the Earth's rotation is known the Coriolis force.
as () pressure
winds near the surface respond to the combined action of three forces such
gravity acts downwards.
gradient force (ii) frictional force and (ii) Coriolis force. Also,
pattern around the center of high and low
Centripetal acceleration creates a circular flow
pressure.

0 Pressure gradientforce: pressure create pressure gradient forces. The rate of change
in
Differences in atmospheric
pressure over distance is called pressure gradient. Pressure gradient forces act from high
air stronger
movement. The pressure gradient is
pressure to low pressure thereby causing wind
where the isobars are farther apart. The narrower slopes
Where the isobars are closer and weaker
speeds as the mean steeper pressure changes. Wind direction
also indicate stronger wind
follows the direction of pressure change.

10
 Renewable Energy
3.10 Sytn

Coriolis force:
() the direction of the wind. This force
the Earth around its axis affects
The rotation of isal
a great effect on the wind direction because of
known as Coriolis force. It has the Eart
as

Due to rotation, the wind does not cross isobars at right angles determined
rotation. byte
pressure gradient force but it is diverted from its original path. This misalignment a
is resh
the Earth's rotation and is called Coriolis effect
or Coriolis force.

effect roots the wind to deflect to the right of its path in the northern hemisçhen
Coriolis

and the lef in the southem hemisphere, according to Farrell's law. It states that winds det
to the right in the northen bemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The sous
hemisphere derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air masses. This defleci
force appears to exist only when the air begins to move and increases with increasing wi
speed, air mass and latitude. The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gie
force. Because of these twO mutually perpendicular forces, winds blow in the low-prsea
areas around them similar to cyclonic conditions.

(Gü) Frictional force:

The unevenness of the carth's surface resists wind movement in the form of friction b
affecting the wind speed. It is the largest on the surface of the earth and its influence extend
to altitudes of 1 to 3 km. At sea level, friction is minimum. However,
the friction is high which
makes the wind direction to a large angle with the isobars and
the speed slows down in op
terrain.
(iv) Centripetal force:
It only works on air flowing around the center of circulation.
Centripetal accelerao
creates a force perpendicular to wind
motion and directed inward toward the center of
This force produces a circular flow pattern rota
around a center of high and low pressure.
acceleration is more significant in smaller
Centre
circulations than in mid-latitude cyclones.
() Atmospheric pressure:
Wind spced and direction are the net
results of the forces to create the wind
atmospheric winds, 2-3 km
above the surface, are not affected by
U
surface friction and at
controlled by pressure gradients and
the Coriolis force. If the isobar is straight
the pressure gradient force balances and fricti
the Coriolis force and resulting wind aarallel od
isobar. The movement of blows
the windin the region of circulatis
area
the cyclone is called cyelonic
In the of high pressure, it wi
is called anticyelonic circulation. The of the
around such a system varies with direction
different hemispheric positions. Wind or win
movement

11

11
 Renewable Energy
Syten
3.18
with near weather
station reports by regressionanalyia
then calibrated
wind data sheet. It is
find the irregularity of
wind data.
on-site wind data
throughout the year. Then,i
option is collection of
The third
discusions.
standardized with local inhabitant's

ESTIMATION
ORWIND ENERGY
S.9. WIND ASSESSMENT

3.9.1. Wind Power and Wind Power

Density
fo

The theoretical wind

energy or vwind power is the energy available in wind

extraction. It is calculated as follows:

or energy,
Wind power available in the wind wind
= Kinetic energy of the wind
P
2

where m= Mass flow rate of

air (kg/s) = pAVi
V-Incoming velocity of wind(m/s)
m
Substituting the value of
in the above equation (3.1), it becomes

32)
2

where A=Cross sectional area of the wind stream (m)

=D
D= Diameter of turbine rotor (m)

p= Density of air(kg/m)
From above equation (3.2), it is clear that the power
available in the wind is propot
to the cube of wind velocity.

Substituting the value of A in the

above equation (3.2), it becomes

The windenergy is indirectly aerodynami

the output of wind turbine estimated by
principle. Therefore, the
total power output, P is affected by the overall conversion efficien
of the wind turbine. rewrite
Bytaking this efficiency is into account, the equation
(3.2) can

12

12
 wind power. Pen,
Pl
2
3.19

where
Fraction power extracted
of

by a wind
efficiency of the machine. turbine or the overall
conversion

Overall conversion efficiency can

also be given in another
definedi as the ratio of term called power
the output power coefficient
GRs a
produced to the power
AWercoefficient is function of both available in the wind.
tip speed ratio and blade piteh angle.
aerall conversion efficiency
of the machine is a function of the following factors.
> Wind velocity
> Angular of velocity of rotor in the wind turbine
> Pitch angle

Design of aerofoil section and

> Number of blades.

Wim2

density,

power

Wind

3
2
Wind velocity, m/s

wind velocity
Wind power density and
Figure 3.3 wind
energy
is another
important factor usedin
Wind power density or wind energy density stream.
cross-sectional area of the wind
tlculation. power to the
Itis the ratio of wind

Wind power
density,

13

13
 Renewable
Energy
3.20
at sea level ri
incoming velocity of wind velocity (V) is in m/s, then (where
If the
of air is 1.2 kglm), the power in the wind is given
by
fhe
en
watts per m of rotor swept area.
Wind power 0.6 x V

It means that the wind power density in the wind will range from 10 W
light breeze) to 41,000Wi at 40 m/s (a huricane). This variability of the windpower
resources strongly influences almost all aspects of wind energy conversion system
dn
deig
construction, citing, use and economy.
At
the same time, the trade-off is among many factors in selecting
made
thesunber
blades which are: cost of blades, transmission efficiency, energy capture and speed of t t
The single blade machine produces less energy than multi-blade machíne due to the ror
of 1 500 to 1800 rpm. A three blade machine is more stable and it has higher capture wi
orientation in the wind stream but it will lead to higher cost of blade and transmission
s
Then the rated power output of the wind energy generation at a given site can be wrte

P,= %pAV? n(V)

where V, is the rated wind speed
of the wind energy generation and n(V) is
corresponding value of overall efficiency. The energy
produced per annum by the machi a
be expressed as

E- P,xCFx 8760
The capacity factor (CF) of a wind energy
generation has been defined as the raie
actual energy output to its rated on
value an annual basis.

3.9.2. Maximum Wind.Power

and Maximum Wind Efficiency
Betz's law indicates the maximum power
that can be extracted from the wind,
of the design ofa wind turbine in open indepe
flow.
Betz's law applies to all
Newtonian fluids including
wind movement
through a
would drop to zero.
turbine is extracted as useful
wind. Ifall of the energy
co
energy, the wind speed afera

Betz's equation deals with

the upstream from the turbine speed V, and
downstream wind speed V. wind

14

14
 developed on
Betz
was the
basis of global 3.21
Germany. The wind rotor theory of wind
stiutein is assumedto be an machines
at
possess a hub, ideal energy converter.the Gottingen
L.t does not means,
It
possesses an infinite number
2It of rotor blades
which do not result
windI flowing through them.
pthe inany drag resistance
,
Additionally, uniformity is assumed over
the whole area swept by
beyondthe rotor is considered
ofthe aair
the rotor and
to be axial. The ideal wind rotor the speed
splaced in a moving fluid atmosphere. is taken at rest and
it
The whole available energy in wind cannot
be converted into mechanical power
as the
ouput. T1he incoming air is considered between
iand I as a thermodynamic system.
According to the steady flow energy
equation applied between i and 1,

++z+q=u, +py++z+W
2g 2g
The following assumptions are made.

0 Change in potential energy is negligible, Zi= Z

() Change in internal energy is negligible, uIS Wy

(i) The system is well irsulated, =0.
is no expansion of wind in turbine, W= 0
(iv) There
The above equation reduces to

2g
Multiplying both sides by density, p
volume y=y=y t i and
1

for the same fluid and

ppP 3.3)
P.+PtP2g 2 and exit,e
between
Similarly, the reduced steady flow equation
3.4)

2,
The pressure difference between land

15

15
 Renewable Energy
Sy
3.22
ambient
- pP,pat
A-A 2-vfor
2g
wind,
thin sectiona

Axial force in the direction of

2g

According to Newton's second law,

Force Change in momentum

Em(-)
F,r.(V,-.) ..36

Substituting equation (3.5) in (3.6),

r-"r,-.)
2

2(,-Y,)

P=m(KE,
Wind power,
-KE,)--?)
P--v)
2g

Since ,the above

equation becomes

P"M+)\-)

At maximum power, dP

16

16
Wnd Energy

Differentiating equation (3.8),

dP

The condition for maximum power generation

is V,

Substituting V,
inequation (3.7),

Therefore, maximum wind power,

8
P -0.593P
Therefore, maximum wind efficiency,

8 PAV)
Maximum power, P 27
Poweravailable in wind, P pAV
2g
16 0.593 = 59.3%
n

3.9.3. Betz Criteria or Betz Limit

Betz criteria or Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency of a wind turbine.
energy into mechanical
It states that no turbine can convert more than 59.3 % of wind kinetic
a
energy. Thus, the value of power coefficient (C) is limited to Betz limit. For wel-designed
turbine, the efficiency lies in the range of 35-45 %.

on Turbines
3.9.4. Force on Blades and Axial Thrust
system is given by
The power developed by rotating
P= Torque xVelocity
Torque, TaP
nDN
of blade in m and
where D= Diameter
wind turbine in rps
N= Speed of

17

17
 Renewable
Energy
3.24 Sra

Eficiency,

Power, PanP
We know that 2 g

Torque, Tang nDN

DN

T=n; 1 pDY
8g N
Torque will be maximum, when the efficiency is maximum.

T=Mgg N
16 1 pDV

27 8g N

Tn 2 pDV
27g N
We know that

Axial force,
F,r,
8
(V,-V)

FM-)
Maximum force
D(-)
will be at maximum
efficiency,

Fms

18

18
 enewaDle Energy
Syn
3.28
CONVERSION SYSTEMS (WECS)
WIND ENERGY
i11. Wind Energy
Conversion
3.11.1. Principle of or drag force alone
can extracted from lift force alone orcombinatn
The wind energy
be
acts perpendicularr tothe air leow
drag forces, It is known that the lift force direct,
of lift and
Thelift is produced by the change
parallel to the wind direction. in velbc,
and drag force acts a pressure
up the air flow thereby creating drop. So,the press
of air stream which speeds
pressure side of an aerofoil.
drop forces the lift surface from
high pressure side tolow 1
enormous turbulence is
produced whichrebuc
pressure increases on the low pressure side,
stalling.
the lit force and it leads to increase the drag significantly called
are as follows:
The basic features which characterize lift and drag

) Drag is in the direction of airflow.

(i) Lift is perpendicular to the direction of airflow.
(ii) Generation of lift always causes a certain amount of drag to be developed.

(iv) With a good aerofoil as shown in Figure 3.4, the lift produced can be thiry ng
greater than the drag.

(v) Lift devices are generally more efficient than drajg devices.

Lift

-Drag

Figure 3.4 Lift and drag

forces on an aerofoil
3.11.2. Aerodynamics
of Wind Turbine
In
wind turbines, aerodynamics
deals with the
stationary aerofoil. relative motion between moving
The aerofoil is the cross
shape designed to create section of the blade of the wind turbine. Itste
maximum lift force when
kinetic energy associated air flows over turbine, lic
it. Inthe wind
with the wind requind
is converted into the
to turn the clectrical generator rotational motion that is
for power generation. This rotr
that has one, two or change is accomplished by a
three blades, or aerofoils
attached to the hub. The wind flowing Overthe

19

19
 fthese aerofoils generatesthe forces 3.29
Ataces of that causethe motor
a horizontal-axis to run. The basic principle
Sdynamics of
wind turbine
is shown in Figure
3.5.
Rotation.

Wind flow

wind turbine
Figure 3.5 Aerodynamics of
Net lift force

Low
pressure

High
pressure
of wind turbine
aerofoil section
Figure 3.6. Aerodynamic liff
force on

20

20
 Renewable
Energy
Syin
3.30
path of the aerofoil incomparison
more rapidly over the longer (upper)
Wind passes
Figure 3.6. High and low
pressures
regions
shorter (lower) path as shown in pressure at locations cn
the
equation. The is low where
Bernoulli's
identified by using where the flow velocity is low.Therefo
pressure is high at locations
velocity is high and the pressure
upper surface of the aerofoil and high in itslowersurf
in the
low pressure ereated
is
surfaces of the aerofoil results aforce
pressure difference between top and bottom calle
The
as
air moves from high-pressure region to low-pressure region. Thewpyw
aerodynamic lit
move up. Since the blades of the wind
due to aerodynamic lift pushes the blades to tubi,
force causes the rotation
with the hub
at
its centre, the lift force
are constrained to move up of
smoothly over an aerofoil produces two forces suchas
blade about the hub. Air flowing te
which acts in the direction of flow.
force perpendicular to the air flow and drag
to the lift force
also acts on the blat
In wind turbines, the drag force perpendicular
causing the impediment or rotor rotation. The prime objective in wind
turbine designkfrs
blade (aerofoil-shaped) to have a relatively high lift to drag ratio. This ratio
the length of the blade to optimise the output energy
can be varied
a
of the turbine at various wind sped
Hence, in acrodynamic analysis of wind turbines, both lift and drag forces are importaut f
their optimisation in efficient design.

3.12. WIND TURBINES COMPONENTS

A Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) is simple in construction which is opanatd

and maintained by the local population.

The main components of a wind energy conversion system are as follows:

Wind turbine

Nacelle
Rotor, ie. the assembly of blades
Hub and shaft.

Transmission system
> Electric generator
Yaw control system
Storage
Energy converters
> Tower to support
the rotor system.

21

21
 Energy

Figure3.77 shows the

various parts
of a wind energy 3.31
or windmill: conversion
turbine system.
Wind

The
main component of a wind energy
conversion system
system of blades fixedi on atower isthe windmill or
gbne. A is rotated by the windturbises
electricall energy. The Wind wind to either
turbine produce
wIrk or may
be located either unwind or mechanical
unwind location, the wind encounters dowwind of the
AOWer. In the
the turbine before reaching
DownwindI rotors are generally preferred the towet.
especially for the large aero generators.
Various components of the wind turbine are as
follows:
Rotor tip

Wind
Transmission
(Speed increaser, drive shaft
Nacelle clutch, coupling etc.)

Hub

Shaft Electrical
generator

Blades
Supporting
structure or tower

Footing or
Contral building
Ground level

wind turbine
Components of
Figure 3.7

22

22
 Renewable
Energy
3.32 Syn

() Nacelle: high-speed shafts,

generator controller
andbrake.
gearbox, low- and
It includes rotor.
to
on the top of the tower and it is connected the
placed

() Rotor:
compose the rotor. Most of the horizontal-ais
The hub andthe blades together
use three
or blades in an upwind design. Blades are manufactured
turbines two or aluminium.
fhe
Fibreglass-Reinforced Polyester (FRP), wood laminates, steel A FRP blade
rotor hubs.
less stress on bearing and
Hence,
comparatively lighter and it exerts ,itisusodby
Other manufacturers use steel blades because of
most of the wind-turbine manufacturers. te
greater strength and lower cost. Sometimes, wood laminates blades are
ease of fabrication, als
properties. Vertical-
used due their excellent fatigue resistance
to axis wind-tubie

manufacturers often use extruded aluminium blades.

(ii) Hub and shaft:

Rotors of the wind turbine are attached with the shaft and hub assembly. The hub fut
i
portion of the shaft which faces the wind direction. It is normally of conical shape. The oe
end of the shaft is atached to the transmission system of the wind turbine.
(v) Anemometer:
This device is used for the measurement of speed. The wind speed is also fed to he
controller as it is one of the variables for controlling pitch angle and yaw.

Wind turbines are available in various sizes according to the potential to generate electrict
in ideal wind conditions. It is called "rated capacity." Wind turbines capacity rating rgs
from 250 Wto1.65 MW. Electricity production and consumption are referred in
kilowat-ho
(kWh).

2) Transmission system:
The mechanical power generated by to the
the wind turbine (rotor blades) is transmitted
clectric generator by a transmission system
located in the nacelle. The transmission
contains a gearbox, clutch
and braking system to stop the rotor in an emergency. The purpase
of the gearbox to
is increasethe speed of rotor typically from 20 1000 B
the to 50 rpm or from
1500 rpm which required
is for driving the most types of electric generators. The transmissiar
system must be designed outp
for high dynamic torque loads due
from the rotor.
to the fluctuating power

23

23
Wind Energy
8.33
3) Electric generator:
There are two main options
for the generator used in constant-
speed wind turtbines namely
asynchronous((induction) or synchronous generators.
Most of the
nstalled so far use induction generators. rid-connected windtubines
These turbines have to be connected to
orid before they can generate electricity. the electricity
The major disadvantage of the induction generstors
that they draw reactive power from is
the grid system. Sychronous generators do not
reactive power so they are favoured by require
utilities, Wind turbines driving electrical generators
onerate at either variable or constant
speed. In variable-speed operations, rotor
speed varies
with wind speed. In constant speed machines, rotor
speed remains constant despite changes in
the wind speed.

4 Yaw control system:

It is used to continuously orient the rotor in the direction
of the wind. The horizontaf-axis
wind turbine has a yaw control system that turns the nacelle
according to the actual wind
direction, using a rotary actuator attached to the gear ring at the top the wind tower.
of The
wind direction must be perpendicular to the swept rotor area during normal operation
of the
wind turbine. A slow closed-loop control system is used to control the yaw drives. A wind vane
mounted on the top of the nacelle senses the relative wind direction and the wind-turbine
controller then operates the yaw drives.

) Storage:
There are different energy storage systems available to store energy. Storage systems are
used to store energy when there is excess power developed and to discharge it when there is a
lack in power. The most common storage device is the lead-acid battery. If the wind energy
conversion system is to pump water and the pumped storage system of water is followed.

6) Energy converters:
Usually, the electricity produccd from wind energy is direct current (DC) So, it should be
converted into alternating current (AC) using an alternator before supplying to the
i
transmission grid for industrial and household appliances.

) Towers:
Mainly, wind turbines are kept on high towers due to light in weight, In addition, wind
are basically
turbines use light-weight towers than conventional mechanical windmills. Towers
or
hade up tubular steel or steel lattice. There are two types of towers such as guyed (lattice
of

24

24
 Renewable Energy
Sy
3.34 the location of windmill
self-supporting towers. If
free-standing
pole) towers and less cost.
tower is used because of
topography, a guyed and gravity loads. The wind
withstand wind loads towe
are designed to designed so
The towers that either
in the ground. It is its resote
to a strong foundation rotor or
induced frequencies fromthe
mounted they can be dampa
to be
frequencies not coincide with
do

out. m
for small wind applicationssand
tower is from 12 to 37
m

Usually, the range of

itisfion
m or higher for moderate
wind turbines.
30 m to 75

CLASSIFICATION OF WEcs DEVICES

313.
devices based on the force eve
There are two types of wind energy-conversion
aerodynamic drag wind turbines (rotors).
blades namely, aerodynamic lift and

Q LIt Ope wind turbine:

move the blades of the wind turbine Th
high-speed turbine depends on lift forces to
A

linear speed of the blades is usually several times higher

than the wind speed. The torged

lit force is low as compared to the drag type.

() Drag type wind turbine:
Low-speed turbines are slower than the wind. They are mainly driven by the drag
force

The torque at the rotor shaft is relatively high.

Based on the axis of rotation of the rotor, wind turbines are further classified as folows
1. Horizontal-axis wind machines and
2. Vertical-axis wind machines.

3.13.1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

In horizontal axis turbines, the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to
the grou
this case, the rotating shaft is parallel to the ground and
the blades are perpendicular
develonl
ground. Horizontal-axis or propeller-type
turbines are more common and highly
than vertical-axis turbines. Figure 3.8 shows a axis wi
schematic arrangement of a horizontal
turbine. Although the common wind principlkye
turbine with a horizontal axis is simple in
the design of a complete system especially a
large one that would produce electric
econommically is complex. o
It is of prime importance Such as
that the components

25

25
 generator and tower should not
ission, only be as efficient as
effectively in combination. possible but also
they must
tion

Wind

Rotor

Wind mill head -Tall vane

-Supporting
structure

machine
Figure 3.8 Horizontal axis wind
have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator
Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
wind. Small turbines
are pointed by a simple
must be pointed into the
Ehe top of a tower and it a servo motor. Most
a wind sensor coupled with
wid vane while large turbines generally use more
a quicker rotation which is
slowly into
fhem have a gearbox which turms the blades

ble to drive an electrical generator. turbine is usually pointed upwind of

the
behind it, the
a tower producees turbulence
tower by
ce prevent blades from being pushed into the
tower
ter. Tubine blades are made stiff to considerable distance in front of the
a
winds. Additionally, the are placed at
blades
d hey are sOmetimes tilted up a: snall amount. they do
turbulence because
problem of winds. The
despite the and high
Downwind machines have been built the wind
in line with reduces their
wind
seedan additional mechanism for keeping them
swept area and thus, it upwind
ades can which reduces their
most HAWTS are of
stance.
be allowed to bend lead to fatigue failures,
Since turbulence may
cyclic
tdines.

26

26
 RenewableEnergy
yr
3.36

blades the optimum angle of

Advantages:
which gives the turbine attack
Variable blade pitch with wind shear.
1.,
access to stronger wind in sites
allows
2. The tall tower base whole rotation since
power through the
Efficiency is high in receiving thebae
3.
perpendicularly to the wind.
always move
4. The face of a
horizontal axis blade is struck
a
t
by the wind at consistent angleregprl

its rotation.
of the position in
Disadvantages: winds. Therefor,
in near ground, turbulent
I. HAWTs have difficulty operating
towers are required.
up to 90 m long are difficult to transport.
2. The tall towers and blades
cran
very tall and expensive
3. Tall HAWTS are difficult to install and it needs

skilled operators.
4. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, geabex a
generator.
5. Reflections on tallHAWTS may affect side lobes of radar installations creating sipi
clutter, although filtering can suppress it.
6. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting t
appearance of the landscape and sometimes, creating local opposition.
7. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulks
when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow.
8. HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades towards

3.13.2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

In Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs), the main rotor shaft arranged vertically a
the axis of
rotation is vertical with respect to QP

the ground. Figure 3.9 shows a vertical

aŠ
wind machine.

The key advantage

of this arrangement is that
the wind streams to be effective
beponted
the turbine does not need to direction i
because their operation is
these vertical axis machines independent of wind
are called panemones. It the wi
direction is an advantage on sites where
is highly variable. With a vertical axis gearboxcak
turbine, and
the generator

27

27
Wwnd Energy
3.37
placed
near the ground so the tower
does not need to support
maintenance. Drawbacks arethat some
designs produce
it and
it is more accessible for
pulsating torque.
rGuys Aerofoilblades
(Catenary shape)

6.5 m

Vertical
shaft
Generator

Figure 3.9 Vertical axis wind machines

It is difficultto mount vertical-axis turbines on towers because they are often installed
ncar the base on which they rest such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is

slow at a lower altitude. So, less wind energy is available for a given size of turbine. Air flow
near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow which can introduce issues of
vibration including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or shorten the
service life. However, when aturbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects
wind over the roof and it can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop
mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, it is near the optimum
point for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Various types of vertical-axis wind turbines are as follows:

1. Darrieus rotor
2. Savonius rotor (turbo machine)
3. Multiple blade rotor
4. Musgrove rotor
5. Evans rotor.
(a) Darrieus rotor:

or
This rotator isshaped such as an egg beater and it consists of two three curved blades
anaped such as aero foils. The driving forces are lifting forces. This windmillneeds much less

28

28
 RenewableEnergy
Sy
3.38
a blade is moving across the
torque occurs when windoasq
area. The maximum with
surface may be initiated the electrical
wind speed. Initial movement
much high than

used as a motor.

Mutblade type

Four-blade dutch wind mill

Savonius type

Air foil
Sail type

Propeller type
Darrieus type
Figure 3.10 Types of
windmills
(b) Savonius rotor:
This type ofwindmill has hollow circular
cylinder sliced and the halves
mounted on a
vertical shaft witha gap in half
in between them. There is a complicated motionof w
through and around the two
curved sheet aerofoils rotates
I prodaad
by drag Torque is
by the pressure difference force.
betweentwo sides of efficientbl
it needs a large surface area. the half facing the wind. Ittis quite
It is simple in construction
and it is inexpensive.

29

29
 EnergY
Md
Maltiple blade type:
most widely used Itype of
Itisthe windmill. has
It 15 to 20 blades made
type has three blades made by stitching from metal sheets.
Thesail out triangular
at pieces of canvas
types run low speed of 60 to 80 rpm. cloth. Bo
these

Musgrove rotor:
0 the blades are vertical for
this rotor, normal power generation.
Thís roftor has an
advantage
of fail-safe shut down in: strong winds.

rotor:
e) Evans
Medical blades twist about a vertical axis speed for control and a fail-safe
shut down
Ofher types of windmills available for the power
generation are Four-blade Dutch windmill
ndd propeller type. Figure 3.10 shows various types of
vertical-axis wind turbines rotors.

Rotors can also be classified on the basis of their movement at varlable speed rdor or
cOs1ant speed rotor. For water pumping and small-battery operation, it is desirable to allow
he rotor speed to vary. However, for the large scale generation of electricity, it is common to
operate wind turbines at constant speed. It allows the use of simple generators whose speed is
are sometimes
fucd by the frequency network. Variable-speed wind turbines
of the electrical
a power electronic frequency converter is then requíred to
sed for electricity generation but
to the fixed frequency theelectrical
of

connect the variable frequency output of the wind turbine

system.

Advantages:
as VAWTs are more frequently
structure is less frequently used
I A massive tower
mounted near the ground.
mounted with lower bearing
are possible with fixed pitch otor designs
Designs without yaw mechanisms
near the ground making i easy to maintain
a VAWT can be located
The generator of
generate
moving parts. HAWTs. Typically, they start to
startup speeds than
*VAWTs have lower wind
electricity at 6 mph (10 km/h). are prohibited.
where taller structures mesas,
locations locations where
VAWTS may be built at
5.
advantage of
ground can take the wind velocity.
6.
VAWTs situated I close to the
wind and
increase the
pass funnel the
hiltops and ridgelines. They
signature.
1. VAWTS may a lower noise
have

30

30
 J.4Z Construction
Design and
3.13.3. wind Turbine wind
energy that
exists
to exploit the at a
are designed tower height, loct
Wind turbines determine the
optimum control
Aerodynamic modelling is
used to syt
convert the wind energy into electriity
Wind turbines
blade shape.
number off blades and axis turbines
can be divided into three components
horizontal
distribution. Conventional
which is
approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost
component inchbe
The rotor speedI rotational energy.
1.
converting the wind
energy to low I
the blades for approximately 34% of the wind turbine
conponent which is
2. The generator electronics and a gearbox componet
un
generator, the control
includes the electrical f
incoming rotation into high speed rotation suitably
converting the low speed fa

generating the electricity. w

support component which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine oas

3. The structural

includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.

3.13.4, Small Wind Turbines

Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or carvan
Small units have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades and iefne
bearings. They use vanes to focus the wind. Larger and costly turbines generally have gent
power trains, alternating current output and flaps. They are actively pointed into the vwint
Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched

3.14. CHARACTERISTICS OF WIND TURBINE ROTORS

To understand and analyse the characteristics

of a windmill rotor, some techms
parameters need to be discussed.
) Solidity:
Solidity is defined as the percentage circumference of the rotor which contains t
of
material instcad of air. If the machine
has high-solidity machines, it will
and have coarse blade contain more
angles. So, high-solidity machines b
need more starting torque than
solidity machines. At the same
time, high-solidity machines are low-solidiy
machines. The cost of less efficient than
components will increase due avoit'k
to the use of extra materials. To
low-solidity machines
should be manufactured with reducing the
cost
Solidity is calculated by high precision by

Percentage of solidity x
31.8 Number of blades x Blade x rdiameter
width Rotor

31

31
 Energ9Y
Wnd
3.43
Tip-speedratio:
) defined as
the ratio of
Itis speed of the blade tip of a windmill
rotor to the speediof free
a measure to krnow the 'gearing
wind. It is ratio' ofthe rotor.
Blade tip speed
Tip-speed ratio
Wind speed

Usually, a drag device has tip-speed ratio less than one. So, rotates
it slowly. Atthe same
liftdevice has high tip-speed ratio and hence, it rotates relatively faster
tine, a than the wind.
The tip speed of the rotor is given by
Tip-speed ratio = 0.052 x
Rotor diameter x Rotation speed x Wind Speed

coefficient:
9 Peformance
The proportion of power in the wind that the rotor can extract is termed as performance
cocfficient (C). It is a function of tip speed ratio which is normally used to classify the type of

rotor.

Power delivered by the rotor

Maximum power available in the wind
P
wind machine.
C, does not exceed 0.593 for horizontal axis
0.6

ldeal rotor
0.5
Lpropeller (2 blade)
0.4
-Multiblade

coefficient
0.3 Loaries
(3 blade)
Savonius
0.2 Dutch
Performance

0.1H

5
Tip-speed ratio
tip speed ratio
performancecoefficient with
of
Figure 3. 1IVariation coefficient with tip speed
ratio for
variation of performance energy
Figure 3.11 shows the extract the whole available wind
different r. Practically, it is
impossible to
I types of rotor.

32

32
 Renewable Energy

air reaching behind

wind power without losses. The losses occur during the the
nto
wind energy conversion is 59.3%. Sometimes,
standstill. The maximum loss in i
rotors.
45% for practical wind

) Torque:
does mainly depend on solidty
It is the turning
moment produced by
the rotor. It
d
rotors with high solidity and low tip-speed
speed ratio of the rotor. Usually, the
more torquethan rotors with low solidity and
hightip-speed ratio. At the same time,
coefficient but they have lowstartingtorqyue.
produce maximum performance
machines Fra
rotor.
ratio for different types
of

3.12 shows the variation of torque with tip speed

Multi blade rotor

0.4t
Four blade rotor

Three blade rotor

Torque

2 6 8 10
Tip-speed ratio
Figure 3. I2 Variation torque with tip-speed ratio

5) Rotor power control:

to
While designing, one of the important issues in a wind turbine is limit
the power o
at high wind speed. There are two options for constant speed machines.

0 Stall-regulated wind turbines: angk

The
wind speeds.
The pitch angle distribution alongthe blades is constant for all
occurs a ht
over blades is increased until the flow separation (stall)
attack of the aerofoil
The effect of this
process ok
wind speeds. It results in loss a of lift but the drag force rises. distribution

an appropriate choice of blade profile, the thickness and chord

relatively lowof
influenced by

the blade twist. The great advantage of stall regulation

is
its simplicity and

33

33
 Energy
i
Pitch-regulated wind
(0 turbines: 3.45
The blades can be rotated about
their radial axis
changes, It is therefore possible during operation
to have an optimum as
the wind speed
elatively low cut-in wind velocity. pitch
angle at all wind
The pitch speed
attack at high wind speed. It ensures
angle changes
in order to decrease the
anda
thatthe power output angle of
pOwer of the generator. from the rotor is fimited to rated
Pitch regulation more the
complicated control system.
is expansive and
It is more efficient than it requires a relatively
stall regulation.

M6 cONTROL SYSTEMS OF WIND TURBINE

The principal objectives
of the control systems are as follows: Among
alowing an automatic others, it needs in
operation, coupling and uncoupling
snod control, load control, the generator, rotor direction and
pitch control, warning operators
control structure of failures or maintenance. The
fora wind generator includes several sensors, actuators and a system
hardware and software to process with
the input signals for the sensors as well as to generate
output signals for actuators. the

Wind turbines are optimized to produce

maximum power output at the most probable wind
specds around 15 m/s, 33 mph, or 33 knots. It would be uneconomical to design
them for the
operation at the improbable higher wind speeds.

tis necessary to limit the power output in high wind conditions on all wind turbines.
Otherwise, a unaway turbine will be overloading its rotors and mechanical power train as well
sits electrical generator leading to catastrophic failure.

to also be oriented perpendicular to the wind stream using wind

Wind turbines have
orientation mechanism or yaw control. In addition, their brakes must be applied under
unfavourable high wind conditions. Some of these controls are performed mechanically in
older wind machines but in newer machines, they are performed hydraulically, and in the most
recent designs, they are done electrically using stepped up motors.

aerodynamic control to
Currently, modern wind turbines use two different principles of
are known as
limit the power extraction of the wind turbine. They

) stall control and

(Gi) pitch control.

34

34
 Renewable Energy
Syste

3.46
generators used a simple stall
majority of the wind contro
the past the
Although in manufacturers inereasingly are
machines the opting
however, with the increased
size theof e
greater flexibility in the operation of windgenerators.
which offers
thepitch control system

Turbines
3.15.1. Stall Control of Wind
a passive system that reacts to the
wind speed. The rotor blades
The stall control is
angle is cho
fixed in pitch angles and cannot
rotate around its longitudinal axis. The pitch
of a

on which is higher than continuous speed. The flow around the profile
based wind speed
(stall) reducing the aerodynamic in
rotor blade detaches from the surface of the blade note
forces. Lower aerodynamic lifts and higher drag forces act agaínst the
increasing the drag
power output increasing.
compared with the wind generators wt
The wind generators with a stall control when
advantages.
pitch control present usually the following
rotor hub
) Simple structure of the
number of moving parts
() Lower maintenance because the lower
power control.
(ii) Self-reliability of the
stall control has nota
However, at starting when the wind speed is lower the turbine with
sufficient starting torque. Therefore, an auxiliary starting
motor is required. Worldwide, te
use this simple
concept of the stall control is dominant. The majority of the manufacturers
by the inductin
possibility of powercontrol which needs a rotor constant speed usually assured
gencrator directly connected to the network.

3.15.2. Pitch Control of Wind Turbines

the sys
The pitch control is an active system which usually needs information from
generator poe
controller which is the most important application consisting of control of the
output. When the power output of the generator is excecded due to an increasing in the
M

assure that the turbl

speed, the rotor blades rotates around its longitudinal axis, in order to
produces only its continuous power. The reduction of the angle of attack decreases
Before
aerodynamic forces inthe blade and consequently, power output production.
the
wind conditions, the flow around the profiles of the rotor blades is quite adherent to the
producing aerodynamic lift and smal drag forces. The turbines with pitch control
su
al
addition, the
power active control under all wind conditions and under partial powers. In

35

35
Wind Energy 3.47

continuous rated power even under low air density is reached and a soft rotor start by pitch
changing is allowed.
On the other hand, strong brakes are not required to perform emergency stops of the rotor.
the rotor blades loads decrease with winds to increase the continuous power more and it is
possible to realize the Magging of rotor blades for small loads in extreme winds.

(a) Pach power control of the turbine blades:

Fixed speed variable
pitch baldes Synchronous
generator
Wind
turbine Gear box AC power

Speed control
Pitch control

Figure 3.I3 Pich power control turbine blades

of

In a pitch power-controlled wind turbine, an electrical controller senses the

power output
a an
of
the turbine several times per second. If the power level exceeds prescribed safe level,
electronic signal is generated which turns or pitches the blades out the wind. When the power
of

level is lower, they are pitched back to catch the wind at the optimal angle of
attack of the
power control, the rotor
blade's acrofoil. This control system is shown in Figure 3.13. In pitch
a a
blades are rotated around their longitudinal axis fraction of degrec
at a time while the rotor

continues its normal rotation. Clever design is needed to pitch the

rotor blades to the optimal

Bmount so as to maximize the power output at all wind speed.

(6) Mechanical control of the turbine blades:

to controlthe frequency of
With change of wind speed, the pitch of the blades is adjusted
Wind-turbine rotation. In a spring-operated mechanism, the higher
rotational speed of the rotor
compresses a spring as
generated a centrifugal force on regulating balancing weight which
a

rotates the blade about a pivot decreasing the

shown in Figure 3. 14 (a). The force of the weight
its speed. The compressed spring
angle of attack of the aerofoil to the wind stream and reducing
attack once the wind speed decreases. The
ends to restore the aerofoil to its original angle of

36

36
 KenewaDie Energy
Sye
3.48 expensive and unreliable.
control method can be
The
power in the wind is wasted. systemis shown in Figure 3.14 (0).
rotation begins. This control
appears once blade

Blade pivot

Wind

Compressed cut-in spring

Angle of attack

(a)

Controller
Controled
Wind AC power

Feedback to blade pitch

(b)
Figure 3.14 Mechanical control of turbine blades

3.15.3. Flap Power Control of Wind Turbines

aircat
Some wind machines have their rotors equipped with ailerons of flaps such as
decreased airlit
this case, the geometry of the wing airfoil is altered to provide increased or

37

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 Wnd Energy

3.15.4. Yaw Power Control of 3.49

Wind Turbines
Itis possible to yaw or rotate
the whole rotor mechanism
tationalspeed and power output. out of the wind to decrease
This technique is used its
It for small wind turbines 1
power or less., would subject large
wind turbines
of kW rated
atigue failure of the entire structure. to cyclic stresses that could lead to the
The majority of the wind turbines with horizontal axis include a yaw
order to maintain the nacelle control system in
oriented according with the wind
direction for a better efficiency
of thewind energy.
On the other hand, the use of the yaw control
to limit the energy production
is obviously an interesting possibility.
However, there are two factors existing
rapid reply of the system to control that limit the
the generator power output.
The first one is the high moment
of inertia of the nacelle and of the rotor around the yaw
axis and the second is the relationship
between normal component of the wind speed
rotor disc and yaw angle. The of the
second factor that limits the reply of the yaw system is
that at
small yaw angle. There is a minimal reduction in
the generator power output and for the pitch
system, if there is a change
of the same magnitude, the generator power output could fall by
half.

3.15.5. Orientation Yaw Control

The yaw position control mechanism is used to orient the wind turbine rotor in such a way
that it perpendicularly faces the wind stream. The wind turbine undergoes a yaw error if the
rotor is not perpendicular to the wind. The existence of a yaw error suggests that a lower
fraction of the energy in the wind will be flowing through the rotor arca and available for
extraction. The lost power fraction is proportional to the cosine of the yaw error angle.

A16. CHARACTERISTICS OF WINDMILL

As stated earlier, power available is proportional to the cube of wind speed. However, the
power output has a lower order dependence on wind speed because the overall efficiency of
the windmillchanges with wind speed. The following are the four important characteristics of
the wind speeds.

(a) Cut-in wind speed:

power. It is (ypically between, 3
It is the wind speed when the nachine begins to produce
ms and 4 ms (10km/hr and 14 km/hr, 7 mph and 9 mph).

38

38
 Renewable Energy
Sy
3.50

() Design wind speed:

the windmill reaches its maximum efficiency.
It is the wind speed when

() Rated wind speed: when

capacity. It is the wind speed the machine reaches
It is also called nameplate
wind speed is typically about
15 m/s (54
maximum output power. The rated
average speed of the wind.
which is about double the expected

(9 Cut-out wind speed:

furk
maximum safe working wind speed and the specd at which the wind
It is the
down by applying brakes to prevent damage to the system. ln addi
designed to be shut
may be slowed down by stalling or furling.
electrical or mechanical brakes, the turbine

0 Stalling:
can be used with fixed speed wind tuine
It isa selfcorrecting or passive strategy which
attack is increased until it reaches sall
its
As the wind speed increases, the wind angle of
destroyed. However, increasing
angle at which point the "lif" force turning the blade is
cross section of the blade face-on to the wind at
angle of attack also increases the effective
on the blades. A fully stalled nuti
thus, it directs the wind force and the associated stress
stopped.
blade has the flat side of the blade facing directly into the wind when

() Furling orfeathering: set

the blades is
It is a technique derived from sailing in which the pitch control of
on blades as well as the efd
decrease the angle of attack which in turn reduces the "lift"
cross section of the aerofoil facing into the wind. A fully furled turbine blade has the edg
stresses on the blade when stop
the blade facing into the wind reducing the wind force and

(iüi) Survival wind speed:

to
This is the maximum wind speed that a given wind turbine is designed withstand
is in the range
which it cannot survive. The survival speed of commercial wind turbines
m's (180 kmhr, 112 mph) to 72 m/s (259 km/hr, 161 mph). The most common
is 60 m's (216 kmhr, 134 mph), The safe survival speed depends on local wind
suie
which are usually regulated by national safety standards.
the p
may refer
The performance data for windmills can be misleading because they peri
over attime
or
efficiency peak output power, The data could also refer the average output
a time
because the power output varies with wind speed, the average output over
predictthe
dependent in the local variation in wind speed from hour to hour. Hence, to

39

39
Wind Energy

windmill, one needs 3.51

for a given to have output
e characteristics of the windmill
speed distribution curve of the site. The total energy and the wind
output of a windmill at
be obtained by multiplying the particular site can
values of both graphs for each
wind speed interval and adding
all products.

8.17. TYPES OF wIND POWER PLANTS

(WPPs)
Remote or Of-grid wind power pants:
Areas which are remote but are blessed
with good wind speed and frequency need a
wind
urbinc which is maintenance free or low-maintenance
for long period of time. These types of
urbines are known as remote wind power turbines and
they are specifically designed with these
objectives in view. These power plants are used in situations in
which remote or non-grid
connected power is needed but power must always be available, for
example, to keep vaccines
cold, or a rural clinic's lights on or communications equipment running continuously.

@ Small scale or Stand-alone wind turbines plants:

Itis more suitable for small scale wind power such as domestic systems. Figure 3.15 shows
the components and its arrangement for small scale domestic wind power system. One choice
isto have litle control so that the output is of variable voltage for use as heat or rectificd power.
Such a type of power supply is very useful.

Fiued speed
variable pitch
Asynchronous Surplus energy
baldes generator storage

Wind Rectifier Inverter

turbine
DCcontrol unit

Battery
Voltage
regulator

systems)
wind power (domestic
Figure 3.15 Small scale say 240 VIS0 H
power that usually has to be controlled at
The relatively small
amount of preferred to have
batteries by inverters. However, it is
from
0 V60 Hz can be obtained

40

40
 Renewable
3.52 Energy
Syse
electricity at constant frequency. Mechanical control and pitch power control of wind
tutbine
are generally used for constant frequency generation.

(ci) Mediam scale wind turbines plants:

Medumscale wind power plants are used in variety of places such as community
health clinic or school, The basic aim of the wind turbine is to be a diesel saver.
The
generator supplies power ied
in windless periods. A reasonable amount of diesel fuel cold
saved with a control strategy and system architecture whiçh allows
inshutting downthe
did
generator when the wind is sufficient to carry the load. In this case, there are two exttrene

modes of operation.

(a) Single-mode electricity supply distribution:

It is usually a three-phase supply that takes single phase to domestic dwellings wt,
single set of distribution cables and the system operates in a single mode at fixed volagg
24-hr maintained supply without load-management control
depends usually on
generation due to non-availability of wind. The diesel is either left on continuously or
swide
e
off when excessive wind blows. Generally, a large amount (over 70%) of the wind genent
power is to be dumped into an outside
resistor bank owing to the mismatch supplhy
demand in windy conditions shown in Figure 3.16.
of t
Controller

Wind

Meter
Single price
electricity

Constant voltage 240OVI110V

Figure 3. 16 Single-mode supply of wind/diesel supply

(b) Multiple-mode distribution:
In this case, every effort is made to use all wind-generated power. Economic
electi

for many applications in windy conditions is offered. The economic service

automatically switched off to decrease the demand due to wind drop. Only the loads an
availabilly d
expensive supply are enabled to supply power by a diesel generator without
wind. The economic advantage of multiple mode Figur 11
operation is used at all times.
shows schematic arrangement of multiple-mode supply of wind/diesel supply.

41

41
Wid Energy
3.53

Induction generator Energy storage

Wnd

Meter 1

Low price electricity, Ex. Heat

Meter 2

Diesel generator High price electricity, Ex Light

Figure 3.17 Multiple-mode supply of winddiesel supply

power trains for alternating
Large and more costly turbines generally have geared with
generators and aero
carrent output. Also, they are actively focused into the wind. Direct drive
clastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.

o) Hybrid wind power plants:

on wind alone for generating power.A
Wind is not fully reliable. So, we cannot depend
sun or
renewable source of energy such as the
wind power plant is combined with some other
an arrangement is known as kybrid arrangement and
solr energy to get more efficiency. Such
lot of heat and wind.
tseful in regions where there is
from wind energy, more than one type of generator is used
During electricity generation
array, elements of
fluctuation in power supply. Usually, a photovoltaic (solar)
o 2void the wind turbines. During
pessive solar heating and a back-up
diesel generator are combined with
system to
work as a renewable or single
resource available period, the system might used in
wd power demand, the hybrid system is mainly
During peak period
Roduce electricity. power system might add biomass, hy
dro
sometimes, the
Geder to meet the demand. In addition, resource availability.
sources the hybrid system based on the local
generating in
oier
by Grid connected wind power plants:
wind power plant is used in conjunction
to a hybrid system and the
This concept is similar purpose of the wind turbines
most of the power. The main
the system
amain grid which supplies whercas the main function in the hybrid
supply for the grid
Spplcment the energy

42

42
 Renewable Energy
3.54

the energy supply. Figure 3.18

shows schematie arrangement of
is to complement
wind power plant.

Induction generator

Household farm
Grid supoly
Exportimport meter

Figure 3.18 Grid-connected aerogenerator

(v) Wind farms:

Wind farm is a collection of wind turbines for generating power in a given are or

and hence, the harness of wind force in a collective manner amplifies the effect of asingkut
These configurations are used at various locations depending on the conditions of regin
the presence of other sources for electrical supply. An optimum mix would consist af

ingenious combination of various sources in the best feasible manner.

3.18. APPLICATIONS OF WIND ENERGY

In India and other countries, small windmills are directly combined with a puny
electriciy
storage tank. Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to produce
mu
usedin
kinetic encrgy of
wind is converted to electrical energy. They are extensively
applications.

In many places, wind power is the least-cost option for providing power o vai
are an
remote from windsin
business which established grid. Energy extracted from
energy
forms such as rotary, translational or oscillatory motion. The mechanical refrigeration
pumping fluids, heating applications, operating small household appliances to
freezing. cooling and lighting

43

43
3.19. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is wind energy?

conversion
Wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy. Wind power is the
clectri
wind energy into a useful form of energy such as using windturbines to make

44

44
WndEnergy
3.57
windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps
for water pumping or
drainage or sails to
propel ships.
How wind is created on earth surfuce?
Wind is produced by the uneven Anna Univ. Nov'20l
heating of the Earth's surface
Sun The poles of the Earth receive less energy by energy from the
from the Sun than the equator. Among
nyo, the dry land these
up
heats (and cools down) more quickly than sea.
The differential heating
drives a global atmospherie convection system
reaching from earth's surface to the
stratosphere which acts as a virtual ceiling.
How winds are fornmed? State various applications
of Wind Energy. Anna Univ. Nov'19)
Wind is formed by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by energy from the
Sun.
) Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous
with the
grid and are used to reduçe utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the
household and by selling the excess power back to the electric company.

(i) Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery
charging.
(im) Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for
driving an electrical submersible pump directly.

(iv) Wind turbines suitable for residential or village scale wind

power range from 500W

to 50 kW.

Write down the applications of wind power.

(a) Wind turbines are used to
generate electricity
mechanical power
(b) Windmils are used for producing
(C) Wind pumps are used for
water pumping or drainage
ships.
(d) Wind power is used in sails to propel
energy.
Mention the characteristics of wind
the atmosphere.
Wind-power systems do not pollute
) wind-power systems.
provision and transport are not required in
(ii) Fuel energy.
energy arenewable source of
is
(i) Wind on small scale is cheaper but competitive
with
energy when produced
(iv) Wind on a large scale.
power generating system when produced
conventional

45

45
 Renewable
Energy

3.58

dataflow chart.
6 Draw wind
Daily wind
Hourty data
wind deta

Monthly wind data

Monthly wind data (Number of hours at
(Number of hours at each wind speed)
each wind speed)

windspeed Wnd Average wind speed= Wind

Average speedx
speedx No. of hours/Total No. of hours
No, of hours/Total No. of hours

Monthly average wind speed

Annual wind = Total monthly

wind of each month /12

Figure 3.19 Wind data flow chart

7. Define wind shear.
The wind speed varies with the height above the ground. It is called wind
she
& What is wind power density?
A
yardstick frequently used to determine as Wind Pw
good locations is referred
Density (WPD).
9. What is the condition for maximum output power
from a wind turbine?
Uni% Nor2
Anna
Power output is maximum
at a particular value of calledgni
rotational speed
rotational speed. This optimum rotational spednati
speed corresponds optimum tip
to

46

46
Enary
meant by wind turbine?
3.59
is a rotating
A
wind turbine machine which
energy. converts
mechanical the kinetic energy of wind
into
capacity factor.
Dfine
ratio between actual productivity
The
in a year and theoretical maximum
factor. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%. is called
opaiy
Actual productivity
Cnacity factor ina year
Theoretical maximum productivity
in a year

How will
you define wind energy penetration?
Wind enery penetration
is defined as the fraction of energy produced by wind from
total available generation capacity. The penetration depends on the existing
generating
plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management
and other factors.
energy.
BL the advantages of wind (Anna Unin Apr 23|

a Wind power emits absolutely no greenhouse gases. Therefore, there is no polluticn.

cost.
b) Wind is obtained at free of
to remote areas.
e) Wind power is helpful in supplying electricity
sustainable. The wind will never run out.
(4 Wind energy itself is both renewable and
enormous ie. 20 times more than what the entire
(e) The potential wind power is
of
human population needs.

K Phat are the isadvantages of wind power?

of energy and it is not suited to meet the
Wind is
(intermitent) source
a fluctuating
base load energy demand.
pumped hydro.
energy storage e.g. batteries,
requiressome form
of
6)
Wind energy investments.
ofwind turbines require heavy
manufacturing and installation
3Ihe wildlife (e.g.
birds, bats).
(4 Wind turbines can be a threat to can be unpleasant.
noise which
generate a lot of
) Some wind turbines ttendto Anna Unin Nov'20|
power in wind.
Menion determine the
the factors which
Wind
power, P=n P2 wind,
power from
The
following determine the
factors which

47

47
 Fonewable
a.60
area of
thewind stream, A D
Cros sectionalI
a
()
turbine rotor, D ()
(G) Diameter of

(ii) Density of ait, p

(iv) K-Incoming
velocity of wind (mla)
power extracted by a wind turbine or the overall
of
()Fraction
efficiency of the machine
in another term caled
Overall conversion efMeiency can also be given
defined as the ratio of tthe output power produced
to
coefelent (C), Iis
available in the wind. The power coefficient is a function of both fip speediratioand
pitch angle.
The overall eonversion effliciency ofthe machine isa function of the followig lt
Wind velocity
Angular of velocityof rotor in the wind turbine
> Pitch angle
Design of aerofoilsection and number of blades.

16 Define Betz limit ofa wind turbine.

Betz limit is the theoretical limit assigned to efficiency
of a wind turbine.
17. What is the maximum possible wind eficlency which can be extracted by wind turhine

8
Maximum wind efficiency, Maximum power, P
Poweravailable in wind, P
2g

16
a0.593 -59.3%
18. Give
he main components of the wind power
LAnna Un N2
plant.
Wind turbine which consists blades,
of Nacelle, Rotor
i.e. the assembly of
Hub and shaft.
Transmission system
Electric generator

48

48
dEnery
Yaw control system 3.61

Storage
Energy converters
Tower to support the rotor system.

any teo inportant wind power plants

Name in India. (Anna Univ. Nov'22|
Muppandal wind farm with
the capacity of 1500 MW
in Tamil Nadu,
Kanyakumari
Jaisalmer Wind Park with the capacity of 1064
(i) MW in Rajasthan, Jaisalmer
Rrabmanvel wind farm with the capacity of 528 MWin Maharashtra,
Dhule
(v) Dhalgaon wind farm with the capacity of 278 MW in Maharachtra, Sangli.
Làt aRy four advantages of wind turbine. [Anna Unin. Dee10}
o Wind industry developers and manufacturers make a lot of money by investing
them due to government subsidies and cash incéntives.
man is finally punished
(G) They make the environmentalists happy may be because
against the earth.
[Anna Uni. Nov 20|
1 Sate the diferent types of windmills.

() Horizontal axis windmills

(i) Vertical axis windmills.

HAWT.
2 Mention anyfour advantages of attack
gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of
Variable blade pitch
0 allows the
access to stronger wind in sites with wind
shear.

(0) The tall tower base perpendicularly to the

the blades always move
efficiency since
It produces high
() receives power through the whole
rotation,
angle
Wind which
struck by the wind at a consistent
is
(IV) The face of
a horizontal axis blade
in its rotation.
regardless of the position
3. State any.
sofHAWT. blades, gearbox
and
four disadvantages to support
heavy
construction required is
) Massive tower installations creating
radar
generator, affect side lobes of
HAWTS may
(ü) Reflections fromtall can suppress it.
although filtering
Signal clutter

49

49
 Renewable Energy
3.62 Sy

obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting

Their height makes them
(i) appearance andIssometimes, creating local opposition. te
of the landscape

(iv) Downwind variants

suffer from fatigue and structural failure Caused
tower's wind shadow,
turbulence when a blade passes through
by

based on blade profile.

24. Classih vertical axis wind turbine
Multiple blade type
(0
() Savonius type
(Gi) Darrieus type.
of VAWT.
25 Write down any two advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
(0 VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited
(G) VAWTs situated close to the ground can take the advantage of locations a
hilltops, ridgelines and it passes funnel the wind. It increases the wind veloc

Disadvantages:
(0 The stress in cach blade due to wind loading changes sign twice during ead
revolution as the apparent wind direction moves through 360°.

(i) While VAWTS' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under he
weight of the structure above it which can make
changing out parts neany
impossible without dismantling the structure not
if designed properly.
26 Compare horizontal axis wind turbine with vertical axis
wind turbine with respect
capacity, capital cost, maintenance cost
and yaw control[Anna Univ. Apr' 22 & Apr2
S.
No. Reference HAWT VAWT
1. Need of yaw mechanism
The yaw mechanism is
The vertical axis wind
required to orient the turbine does not require
turbine in the direction yaw mechanism because
of wind.
itreceives wind from
all

directions.
Power coeficient
It has high-power
It has low-power
coefficient.
coefficient.

50

50
 (TSR)
363
Tip speed ratio It has high tip speed
It has considerably low
ratio.
tip speed ratio,
Efficiency The ideal efficiency
50% to 60%.
isThe ideal efficiency is
more than 70%.

Cost Itis less expensive

It is more expensive
due to their complex because their design and

design and installation. installation is quite

simple.

the parameters consideredIiin designing wind turbine rotors.

)Solidity
ratio
2) Tip-speed
3) Performance coefficient

4) Torque

5) Rotor power control.

solidity ratio of the wind turbine?|Anna Univ. Apr 23
1 Fhado you mean by the term of
contains the
percentage of circumference of the rotor which
Soidity is defined as the more material
high-solidity machines, it will contain
has
al instead of air. If the machine machines need more starting
torque than low
angles. So, high-solidity
hve coarse blade same time, high-solidity machines are less efficient than
low-solidity

machines. At the avoid i

to the use ofextra materials. To
will increase due
cost of components
cost.
nes. The
high precision by reducing the
with
lidity machines should
be manufactured

dey is calculated by x Rotor diameter

of blades x Blade width
= 31.8 x Number
rercentage of solidity Anna Un% Nov'21|
a windmill rotor to
2 Befine tip speed ratio. the blade tip of
as theratio of speedof rotor.
ratio" ofthe
Ppeed ratio is defined measure to know the
'gearing
espeed
lof free wind. It is
Blade tip speed
Tip-speed ratio = Wind speed

51

51
 Renewabe Energy

3.64
Syn
one, So,
tip-speed ratio less than it rotates sloowly.
Usually, a drag device has At
hence, it rotates relatively
high tip-speed ratio and faster
same time, a lift device has h
by
the wind. The tip
speed of the rotor is given
x
x Rotor diameter
x Rotation speed Wind Speed
Tip-speed ratio 0.052
machine.
30. Define performance
coefelent related to wind
(C) is a function of tip speed ratio which
The performance coefficient

used to classify the rotor.

Power delivered by the rotor

C Maximu power available in the wind

G, does not exceed 0.593 for horizontal

axis wind machine.

31. Write down the characteristic of wind speed.

Cut-in wind speed: The speed at which the machine begins to produce power.
0
(i0) Design wind speed: The speed at which the windmill reaches its maim
efficiency.

(iily Rated wind speed: The speed at which the machine reaches its maximum outpt
power.

(iv) Furling wind speed: The speed at which the machine furls to prevent damage t
high wind speeds.

32. What is meant by stalling?

If the air pressure increases on the low pressure side, enormous turbulence is prodkca
which reduces the lift force and it leads to increase
the drag significantly called sae
33. State the characteristics
oflift and drag
(a) Drag is in the direction of airflow.
(b) Lift is perpendicular to the
direction of airflow.
(c) Generation of lift always causes a developed
certain amount of drag to be
good aerofoil.
(d) The lift produced can
be thirty times greater
than drag.
(e) Lift devices are generally more
eficient than drag devices.

52

52
 3.65
Moation the purposes of pitchi control
in windturbines.
with (Anna Univ. Apr 22)
pitch control allow
The turbines the power active control
under partial powers. under all wind
Gonditions and In addition,the continuous rated power even
under
density is reached and a soft rrotor start
w air by pitch changing is allowed.
power plants.
Cessif wind
o Remote wind power plant
(6) Hybrid wind power plant
turbine
(ii) Small wind
iv) Grid connected wind power plant

() Wind farm.
installing the wind turbines?
K
hat ere the most favourable sites for
Anna Univ. Nov'21]
the extract of wind energy. They
Mainly, four sites are selected to install windmills for

tas follows:
) Plane site

(ii) Hill top site

(iii) Sea-shore site

water site.
(iv) Of-shore shallow
issues of WPPs.
Lst the various grid integration
are broadly classified as follows:
issues of WPPs
The grid integration

(a) Interface issues:

power control
() Short circuit
power control
() Active and reactive

(i) Voltage control

(b) Operational issues:

system stability
() Power
Frequency control
()
term balancing
(ii) Short
term balancing
(iv) Long

53

53
 Renewable Energy
Syse
366 systems
on transmission and distribution
(v) Impact
Economic dispatch and
unit commitment
() ratioo affects the gridIstrengtk.
mention howthis
circuit power r ratio and
38 Define short short cireuit
power ratio at the PCC
WPP installation, the isther
For any given
installed WPP capacity. If this ratio
power of the grid tothe isabove
of the short circuit a
strong with respectto the installation anddthe weak forte
25 times, the grid is saidto
be
to

ratio belovw 8 to 10 times.

control with respect to grid integration?
38 What â meant by voltage
in the grid witi
Voltage control refers the task of keeping the node voltages
preventing any deviation from the
nominal value within the specifet
required limits and

limits.
ef voltage control in WPPs.
44 Lit the functions
aæ
Since every large WPP is also a power station, the functions of the voltage control
as
follows:

Maintain constant voltage at PCC

Maintain stable distribution of reactive power over other WPPs

Prevent high voltage in case of loss of load

> In short circuit situations, increase the grid stability by increasing the excitation f
Type-C and Type-D WPPs and thereby the synchronism of the grid.
41. What is meant by frequency control in grid integration?
Maintaining a constant system frequency is vital for grid security. Therefore,
cvent that causes frequency changes must be quickly corrected. The frequency must
kept within strict limits to avoid system degradation, usually ± 1%
for normal oper
As soon as the grid frequency starts
generate
to drift, the
power plants slighty change the
power to stop the frequency drift.
This strategy is called the frequency control.
42. Lst the type offrequency control.
Frequency control is generally based on the
following three control actions.
> Primary frequency control
Secondary frequency control
Tertiary frequency control

54

54
Wind Energy

3.67
R Write short note on unit commitment.
Unit commitment
of power plant is the scheduling
expected electrical energy of specific power plants to meet
demand on a day-to-day basis.
hours to get startcd and Some generators require several
synchronized to the grid while in many cases,
of the conventional power generators is the shutdown process
also lengthy and units may require
of cooling prior to restarting. This timescale several hours
is called unit commitment. It can range
several hours to several days, depending on from
the specific generator characteristics
and
operational practice.

4. State the various applications of wind energy.

() Wind energy is used in water pumping.
(ii) Systems for community centers, schools and health clinics.
(ii) Windenergy used in heating and cooling processes.
(iv) Wind energy used in electricity generation.
45. List down the main industrial applications wind energy.
(i) Telecommunications
(ii) Radar

(ii) Pipeline control

(iv) Navigational aids such as ship with sails
(v) Cathodic protection
(vi) Weather stations/seismic monitoring
46. Mention the various environmental impacts of wind energy systems.

()Impact on land use

(ü) Impact on wildlife
(i) impact on weather and climate change
(iv) Impacts on people
(V) Life-cycle global
warming emissions
acceptance.
Landscape and visual impact and (vii) Public
(vi)

3.20. sOLVED QUEsTIONS

wind energy
Discuss the various considerations
taken into account for site selection ofa
(Anna Univ. Nov '20. Apr 22 & Nov 22]
system.

Refer chapter 3.2

on Page 3.5.L

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