Unit- 2

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar Radiation and its measurements, Solar Thermal Energy

Conversion from plate Solar Collectors, Concentrating Collectors
and its Types, Efficiency and perfomance of collectors. Direct Solar
Electricity Conversion from Photovoltaic, types of solar cells and its
application of battery charger, domestic lighting, street lighting, and
water pumping, power generation schemes. Recent Advances in PV
Applications: Building Integrated PV, Grid Connected PV Systems.

1
 2

SOLAR ENERGY

A. sOLAR RADIATION

The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of clectromagnetic waves.
When a body absorbs this radiation, the temperature of the body is increased. It provides the
energy needed to sustain the life in our solar system. Solar energy is an important, clean, cheap
and abundantly available renewable energy. It is produced and radiated by the sun, more
specifically, it refers to the sun's energy that reaches the carth. Solar energy received in the
form of radiation can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms ofenergy such as heat
and electricity which can be utilized by us. Since the sun is expected to radiate at essentially
constant rate for a few billion years, it may be regarded as an in-exhaustible source of useful
cnergy.

The major drawback of solar energEy is that it is a dilute form of energy with very low
power density from 0 to 1 kWm which is available intermittently. uncertainly and
continuously but not steadily. The solar rays coming from the sun changes its direction during

2
 Renewable Energy System
is
on the ground level affected by
22 season. Solar energy received
the day and with the etc.
atmospheric clarity,
degree of latitude,

2.1.1. Physics of the

Sun
is still mysterious to know how the energy generation happens in the
sun. The s
t elements in the world which is confirmed by the spectral
contains nearly all the known
two elements ie. 80% hydrogen and 19% helium
measurements but it contains mostly of the composition
of more than 100 elements with very tiny fractions
Remaining I% consists
accepted that the source of the sun's energy is due to hydrogen-to
Therefore, it is generally
date it is not possible to simulate this reaction in any
helium thermonuclear reaction. Till
to understand the basics of this reaction
scientific laboratory. Hence, it is impossible
mechanism as well as how solar prominences and
sunspots are created. However, the nature of
energy creation is not of much important to the terrestrial users of the sun's radiation
but it is
its variation
important to know the amount of energy, its spectral and temporal distribution, and
with tme of day and year.

The sun is a large sphere comprised of many layers of gases which are increasingly hotter
toward its center. Its diameter is 1.39 x 10° km. The outermost layer from which energy is
radiated is approximately at a temperature of 5485°C. But the center of the sun may be predicted
to have 20 x 10"C. The rate of energy transmission from the sun is 3.8 x W. Out of this,
10
only tiny fraction i.e. 1.7 x 10"kW is intercepted by the earth. The mean
distance between the
sun and earth is 150 million km.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the relationship between the sun and
carth.

Sun

Earth

-0.53

150 million km t
1.7%

Figure 2.IRelationship between the sun

and the
earth
Solar energy is the world's
most abundant permanent
energy received source energy.
by the earth is S000
times greater
of The amount of
terrestrial nuclear, than the sum of
geothermal andgravitational all other energies
ofgreat amount ofenergy, energies, and lunar
30% isreflected to space, gravitational energy.
47% is convertedto
low-temperature

3
SolarEnergy
2.3
and related
to space, and 23% powers the evaporation.
Less than 0.5% is represented in the
energy of the wind and waves
kinetic in photosynthetie storage in plants.
Total terrestrial radiation is only one-third
of the extraterrestrial radiation total during the
year and 70% of on
it falls the oceans. The remaining 1.5 x of energy
10"kW-h on
falls the
lnd. However, this amount of energy is enormous
ie. approximately 6000 times the total
onengy usage
the United States but
of only small fraction of this total can be used because of
physical and socioeconomic constrains.

21.2. Solar Constant

The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called solar constant,
l Itisdefined as the amount of energy received in unit time for unit area perpendicular to the
sun's direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. The solar constant is expressed
in three common units as per the World Radiation Centre. They are:

1. 1.367 kWm or 1367 Whm?,

2. 1165 kcal/mper hour,

3.432 Btu per sqft per hour.
as a standard value of solar constant.
This value has been accepted and adopted universally

21.3. Solar Radiation

sun is called solar energy. Energy is radiated by
The energy produced and radiated by the range of 0.2 to 4.0
the sun as electromagnetic
waves of which 99% have wavelength in the
micrometers. The energy from the
sun reaching the top of the carth's atmosphere consists of
about 8% ultraviolet radiation (short wavelength,
less than 0.39 micrometer), 46% visible light
more than 0.78
micrometer) and 46% infrared radiation (long wavelength
(0.39 to 0.78
micrometer).
and measured
is defined as the measure of power density of sunlight
The term iradiance area and per unit
solar radiant energy falling on a surface per unit
n Wim.
It is the amount of kWhm.
measure energy density of sunlight and it is measured in
e Irradiation is the of
to components of solar radiation.
Iadiance and irradiation apply all from
or scattered and reaches the ground directly
not absorbed
Solar radiation which is the solar radiation
or "beam radiation", Difluse radiation is
unis called "direct radiation" scattering by the
has been changed by reflection and
teceived from direction sum of
the sun after its any point on the carth's surface isthe
atmosphere. The total solar radiation received at

4
 Renewable Energy Systen

are
24 direct, diffuse and total radiations shown
three ia
radiations. These
diffise
the direct and
Figure 2.2.
Solar radiation
(Short wave length) Reflected from
atmosphere

O,.CO).O
Extraterrestrial Hp, co,
region Atmosphere
media)
dust, etc.
(Porous

Beam radiation
Diffuse radiation
Reflected
Terrestrial (Long from
region wave ground
length)

Earth

Figure 2.2 Direct or beam, difuse and total radiations

214. Extraterrestrial and Terrestrial Solar Radiation

The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away
from the surface
of the sun though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar
radiation incident on the outer
atmosphere of the carth is known as extraterrestrial
solar radiation. Solar radiation received
at the surface of the carth is entirely
different due to various reasons.
radiation deviates from the solar constant
The extraterrestrial
value due to two reasons. The
the radiation emitted by the sun first is the variation in
itself. The variation due to this reason
different periodicities. The is less than +l.5% with
second is the variation
slight elliptical path. The
of earth-sun distance arising from earth's
variation due to this reason
is 3%. The extraterrestrial
not affected by the change
in atmospheric conditions as
radiation s
passing through the atmosphere, it is outside the atmosphere. While
it is subjected to mechanisms
scattering depending on
atmospheric conditions
of atmospheric absorption and
that reaches the carth and depleting its density. The solar radiation
surface after passing
terrestrial solar radiation. through the carth's
The positions of extraterrestrial atmosphere is known
in Figure 2.2. and terrestrial regions are
indicateo

5
 Solar Energy
2.6
21.5. Solar
Radiation Geometry
The
variation in seasonal
solar radiation availability at the
surface of the earth can be
understood from the geometry of the relative
movement of
the earth around the sun. The
distance between the earth and sun changes throughout
the year, minimum being 1471x10 km
kter solstice (December 21) and maximum being 1.521x10' km at summer
solstice (June
a) year-roundaverage earth sun distance is 1.496x10 km.
The
Therefore, the amount of solar
adiation intercepted by the earth varies throughout year,
the the maximum being on December
1 and the minimum on
June 21. The axis of the carth's daily rotation around itself is at an
nle 23.45to the axis of its ecliptic orbital plane around the sun. Thís tilt is the major
of
eNIe of the seasonal variation
of the solar radiation available at any location on the earth
In thesolar radiation analysis, the following angles are useful.
@ Latitude of location ($):
The latitude of a place is the angle subtended by the radial line joining the place to the
center of the earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane. The latitude is taken
spositive for any location towards the northern hemisphere and negative towards the southern
hemisphere. For example, the latitude at equator is
0 while at north and south poles are +90°
nd-90° respectively.

@ Declination (8):
Declination (6) is the angular distance of the sun rays north (or south) of
theequator. Its
on the
heangle made by the line joining the centers of the sun and the earth with its projection
on June 21 to
The
cquatorial plane. of
value this angle varies from a maximum of +23.4S
minimum of-23.45° on December 21.

can be calculated from Cooper equation given by

The declination for any day

360 degrees 2.1l)

8- 23.45 sin 365

where n=Day oftheyear.

() Hour angle
(o):
the meridian of the plane directly
s the angle through which the earth must turn to bring
per hour. This angle can also
line with The hour angle (o)is equivalent to 15°
the sun rays. due to
or west of the local meridian
be defined as of the sun, cast
the angular displacement

6
 Renewvaue rVyyatem

latitude, hour angle and sun's

28 per hour. The
at an angle of 15°
of the earth
on its axis
rotation Figure 2.3.
angle are shown in
declination
N

Meridian parallel to sun rays

Meridian of observer at P

Sun rays

Equator

s
Figure 2.3 Latitude , hour angle o, and sun's declination &

o) Solar Azimuth angle (ys):

Sun

Flgure 2.4 Sun's

enith, altitude and
azimuth angles
The
solar azimuh angle
is the angle of the
from due south (true south) sun's rays measured
for the Northern in the horizontalIplane
Hemisphere or due Southert
north for the

7
 Solar Energy 2.7

Hemisphere. ln other words, it is a horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal
projection of the sun rays. This angle is positive when measured from west.
The mathematical expression for the solar azimuth angle is given by

sin ys
-sinoxcos8
cOSCL

where = Declination angle

&

- Hour angle

an Altitude angle

() Sucface Azimuth angle ():

It is the angle of deviation of the nomal to the surface from the local meridian, the zero
point being south, cast positive and west negative.

() Slope or Tilt angle (B):

angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal. It is taken to be positive for
It is the
surfaces sloping towards the south and negative for surface sloping towards the north.

(v) Altitude angle (a):

sun rays on the horizontal plane and the
It is a vertical angle between the projection of
direction of sun rays passing through the poit.

(rii) Zenith Angle (®z):

sun
It complimentary angle of sun's altitude angle. It is a vertical angle between the
is
rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through the point.

6,-a- 90-a

(a) Incidence angle (e):

rays strike the Earth's surface. It is the angle between the
It is the angle at which the Sun's
radiation / and
is the angle between an incident beam
sun's rays and normal on a surface. If0 normal to the
cquivalent flux or radiation intensity falling

surface is given by cos

I .
normal to the plane surface, then the
Here, 0 is
are same.
known as incidence angle. For a horizontal plane, the

incidence angle and zenith angle

Sun
radiation is largely a function of the angle of incidence. If the
TheThe intensity of solar
insolation strikes the
directly overhead or 90° from the horizon, the incoming
p positioned horizon, the
8 right angle and is most intense. If the Sun is 45° above the
So Surlace the Earth at
of

8
 Renewable Energy
Syst
28 causes the rays be spread
incoming insolation
strikes the Earth's
surface at an angle. It o
of the radiation.
area reducing the intensity
over a larger surface
other angles is given by
spherical geometry, the relation between 0 and
For the
cos y cOs sin p) + cos o (cos 6 cos
(sin 8cosß+ cos 5
cos
-sin cos 5 sin y sin o sin B
cos B-sin 8 cos y sin B) + (22

where Latitude
Declination angle

Slope or tit angle

Hour angle
Surface azimuth angle

For vertical surfaces, B 90°

cos
-sin cos 5 cos y cos - cos sin cos y + cos 5 sin y sin
For horizontal surface,
B-0, ,
cos z sin 5 sin + cos & cos cos o (23)
Surface facing south, y=0
cos
@sin ¢ (sin 5 cos
cos 5 cos o sin
B +
o) +
cos (cos 5 cos o cos
B-sin 8 sin B)
. cos
=sin 5 sin ($-) + cos 5 cos o cos (-B)
(24
For vertical surfaces facing
south (ß=90°, y=0)
cos sin cos cos
5 -cos sin &
(25)
21.6. Sum at Zenith and Air Mass (m)
Sum at zenith is defined
as the position
of the sun directly overhead.
Air mass is the path length radiation
path at sca level as of through the atmosphere
unity. The air mass m considering the vertic
atmosphere to the length is the ratio of the path
of the sun rays through
of path when the sun is at the
1, wben the sun
zenith. e
is at Zenith, Le., directly
overbead.
2, when Zenith angle is
60.

9
SolarEnergy
2.9
m=sec 6, when m>3
m=0 just above the carth's
atnosphere.
where 0, - Zenith angle, in degrees.
The transmission coetficient or transmittance of the atmosphere for
direct solar radiation
dr clear sky condition at sea level is defined as the ratio between the intensity
of solar
ation received on the earth's surface and intensity of extraterrestrial radiation.
21.7. Attenuation of Beam Radiation
Atenuation is the variation of solarradiation reaching the earth and received at the outside
ef the atmosphere. It is due to absorption and scattering in atmosphere.

() Absorption:
As the solar radiation passes through the earth's atmosplhere, the short-wave ultraviolet
rays are absorbed by the ozone in the atmosphere and the long wave infra-red waves are
absorbed by the carbon dioxide and moisture in the atmosphere.

6) Scattering:
components of the
As thesolar radiation passes through the carth's atmosphere, the
a
a
atmosphere such as water vapour and dust scatter portion of
the radiation. Apart from this,
The
portion of this scattered radiation always reaches
the earth's surface as diffuse radiation.

particulate matter absorbs as well

as scatters electromagnetic radiation.
scattering
greater than absorption. Since the attenuation by
In general, scattering is much a formula
dust particles are difficult to separate. Angstrom suggested single
and absorption by
which is given by
known as Angstrom's Turbidity Formula

K =)*
direction,
where K, Aerosol optical depth in vertical

Angstrom's Turbidity coefficient,

t
exponent, and
-Wave length
A=Wave length in microns. present in the
depends on the amount of aerosols
between 0-0.5 to
Ihe value of t varies depends on the ratio of smallparticles
of o varies between 4-0
sphere and the value
large particles.

10
 Renewable Energy Syst
2.10
Concentration Ratio
2.1.8. Clarity Index and on earth's horizontal surface o
defined as the ratio of radiation received
Clarity index is
on equal surface area beyond the earth's atmosphere in dir
a given period to radiation atmosphere for the passage of
upon the clarity of
perpendicular to the beam. It depends
Clarity index can be between 0.1 and 0.7.
radiation.
beam
Concentrating collectors
are the potential applications in both thermal and n
at high delivery temperature. These collectors are typically
generation (electrical power)
generation.
temperatures above 100°C are needed, i.e. process heat or electricity
where
ratio of solar power per unit area of the concentr
Concentration ratio (CR) is the is s
power per unit area on the line focus or point focus (kW/m). It
surface (kWm) to solar apert
area aperture of the system to the area of the receiver. The
defined as the ratio of the of
the beam.
of the system is the projected
area of the collector facing (normal)
with sun-tracking in two planes,
CR

collectors, CR= 1. Using heliostats

For flat plate trou
can be obtained. CR up to 100 can be achieved by using parabolic
the order of 1000
collectors with sun tracking in one plane.

21.9. Solar Insolation

The tern solar insolation (incident solar
radiation) is defined as the solar radiin
on
a surface on earth at a particular instant of time. It depends
received on flat horizontal
following parameters.
1. Daily variation (Hour angle).
2. Seasonal variation and geographic location of the particular surface.
3. Atmospheric clarity.

4.Shadows of trees, tall structures, adjacent solar panels, etc.

5. Degree of latitude of the location.
6. Area of exposed surface, m
7.Angle of tilt of solar panel.

2.1.10. Day Length, Sunrise and Sunset

our day-to-day life that during sunmer, sun rises early and sets lai
Iis evident from
summe
during winter, the sun rises late and sets early. Therefore, the day is longer during North Pol
shorter during winter. is due to the fact thatthe angle of latitude (from equator to
It

11

11
 Energy
Saar 2.11
summer and decreases
during during winter. Hence, sunrise
icreases
upon the
the hour, sunset hour and
depends latitude of location season
day-length and and day in year. the
Let us
consider,,the hour angle for sunset
and sunrise is o, the horizontal
surface equation
above may
given be rewritten by considering that the sun light is exactly parallel to the
2) and hence substituting 90°,
isurface
o,=cos(-tan tan 8) (2.6)
Total day-length O,+o, 20,

-2cos (-tan tan 5)

Since 15° of
the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, 2 cos- tan tan o corresponds to
208(-tan tan 8)

hours.
15

s lcos(- tan
s
2 $ tan 8)] (2.7)

(ti) isa function of latitude () and solar declination (5).

Thus, the length of the day

21.1. Local Solar Time or Local Apparent Time

apparent time.
The time used for calculating the hour
angle is the local solar time (or) local
two
can obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying
The solar time be every, degree difference in
a magnitude of 4 minutes for
coections. The first correction has
ongitude. The second correction called
equation of time correction.

20
15
min.
10
in 5
time

of
Equation

-5
-10
-15
-20
A
MJ SO NO
J F M
Month
correction
equation oftime (E)
Figure 2.5 Graph of

12

12
 Renewable Energy Syal

are subject to Smel

2.12 rate of rotation
that the earth's orbit and observations. Figure 2.5 shou
the fact
It is due to correction is based on experimental
perturbations. This year.
different month in a
time correction
for
equation of
(LST) Longitude Equation
Local Solar Time Standard
of time
- Standard Time 4 time of correction)
longitude location

western hemisphere and the negative

sign is applicable f
The positive sign is used
for

the eastern hemisphere.

21.12. Apparent Motion of Sun te

about its axis causes the apparent motion of sun. It changes
The rotation of the carth move
component of light strikes the earth. The sun appears to
angle at which the direct sun depend
sky from a fixed location of the carth surface.
The position of the
throughout the
a year. Hence, the apparent motion
on the location of a point on carth, time of day and time of
of sun hasa major impact on the amount of
power received by a solar collector. The powe
density of the solar colector surface is cqual to the inside
power density when the sun rays are
perpendicular to the collector surface. Intensity of lar radiation on the surface is reduced
so s
the angle between the sun and collector surface changes.

The angle between the fixed location on earth and the sun depends on the particular
location ie. the longitude of the location, the time of year and the time of day. Also, it is the
time at which the sun rises and the sun sets which depends on the latitude of the location
Hence, the complete analysis of the sun's angle to a fixed position on earth
requires the latitude,
longitude, day of the year and time of day.

22. ESTIMATION OF SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation data are available in terms

kJm. day or kWhm'. day for various days
months /an year are used for calculating
the:
(a) available solar energy at particular
location,
(b) calculating the surface area
of the solar collectors,
(c) determining rating of solar
plant.
India is in the northern
hemisphere within latitudes
radiation data (global, of and 37.5 N. In India,
7
diffuse and direct) are measured
at 16 locations and computed
sol
145 locations using for abou
modified Angstrom correlation.
Theaverage solar radiation values To

13

13
 Ronewable Energy Syln

2.4 on 1 Page224
r above AU Problem
2.30 suitably similar to
missing data
Assume all radiation 21858.73 kJm-day
(Note:- & Total
0.75, R, 0.05
0.854, R
(Ans:- R

MEASUREMENT
SOLAR RADIATION
the increasing number of

because of
measurements are important
Solar radiation
need for accurate solar irradiation data to predict
applications, and the heating effes
heating and cooling
instruments which will measure the
requires
perfornance. Solar radiation
diffuse solar radiation.
direct solar radiation and ae s
instruments used for measuring solar radiation. They
There are two basic types of
follows:

. pyrheliometer: incidencg
measurement of direct solar radiation flux at normal
It is an instrument for the
an electrically driven equatorial mount which tracks
te
This instrument is usually attached to

Sun.
2.Pyranometer:
arriving
It is an instrument for the measurement of the direct and diffuse solar radiations
from the whole hemisphere. This hemisphere is usually the complete sky dome. A pyranomer
can be used in a tilted position as well, in which case it will also
receive the ground reflects
radiation. Pyrheliometer and pyranometer are basically a radiometer which absorbs the solr
radiation at its sensor, transforms it into heat and measures the resulting amount of hest
ascertain the level of solar radiation.

Sunshine recorder is used for measuring the sunshine.

hs1. Measurement of Direct Radiation using

Pyrheliometer
A pyrheliometer is an instrument
which measures the direct beam solar
instrument which collimates the radiation. It
radiation to determine the beam
incident angle. To measure intensity as a function
the direct solar radiation correctly, its
arranged to be normal to the solar direction receiving surface mus
ie., a line
reason, the instrument joiningthe sun and receiver. Forths
is usually mounted on a sun-tracking
device called an equatorial
In this device, a sensor disc
is located at the base of a tube
whose axis is aligned with
o
direction of the sun rays.
Thus, the diffuse radiation
is essentially blocked
surface. Most of the pyrheliometers
operate on the principle
from the
of thermopile effect. The d
se

14

14
SolarEnergy
2.31
component is avoided by installing a collimator tube over
the sensor with a circular cone angle
ofabout 5°,
Three types of pyrheliometers are
used to measure the normal incident beam
follows: radiation.
They are as
1. Angstrom pyrheliometer

2 Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer

3. Eppley pyrheliometer.

LAngstrom compensation pyrheliometer

In this type, a thin blackened shaded manganin strip (size 20 x 2 x 0.1 mm) is heated
electrically until it is at the same temperature as a similar strip which is exposed to solar
Bdiation. Figure 2.7 shows the electric circuit of this pyrheliometer. Under steady state
conditions (both strips at identical temperature), the energy used for heating is equal to the
bsorbed solar energy. The thermocouples on the back of each strip is connected in opposition
arough a sensitive galvanometer to test the equality of temperature.

Key

Heating
Current

Thermo-junction
Heated strip
Shaded strip
Galvanometer

Exposed
strip

Key
compensation pyrheliometer
cireuit of Angstrom
Figure 2.7 Electrie
formula.
radiation is calculated by using the
energy Hof direct
he on the area nornal to
sun rays
radiation incident
DN = Direct
HoN
=KI²

15

15
 Renewable Energy Syston

2.32
where amperes
Heating current in
instrument constant
K Dimension and
(2em).
per unit length of theabsorbing strip
R-The resistance
absorbing strip and
W-The mean width the
of

absorbing strip.
a-The absorbing coefficient of the

Abbot silver disk pyrheliometer

2.

radiation measurement.
A
by Abbot in 1902 for the
This instrument was designed
in Figure 2.8. In this
pyrheliometer, a silver dsk
schematic diagram of this device is shown
cm thick
painted black on its radiation-receiving side which is 3.8 cm in diameter and 0.7 i
diaphragms to limit the whole aperture to
a
5.7°.
positioned at the lower end of tube with
inside a copper box which is enclosed ina
The disk is suspended by three fine steel wires
temperature change of the surrounding. Mercury
wooded box to protect the instrument from the
in glass thermometer is used to measure the
temperature at the disk. A good contact
between silver disk and thermometer bulb is
maintained by using nnercury. The Shutter

thermometer stem is bent at right angle to

make this instrument more compact and casier
to use. It is also supported in a metallic
Blackened
protective tube. A cylinder with diaphragms ylinder paint-silver disc
inside is fitted in the wooden container to let
the direct solar radiation falling onto the silver Diaphragm
disk. There is a metallic-plate shutter at
the top Mercury-in
end of the cylinder to block or allow
the glass
passage of solar radiation to thermometer
the disk.
Wooden
During the measurement phase,
the disk Copper container
is heated by solar radiation and
its temperature case
rises. The intensity of this radiation
is
ascertained by measuring temperature
the
change of hedisk between measurement
phase and Figure 2.8 Abbot
silver disk pyrheliome

16
Solar Energy 2.33
shading phase with the mercury- in-glass thermometer. This type is widely used for
calibrating Pyranometers.

3 Bppley pyrheliometer
The Eppley normal incidence pyrheliometer has found a wide acceptance in many parts
of the world. It uses a thin silver disk of 9 mm in diameter as a receiver which is coated with
optical black paint. Fifteen junctions of fine bismuth-silver thermocouples are in thermal
contact with an electrical insulation from the lower surface of the disk. The cold junctions are
in contact with the copper tube of the instrument. The unit is mounted at the base of a double
walled brass tube which is chromed externally and blackened internaly. A series of limiting
diaphragms limits the aperture to a circular cone of full angle of S.7°, The brass tube is filled
wih dry air and sealed with a crystal quartz window which is removable. A manualy rotatable
disk which can accommodate three filters and leave one aperture for total spectrum
measurement is provided. A diopter is used to determine the direction of the sun.
This instrument is supplied with an electrically driven cquatorial mount for solar tracking
on a strip chart recorder or
The output of the pyrheliometer can be either directly recorded
integrated over an appropriate time period and registered. This instrument is
found to be very

stable.
Filter
4.Linke-Feussner pyrheliometer
It is one of the most convenient Screening
-head
instruments used for measuring the direct
radiation at normal incident with and
without filters. A schematic diagram of this
device is shown in Figure 2.9.
instrument Rotating disc
The main body of the
consists of six massive copper rings. These
a tube Copper
rings are contoured on the inside of diaphragm
to produce a set of radiation diaphragms for Moll
decreasing internal reflections, defining the thernopile

acceptance angle of the instrument and

limiting turbulent air currents
inside the
stability
instrument. Thus, it secures a high
rotating disk with
and good sensitivity, A pyrheliometer
positioned in the upper end of the tube. Figure 2.9 Linke-Feussner
filters is

17

17
 Renewable Energy Systo

screening head which eliminateste

2.34 a special
of the tube is a
pyrheliometer employs specially desiged
upper extremity This
At the measurements.
filter manganese-constantan thermocouple arranged in
unwanted reflection in of 40
receiver consisting arrays. One section
Moll themopile thermocouples are
in two equal sectional is
The Thus, the sections
circle of 1 cm
diameter. other is shaded. tend
being measured and the environment
exposed to the
radiation
temperature fluctuations of the
short period
compensate each other for
approximately 10.
aperture angle is
provided fitted in the rotating disk. The G
filters are usually
In this instrument, five opaque disk for the use in zeroing the instrume
a double walled
mount is as well fitted with azimuth-elevation mount by which it
on a manually operated
instrument is installed
This
be oriented in
any direction.

Measurement of Global Radiation using

Pyranometers
LS2 measures or global radiation over a
Pyranometer is an instrument which the total
hemispherical ficld of view. If a shading ring is attached, the beam
radiation will be prevented
sensor and then it measures the diffuse component of
the
from falling on the instrument
radiation. The sun's radiation is allowed to fall which the hot junctions f
on a black surface to
are
a thermopile are attached în most of the pyranometers. The cold junctions of the thermopile
located in such a way that they do not receive the radiation.
As a
result, an e.m.f proportional
to the solar radiation is generated. The following are the different types of pyranometers.

) Eppley Pyranometer

() Yellot solarimeter (Photovoltaic cellpyranometer)

(ii) Moll-Gorczynski pyranometer
(iv) Bimetallic Actionograph
() Yanishevsky pyranometer
(vi) Dirmhirn-Sauberer or Star pyranometer.

1. Eppley Pyranometer:
It is based on
the principle of change in temperature
most
between black surface (which absorbs
solar radiation) and white
surface (which reflects most
surface of this pyranometer solar radiation). The receive
consists of two concentric
silver rings. The inner ring is
with black colour and the outer one
with white magnesium
oxide. The detection oftemper
co
difference is achieved by a
thermopile with either 10 or
the temperature difference 50 thermocouple junctions to e
between coated rings.

18

18
Solar Energy 2.35
The whole assembly is hermetically sealed inside a specially
blown spherical lamb bulb,
6m in diameter and made of glass of about 0.6 mm thickness filled with dry air. Figure 2.10
dows thegeneral arrangement of atypical pyranometer and thermopile arrangement
consisting
afa battery ofthermocouples connected in series.
Sensing Quartz dome
element
Quartz dise

Cable
Levelling screw
Level

(a) Typical pyranometer

of a battery of thermocouples connected in series

(b) Thermopile consisting
Figure 2. 10 Pyranometer
cell pyranometer)
2 Yellor Solarimeter (Photovoltaic are the
used in photovoltaic detectors. Silicon photovoltaic cells
Pyranometers have been are capable of
common for solar energy calculations. Silicon photovoltaic cells
most solar cell radiation. The
which is proportional to the intensity of the solar
producing an electrical signal This instrument has
an
the incident solar radiation.
current output is a linear function of with time and
response 10 us), high current output, overall stability
santaneous (about
expense. The major disadvantage
are simple design and low
posure to weather and they of
cell output.
5 the high spectral dependence of the

19
 Ronewablo Energy byan

2.36
Pyranometer MollGoreeynskl solarimeter, k
Moll-Gorezynskl
3. more oflen called
pyranometers is very thin (0005
Moll-Gorcynski receiver consisting of 14
to
designed Moll thermopile
the thermopile is exposed
the specially manganese-constantan junctions, Half of ribbons which
form
blackened strips of narrow metallie
sun whereas the other half is completely shaded. The
approximately 12 mm
11 mm in eu
rectangle
thermopile are aranged in the form ofa
paint and protected from the wead
with dullblack
colour
junctions are coated surrounding the outer dome
The exposed radiation shield
by hemisphere glass domes. 30 cm diameter
prevents the direct solar radiation from
heating e
element and it characteristics hrougbo
coplanar with this sensitive high transmission
domes have uniformly
base of the instrument. The
range.
the spectral
Actionograph
4 Bimetallic not recommended for the general
use becaue d
as sensors. It is
Ituses bimetallic strips cosineerrors and long respon
coe fficient and equally large azimuth and
its large temperature are adequa
for daily total radiation in which accuracies of 410%
time. It is suitable only a and sturd
total irradiance because it is simple
However, it is used for observing the daily
power supply for its operation, Hence, it is particulary
instrument and it requires no electric
dimensioas
suitable for remote areas. The receiver is
blackened bimetallic strip (nickel-iron) of
mose
a bimetallic thermometer. One end is free to
about 85 mm x115 mm which is simply
of

is a function df
as the change of temperature causes a distortion of the strip. The change which
on a clock-driven drum. The main
solar irradiance is recorded on a recorder chart mounted
sensor is covered by a hemispherical glass dome and the other mechanism is enclosed ina
scaled metal case because of the relatively large mass of the bimetallic strip and large respas
time of the instrument.

S Yanishevsky Pyranometer
The sensor is constructed either in a square chess board pattern of alternate black asd
while squares and rectangles or in a radial pattern of alternate black and white segmets. Tle
thermocouple is composed of alternate strips ofmanganese and constantan.
The hot junctio
are painted black in colour and cold are
junctions coated with white magnesia
hemispherical glass cover prevents wind effects. This pyranometer
is used as a
instrument and therefore, it requires calibration a
against
elat
standard. Deviation of the respol
with solar angle from the ideal cosine
law is considerable and a correction is
applied for
cosine effect. An additional correction is
also applied for the wavelength selectivity ol
instrument when it is used for
measuring only the diffuse radiation.

20

20
SolarEnergy 2.37

Dirmhirn-Sauberer or Star Pyranometer

This pyranometer is used all over the world and it is recommended as a suitable instrument
for the measurement of global and sky radiation by the Commission of the World
Meteorological Organisation. The receiver consists of 32 small copper plates which are 0.05
thick, half of which are blackened and the remaining half of which are covered with a
highly reflecting white paint. The two sets of plates are mounted as alternate black and white
segments radiating as a star from a central point thus forming a flat circular disk of about 50
m in diameter. The two types of plates are thermally insulated from each other by being
mounted on poorly conducting concentric rings which are themselves thermally isolated from
the main base plate of the instrument. The thermopile consists of manganese-constantan or
copper-constantan junctions which are soldered to a plate. The receiver is covered by a polished
mm in diameter.
glass hemisphere which is 2 to 3 mm thick and 70

23.3. Measurement of Diffuse Radiation

or Star pyranometer which is used for the
The same instrument Dirmhirn-Sauberer
radiation,
measurement of total or global radiation can be used for the measurement of diffuse
radiation from reaching the
provided that a suitable device is used to prevent the direct solar
receiver. Shading of the pyranometer from direct solar
radiation is done either by a disk which

is made to move with the sun so

as to cast its shadow ring or by means of a shadow ring. The
a shading disk needs constant supervision
shadow ring is more popular of two devices because
is expensive. In the latter
case, a small correction factor
and maintenance and equatorial mount
is cut off from the sensor by the shadow
isapplied to the part of the diffuse radiation which
can either be computed or determined experimentally. The correction
ring This correction
a ring and disk of
factor can be determined experimentally
by successive measurements with
to the results
radiation which is cut off is added
suitable diameter. The amount of diffuse
obtained with above ring.

2.34. Measurement of Sunshine

necessary for
records of the amount of sunshine is
Knowledge of the daily and hourly
a particular solar
radiation values. It is also used for optimising the design of
etimating solar radiation measuring
measurement is simple and far less expensive than solar
collector. This recorder.
sunshine in a day is measured by means of a sunshine
devices. The duration of bright extensively used all
sunshine recorder is shown in Figure 2.11 and it is
Ihe campbell-Stokes mounted in a section of
a glass sphere of about 10cm in diameter
ver the world. Itconsists of

21

21
 Renewable Energy Syaten

grooves for holding

a recorder card
2.38 overlapping
partially
metal bowl having three
spherical
sphere.
strip and the glass Spherical bowl with
Glass sphere grooves

Marble base
Grouted bolts
Platfom

Figure 2.11 Sunshine recorder

summer, winter or spring and autumn are set in these
The recording cards for use in
on the
grooves. Three different recording cards as shown in Figure 2.12 are used depending
season. The important requirements of the glass sphere are that it should be uniform, well
annealed and made of colourless glass.

Recording card for winter

Recording card for

spring and autumn

Recording card
for summer

Figure 2.12 Recording cards

The sun rays are focused by a glass sphere to a
point on a card strip held in a groo
provided in spherical bowl mounted concentrically
with the sphere. Whenever there is brig
sunshine, the image formed intense
is enough to bun a spot on the cord
a particular point indicates the presence sunshine strip. A burn trace
of at that time. Measuring the overall
of burn traces reveals the sunshine duration for that lens
day. Though the day, as the sun mo

22

22
Solar Energy 2.39

roSs the sky, the image is moved along with the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is
proportionalto the duration of
sunshine is obtained on the strip.

sOLAR THERMAL COLLECTORS

Solar thermal collector is a device used for collecting the solar radiation and it transfers
energy to fluid passing in contact with it. The collectors receive heat from solar rays and give
ao the heat-transport fluid. Solar themal collector surface is designed for high absorption and
low emission. So, the utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These collectors are

clasified into two types. They are as follows:

() Non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

(i) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.
The solar energy collector with its associated absorber is the essential
component of any
or
systems for the conversion of solar radiation into more usable form (e.g. heat electricity).
area that intercepts the solar
In thenon-concentration type, the collector area (i.e., the
area absorbing the radiation).
radiation) is same as the absorber area (i.e., the

In concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar

radiation is greater than flat
a non-concentrating type. It is also used
plate collectors and it provides higher temperature than
to produce medium pressure steam. They
use many different arrangements of mirors and
type shows better efficiency than the flat
lenses to concentrate the sun rays on the boiler. This
moves
be mounted to face the sun as it
plate type. For the best efficiency, collectors should
through the sky.

24.1. Types of Solar Collectors

collectors such as
There are two types of solar thermal

) Flat plate collector

(focusing type).
(ii) Solar concentrating collector

2.5. FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTORS

type. They are particularly convenient
Flat plate collectors are of the non-concentrating are adequate.
applications where temperatures below 90°C
for space and service water heating
about 1.7 to 2.9
m
in area and they are relatively
They are made in rectangular panels from
can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse solar
Simple to corstruct and erect. Flat plates

23

23
 Renewable Energy Sys

2.40 even on cloudy days when thereeisno direc

partially effective
are consequently
radiation. They
types based on the typeof hex
radiation. three
collectors are mainly divided into
Flat plate solar
are as follows:
transfer fluid used. They
Liquid heating
collectors
1.
heaters
2. Air heating or solar air
3. Evacuated tubular
collector.

flat plate collector are as follows:

The characteristic features of
radiation.
1. It absorbs both beam and diffuse
sun tracking.
2. Itcan function without
3. It is simple in construction and it requires
little maintenance.

2.5.1. Liquid Heating Collectors

is used for heating the water and non-freezing aqueous solutions.
It The constructionl
details of simple flat plate collector are shown in Figure 2.13(a). It is the plate and tube ype
collector. The majority of the flat-plate collectors have five main components. They are s
follows:

1. Transparent cover (one or two sheets) of glass, Teflon, Marlex or Tedlar.

2. Blackened absorber plate usually of copper, aluminium or steel, typically 1-2 mm thick
3. Tubes (typically 1-2 cm diameter), channels or passages in contact
thermal with the
absorber plate. They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom the absorber
of
plate. In some designs, the tubes form the
integral part of absorber plate.
Thermal insulation usually of foam, expanded
polystyrene or glass wool typicaly
10 cm in thickness.
5. Tight container is to enclose
above components.
Working:
As the solar radiation strikes a specially
treated absorber plate, it
temperature. This raised is absorbed and raises
heat is transferred to fluid which
is circulated in the tube
with the absorber plate as
shown in Figure 2.13(b). (or channe
from the rear surface
Thermal insulation prevents the heat
of the collector. The upper glass cover
as it permits the entry solar
is transparent for incoming short wavelength but of radi
it is largely opaque to longer infrared

24

24
Solr Eneryy 241
ndiation reflected from the absorber. The glass cover also prevents the heat loss due to
convection by keeping the air stagnant. The glass cover may reflect around 15% of incoming
solar radiation which can be reduced by applying anti-reflectivecoating on the outer surface of
the glass. The usualpractice is to have 2 glass covers with specifie ranging from 1.5 em to

3 em.

Advantages of second glass are as follows.

(0 Loses due to air convection are further reduced. It is important in windy areas.

(G) Radiation losses in the infra-red spectrum are reduced by a further 25% because half
of the 50t% which is emitted outwards from the first glass plate is back radiated.

Solar radiation Direct

Diffuse
Glass cover
Absorber
Tubes carrying heat
transfer fluid

(a) Insulation
Fluid out

Fluid in

(b)

Figure 2.13 Liquid heating collector

2.5.2. Modified Flat Plate Collectors

arrangement provides
reflective side faces as shown in Figure 2.14. This
It has additional
fluids (up to 200°C) is
higher concentration ratio
up to 10 and higher temperature of working
a periodic tilt
a is aligned in East-West direction and it requires
achieved. Such design
cone angles are possible
The different optimum depth to base width ratios and
adjustment.
tilt adjustment.
depending on the frequency of seasonal

25

25
 Ronewableo Enorgy Sy

242
Incident rays

Flat absorber
Refedor

Figure 2.14Modifled flatplate collector

263. Solar Air Heaters

Figure 2.15 shows a schematic diagam of solar air heaters where an aír strcam is hett
by the beck side of the collector plate. Fins attached tothe plate increase the comtact sua
In this, the back side of the collector is heavily insulated
wi míneral wool or some ofe
material. The favourable inclination angle to the horizogtal is 15°
for hcating
Sdar radation
Gass cover
passage
Absorter plate
Fins
-nseion
Fgure 215 51Typlcal
selar air heater
Basically,
r heaters are clasaified into followingtwotypes
1 Solar hcater
wi sos-poogs absorter.
2 Solar ar heater with porous
absorber
ln nopous type,he ar strcam does
a
not flow eoug
flow above he absober plai Ar
fe absarter plate. ln a ponsus type, the abscber includes
rapired honey comb nd over-agped sl and expanded
giass plate absober
imgved by the following wys
L
Rongingte nea of
The perfumanoe
aes
of

heat
he pae o prome urtlence and
rader cucticit, ur) e
the
2 lncaing te hct raer
srface by aáng fns

26

26
 Energy
243
Solar
heaters:
Adantages of solar air
compact, simple in construction and lit
requires little maintenance.
1. tis
energy from the working
2. The need to transfer thermal fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is used directly as the working fluid.
eliminated.
3. Corrosion is completely
severe.
4 Leakage of air from the duct is less
eliminated.
5 Possibility of freezing of working fluid is also
very high.
6 The pressure inside the collector does not become
Disadvantages ef solar air heaters:
L Alarge amount fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the electrical
of

power required to blow the aír through the system can be significant if the pressure

drop is not kept within prescribed limits.

2. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is poor.
3. There is less storage of thermal energy due to low heat capacity.
4. In the absence of proper design, the cost of an air heater can be very high.

Applications of solar air heaters:

1. Heating greenhouse buildings

2 Drying agricultural products

3. Heat source for a heat engine

4. Air-conditioning buildings.

Z54. Evacuated Tubular Collector

absorber and transparent
n an evacuated tubular collector, the vacuum is created between
a
cover. The cross-sectional view of solar evacuated tubular collector is shown in Figure
2.16.

surface is evacuated and evacuated tubes

In this type, the tube cover above the selective
any space left between
arTanged above absorber surface so that there should not be
the
a vacuum layer above the absorber to reduce
CCutive tubes. The evacuated tubes provide
the top suppresses the convection heat loss from the
loss coefficient. The vacuum layer
absorber to glass cover.

27

27
 Renewable Energy Systn

absorbed by absorber
244 an incident solar radiation is
collector, evacuated tubes. Afier
flat plate cover and transparent
Similar to the
glass
transmission through the will be first conducted and
surface after energy at the absorber
available thermal energy is lost
absorption, most of the below the absorber. Rest of the
fluid
to the working heat losses from the upper
then it is convected convective and radiative
Further, there will be
adiative heat loss. cover. Since the temperature offthe upper portion o
portion of the evacuated
tubes to the glass working fluid
may k
losses. The
there will be less heat
the evacuated tubes will be small,
either a liquid or ait.

Sun

Sun rays
Glass cover

Evacuated tubes

Air flow O0000 Absorber plate

Insulation

Figure 2. 16 Evacuated tubular collector

255. Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Flat-Plate Collectors

Advantages offlat-plate collectors:
1. t has the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar radiations.
2 It does not require orientation towards the sun.
3. It requires a little maintenance.
4. Flat plate collectors are simpler
than concentrating reflectors.
Disadvantages of flat-plate collectors:
The temperature attained by
L

the working fluidis low.

2. The construction is heavy in weight.

28

28
 Solar Energy

3. Conduction heat loss is more as 245

the area is large.
4, Initial installation cost of
the collector is more
Anplications offlat-plate collectors:
L
tisused in solar water heating systems.
2 Itis used in solar space heating and cooling systems.
1 tis usedin low temperature power
generation.
4. It is used in solar heating dryers.

CONCENTRATING SOLAR COLLECTORS

Focusing collector is a device to
collect solar energy with high intensity
on the energy absorbing surface. of solar radiation
It is a special form of flat-plate collector
modified by
introducing a reflecting surface (concentrator)
between solar radiation and absorber. It uses the
optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors for concentrating the
incident solar
radiation. It results in an increased
flux density on the absorber surface area In these collectors,
the radiation falling on a relatively large arca
is focused onto a receiver of considerably smaller
arca In order to get a maximum
concentration, an arrangement for tracking the sun's virtual
motion is required. An accurate focusing device
is also required. Thus, a solar concentrator
consists of a
(i) focusing device, (ii) receiver system and (ii) tracking arrangement. As a result
of the energy concentration, fluid can be heated to the temperature of 750°C or more. Hence,
ty have the potential aplications in both themal and power generation (electrical power) at
high delivery temperature.

The main difference between flat plate collector and concentrating collector is that the flat
pate collectorconcentrates only the direct radiation coming froma specific direction whereas
te concentrating collector collects all types of radiation. It is due to the fact that the diffuse
hdiation arrives from all directions and only a very small proportion is from the direction for
which the focusing occurs.

Ipes ofconcentrating collectors:

Solar concentrators mnay be classified on the basis of whether tracking system is installed
or not
andt
Itype of tracking system installed.

(a) Tracking type: Continuous or intermittent

() One-axis design
(ii) Two-axis design

29

29
 Renewable Energy
Syse

2.46
Non-tracking type
(b) on the l basis of optical components.
concentrators may also be classified
Solar

or refracting type collector

(a) Reflecting
type collector
Imaging or non-imaging
b) focusing type collector
or point
(e) Line focusing
concentrating collector geometrics, the
solar concentrators
Based on the number of
be classified.

(a) Parabolic trough collector

(b) Minor strip reflector

(c) Fresnel lens collector

(d) Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors
(e) Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC).

2.6.1. Parabolic Trough Collector

It is the most preferable type of a concentrating collector. The cross section of parabolik
collector is shown in Figure 2.17(a). The solar radiation coming from the particular direction
is collected over the area of the reflecting surface and concentrated at the focus of the parabola.
The solar radiation is focused along a line. It consists of a cylindrical parabolic reflector and a
metal tube receiver at a focal plane as shown in Figure 2.17(b).

The dimension of parabolic trough collector can be varied over a

wide range. The length
ofa reflector unit may m
be roughly 3 to 5 m and the width about 1.5 m to 2.4 m. Ten or mor
such units are often connected end to end in a row. Several rows may
also be connected m
parallel. A parabolic trough collector with
line focusing reflecting surface provides the
concentration ratio from 5 to 30. Hence, higher
temperature up to 300°C can be achievel
Parabolic trough reflectors have been
made of highly polished aluminium of
silvered glasso
ofa thin film of aluminized plastic on a firm base.
The reflected light is focused on a
central line of the parabolic
located along the centre line trough collector. The us
absorbs the heat and the working
pipe. The absorber tube may fluid is circulated through
be made of mild steeVcopper.
be oriented in any of thrcedirections: A cylindrical parabolic trough
East-West, North-South or
are generally oriented polar. Troughtype collect
in the East-West or North-South
permits more solar energy
directions. The North-South
to be collected than East-West arrangement. oriental

30

30
 247
Energy
Salr

Sun

Sun rays

Focus

Parabolic reflector
Vertex

(a) Cross section

of
parabolic collector

Focal line
Oblique ray

Solar rays

Glass envelop
(Reflector tube)
Collecting pipe
(Absorber tube)

Mirror

(b) Arrangement
ofparabolic collector
trough collector
Figure 2. 17 Parabolic

26.2. Paraboloidal Dish Collector actually a small

at a point,
a focus
radiation to
A
paraboloidal dish collector brings solar (concentrator) 6.6
m diameter,
as shown in
A dish
paraboloidal
central volume as shown
in Figure 2.18(a). curved mirror segments forminga
Figure 2.18(b), about 200 zirconium-copper alloy
,has been made from focus is a cavity made of of the
surface. The absorber (receiver) located the
at
flows into and out
fluid
The heat-transport
with a
black chrome selective coating.

31

31
 Renewabilee Energy
Sy
o
the iinterior. The dish Cn be
tuned
pipes bonded to
boter ai
rough
s ne wih the focus andtthe base
a
toic
the sun is ahays kept in
ho
bou mS ht times
the sun can bhe flly tracked as roquired all
pbloida ds Ths,

Focal volume

Sun rays

GCrassectíon ef paraboloidal collector

Concentraor

Susportirg
nd

6) Arrangement of
pardbaloidal collector
Fligure 2.IB Puraboloidal
dish collector
263. Miror Strig Reflector
Inthis colector, a
aflat
uber of plane or slightly curved(concave) miror
base. The angle
of the individual mirors strips are mou
is aranged in such away
that they ret

32

32
SolarEnergy
2.49
radiation from a
solar specific direction to the same
on
focal line as shown Figure 2.19. . The
the mirrors must be adjusted to allow the change in
angle of in the sun's elevation while
Fine remains in a fixed position,
the focal

Sun rays

Focus

Miror strips

Figure 2.19 Mirror strip solar collector

2.6.4. Fresnel Lens Collector

a
It has a refracting type focusing collector. It utilizes the focusing effect of Fresnel lens
shown in Figure 2.20.
Solar radiation

Fresnel lens

Container Receiver pipe

(Line focus)

of Fresnellens through collector

Figure 2.20Cross-section

33

33
 Perewatle Energy Sy

with he sun
eontinuously aligned s
lens must be collector.
effective, the
Fresnel Fresnel lens
To be fully to its length In he
directions both along and
perpendiculer
than from botomaas in a perabolictg
absorber fromtop
raher
radiation is focused into the overall Sengh and 0.95
rectangle about 4.7m in
For a trough type collector,
the lens is
probably produced in t
quantity low co
plastie and it can be
is made of scrylie
width.
t
2.6.6. Flat Plate Coflector with
Booster Mirrors

tisthe simplest type of concentrating collector. It

consists of a flat plate facing
Reflectors
s
south
reflects
south edges as shown in Figure 2.21.
mirors attached to its north and are also alet
addition to beam radiation incidence on the receiver. Mirrors
total radiation in ne
concentration value less than four. The concentration
booster mirrors. It has a maximum
concentrators is relatively low and hence, it is not widely used.
As the sol
of such solar
incidence angle increases, the mirrors become less effective. Fora
single coliector, booser
are set at the proper angle, they refie
mirors can be used on all the four sides. If the mirrors
the solar radiation onto the absorber plate. The mirrors cut off part of the scattered
radtion
have reached the absorber plate and only a part the scatered radiation falling
of on mimors
be reflected onto the absorber.

Incidert ras

ReflectorMirror

-ReflectorMirror
Flat plate collector

Figure 2.21Flat plate collector arrangement

with reflector mirrors
When a umber of collectors are
combincd in two or more rows,
further apart in the north south directions the rows must be
to allow for the additional sun
shading. The efficien
s
of a boosted flat plate system can
be increased if the angle
several times during the year. of the flat mirrors can be chang
The advantage of such a system
is that it makes use of the
radiation in addition to the beam radiation. ditts

34

34
Solar Energy
2.51
26.6. Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

Itis a non-focusing typebut the solar radiation from many directions

is reflected towards
the bottom of the trough. Due to this characteristic, a
large proportion the solarof radiation
including diffuse (scattered) radiation entering
the trough opening is collected on a small area.
A CPC with two facing parabolic mirrors is shown in Figure 2.22. In addition
to collecting both
direct and diffuse radiations, an advantage this collector
of is that it provides moderately good
concentration although less than a focusing collector in an east-west direction
without
adjustment for sun tracking.

Parabola

Absorber Axis

Figure 2.22 Compound parabolic concentrator

Concentrating Collectors
26.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Advantages of concentrating collectors:
concentrating collector requires less material and
1. The reflecting surface of the
collectors.
structurally simpler than flat-plate
system.
absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than a flat-plate
2. The
flat-plate collectors.
The area from which the heat is lost to surroundings is less than
3.
power generation.
4. It can be used for electric system than a flat
operating time per year is large for a concentrator
5. The total useful
plate collector.
cost of the collector is less.
6. Initial installation
large.
heat which can be stored per unit volume is
7. The amount of

35

35
 RenewableEnergy Syae

flat-plate collectors.
2.52 concentration systems than
costs are less for with a concentrating system.
is attainedI
Heat storage
8.
working fluid
temperature of the
Higher a concentrator system
protect the absorber in
9.
required to
10. Noanti-freeze is

Disadvantages of
concentrating collectors:
collected because the
beam radiation is diffu
concentrating collectors, only the
1.
In
component cannot reflect.
the sun.
Costly orienting
systems must be used to track
2.
required to retain the quality of reflecting surface avi
3. Additional maintenance is

dirt, weather and oxidation.

collectorsi
flux on the absorber whereas the flux in flat-plate
4. It is non-uniform
uniform.

5. Optical and interrupt losses are in

energy balance.

26.8. Comparison of Concentrating and Flat-Plate Collectors

S. No. Concentrating collectors Flat-plate collectors

1. Concentrating collectors can absorb Flat-plate collectors can absorb both
only direct solar radiation. direct and diffuse solar radiation.
2. They need continuous tracking These collectors do not require
mechanisms and more expensive
tracking mechanisms and mounting s
(pivoting) mounting structure.
simple.
3
They can generate high temperature
of They can generate low temperature o
about 750°C.
about 140°C.
4
The amount of heat which can be
The amount of heat which can be
stored per unit volume is more.
stored per unit volume is less.
5 They can be used for electric power
They can be used only for heating of
generation.
the domestic water, heating and
cooling of buildings.
6. The absorber area
of a concentrator The absorber area
system is less.
ofa flat-plate
system is big.

36

36
Solar Energy
253
7 They do not absorb more energy per
They absorb more energy per unit
unit volume.
volume.
The thermalefficiency is greater
The thermal efficiency is less because
because of the small heat-loss area
of the more heat-loss area relative to
relative to the receiver area.
the receiver area.
9 The total useful operating time per The total useful operating time per
year is more. year is less.
10. No anti-freeze is required to protect the Anti-freeze solution is required to
absorber in a concentrator system. protect the absorber.

sOLAR THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION FROM SOLAR COLLECTORS

Solar thermal power generation employs power cycles which are broadly classified as
follows:
(1) Low temperature cycles
(2) Medium temperature cycles and (3) High temperature cycles.

Low temperature cyeles generaly use flat-plate collectors so that maximum temperatures
are limited to about 100°C. Medium temperature cycles work at maximum temperature ranging

from 150 to 300°C while high temperature cycles work at

temperatures above 300°C.

For low and medium temperature ranges, the thermodynamic cycle

preferred is Rankine
Brayton and Stirling cycles are
cycle. For high temperature range apart from Rankine cycle,
also being considered.

Generation Using Flat Plate Collector

2.7.1. Low Temperature Thermal Power
temperature collectors
pond are classified as low
The flat plate collector system and solar 30 to
range in the order of 60 to 100°C with collection efficiency of
because of its temperature thermal power
S0% maximum. In this system, it is
not suitable to employ Rankine cycle solar
steam using flat plate collector or solar
pond is
production system because the generation of so, it cannot be
temperature of the water is more than l00°C and
not possible as the boiling
mover. Therefore, some other organic fluid (commonly Freon
used directly to run the prime absorbing the heat
evaporates at low temperature and high pressure by
group) is used which which may
vapour formed can be used to run a turbine or engine
Irom the heated water. The

37

37
 Renewable Energy
Sy

group of houses for rural areas

nd s
sufficient to light the
254
which will be
penerate power
irigation purposes water from flat-plate solar collectr
using heated
temperature solar engine system has array of
A
low Figure 2.23. The
working fluid is shown in exchanger, theheat of
water transfen
is
butane as the the heat
water upto nearly 70°C. In
collectors to heat runs a butane turbine which opee
pressure butane vapour
to butane for boiling i The
it high further ue
generator produces electrical power output for
an electric generator. This with the help of fe
turbine is condensed in a condenser
exhaust butane vapoar rfrom
butane
condensate is fed to the heat exchanger or b
a water pump. This
cold water circulated by has s
applied for small power plants of about 10 kW capacity. It
boiler. The system is
advantage of simplicity.

Water circuit

Butane boiler

Butane turbine
Butane
pump
Aray of solar collectors Generator

Condenser

Cooling Cooling water out for

water in iigation purposes
Figure 2.23 Low temperature
flat-plate solar collector
272 Medium Temperature
Thermal Power Generation Distributed
Collector Using Solar
Medium
lemperature thermal power
collectors in which generation systems distribulel
parabolic trough concentrator employ solar
used for converting collectors with line common
thesolar energy into heat energy. focus are most
dish type Thesesystems can paraboloi
concentrating collectors. also use
Cylindrical parabolic genera
concentrating collectors

38

38
Solar Energy
2.65
temperature in range of 2500 to 700°C with efficiency of 50-70%. High temperature collectors
ach as paraboloid type concentrators consist of many flat mirrors produce a temperature in
range of 600-2000°C with an efficiency of
60-75%.
This is a modular system consisting a dish shaped
of parabolic collector for focusing the
solar radiation on a receiver to heat a working fluid
coupled with a power generation unit
(engine/alternator) for electricity generation. It may also be used for producing process
heat.
When these modular systems are coupled together, they are in a position to
supply required
power as a decentralised power system.

Following ty pes of heat engines are commonly being used with parabolic dishrough
systems.

0 Rankine cycle engine

(i) Organic-Rankine cycle engine
(ii) Stirling cycle engine
(iv) Air-Brayton cycle engine.
or vapour is expanded through an enginé or turbine to
In cach of these cycles, hot gas
produce work and it is thereby cooled. The gas or
vapour is further cooled to reject heat and it

is finaly returned to its initial state for getting energised by solar radiation and thus,
completing
energy collectors may be prefered for themal
the cycle. As noted earlier, distrihuted solar
power plants of moderately small capacity.

Hot oil
Hot steam
Steam turbine
Generator

Steam
Heat condenser Cooling water outlet
exchanger
Cooling water inlet

Pump

Cold steam Condensate pump

Cold oil
collector solar thermal electric power plant
Figure 2.24 Distributed

39

39
 Renewable Energy Systen
2.56
solar thermal energy is collected from a largenumber
In a distributed
collector system, the
cylindrical collecton
solar parabolic trough
type or paraboloidal dish type
of sun-tracking transporting fluid available
a heat-transport fluid. This heat
Each collector transfers heat to
is pooled at some central power station. The heat t
high temperature from the
collectors A

to be used directly in
a steam turbine. simple parabolie
fluid could be water/steam
Fie
water as working fluid is shown in
concentrator solar power generation system using
of a parabolic cylinder reflector to concentrate sun light on to
a collecting pi
2.24. It consists
within Pyrex or glass envelop.
is focused
A proper sun-tracking arrangement is made so that the maximum sunlight
temperatue
the reflector for producing optimum efficiency. They usually operate in the lower
ranges of about 90 to 31°C. In this system, oil having boiling point higher than the boiliag
point of water is used to circulate through the absorber tube of the concentrator collector.

The heated oil is then passed through the heat exchanger where the heat is transferred to
the water to produce steam. The hot steam can then be directly used to power a turbine for
mechanical work which is coupled to an electrie generator to generate electricity. The exhaust
low temperature steam from the turbine is condensed in a condenser with the help of fresh colt
water circulated by a water pump. This condensate is fed to
the heat exchanger again a using
condensate pump.

2.7.3. High Temperature Thermal Power

Generation Using Central Recelver System
A larger solar thermal power plant in the range
of 50 MWto 200MW comes under Central
Receiver System (CRS). Such systems are
cconomical in MW range for network connected
plants. The high capacity is possible
due to high temperature steam in the central receive
resulting high efficiency plants.
of
In the central receiver scheme, several
heliostats are located on
heliostat is a nearly flat mirror the ground levelL A
with the provision to track the sun
rays are pointed towards a central in two planes. The reflectu
receiver mounted on a tall tower as
large central receiver plant shown in Figure 2.23.A
is usually built up based on
2 modules to 10 modules modular concepts. Each plant may
and rated at 10 MW to 100
MW. h
2.74. Components of Central
Recelver Power Plant
This system can
be subdivided into
the following subsystems.
1. The tower with the They are as follows:
central receiver on top
of it

40

40
solar Energy
2.67
radiation

beam
SÁei heliostates
Buwoo controlled

Solar

Individualysun-tracking

system
generation
central
for
unit generation

Spherical
rays
receiver
Reflected
steam

power
Insulation

receiver

central

body Recuperator
power
cavity

output
Black Alternator
Solar
Electric

2.25

Figure

Compressor

Heat sink

heliostates

controlled

radiation

Individuallysun-tracking

beam

Incoming
rays
Solar

A1
 Renewable Energy System
|2.58

2. The heat conversion sub system

3. The heat storage device

4. The field of oriented mirrors.

1. Central recever: the hea
receiver at the top of the tower has a heat absorbing surface by which
The central
as follows:
are two basic receiver configurations
transport fuid is heated. There

a) Cavity receiver type

b) Extermal receiver type.
reflected by heliostats enters through a
the cavity receiver type, the solar radiation
In
are on the exterior of a
aperture at the bottom of the cavity whereas the absorber surfaces
roughly cylindrical structure in the external receiver
type. Figure 2.26 shows the cavity receiver

type central receiver.

Central receiver

Tower
Heat exchanger

Heat transport Support

fluid piping
Thermal insulation
and structure
Aperture for
reflected rays
Structure

From heliostats
From heliostats

Tower
Figure 2.26 Central receiver
2. Heat conversion sub system:
Liquid water under pressure enters the receiver.
Then, the heat energy is absorbed by the
water and it leaves as superheated steam.
Typical steam conditions might be a temperature o
500°C and pressure of 100 atm. The steam is piped to a ground level where
it drives
conventional turbine generator system.

42

42
Salar Energy
2.69
R Heat storage device:
Short term storage of heat can
be provided by fire bricks,ceramic oxides,
elohur. The choice of a conventional storage fused salts and
material is determined by its engrgy
density,
hermal conductivity, corosion characteristic, cost
and convenience of use as well as by
the
operating tenmperature of working fluid.

4 Mirrors:
The flat mirror surface can be manufactured by
metallization of foat glass or flexible
plastic sheets. The miror must be steerable.
The glass mirrors would not be capable of
withstanding the wind load which often occurs in arid
lands without any supporting structure.

27.5. Working of Central Receiver System

The incoming solar radiation is focused to a central receiver or a boiler mounted on a tall
tower using thousands of plane reflectors which are steerable about two axes called heliostats.

Figure 2.28 shows a schematie view of an electrie power generation using a gas turbine
or gas turbine power plant working on Brayton cyele. The mirrors (heliostats) installed on the
ground are oriented so as to reflect the direct beam radiation into an absorber or receiver (as
shown in Figure 2.27) which is mounted at the top ofa tower located near the center in the field

of mirrors to produce high temperature.

Solar radiation

Receiver

t a

Heliostat

array
of
central receiver heliostat
Figure 2.27Arrangement

43

43
 Renewable Energy Sytn

2.60 absorbed black pipes in which the working thuig

by
incidentin the boiler iis a
Beam radiation
working fluid is allowed to drive turbine thereby producing
circulated and heated. The e
an alternator produces electrical energy. A
is coupled to
which is
mechanical energy. The turbine period of cloudines
providedto supply the heat energy during the
suitable heat storage also
is
storage.
of electric
power generator using thermal
Figure 2.28 shows the layout
Electric Electrical
Steam (or oil) generator power
from central receiver Steam

Steam
turbine

Cooling water
W
ww ww -Thermal storage

PunpO Condenser
Condensate

Feed water
(or oil) to central
receiver

Figure 2.28 Electric power

generation using thermal storage
2.7.6. Thermal
Analysis of a Central
Receiver System
The nirror field in a central
receiver system is to
winter and summer seasons. be laid in such a way to
There is no shade one suit for both
heliostats are put apart of mirror on the other mirror.
and a fraction Theretore,
of the ground () is only covered.
The value of
is calculated by NA
A
where
N= Number of
mirrOrs (Heliostats)
AmArea of each
mirror
A,- Total ground area
used around
the tower.

44

44
Solar Energy
2.61

Total groundarea, A, 4H'

tan
where H= Tower height and

6,- Rim half angle

Receiver

Incident
solar rays

-Tower
Heliostats

Figure 2.29
Energy absorbed by the receiver is - g.
9. =1, A, opn, a
on
where L= beam radiation incident A

p=Mirror utilization factor

p=0.78 in mid-summer
- 2.0 in winter afternoon
no Fraction of solar radiation

a- Absorbance of the receiver.

cquation
The concentration ratio is calculated by the following

CR=
A, A,

A, Receiver surface area

where
energy is given as
Now, the expression for the useful

where
4,ml, 4,+pn, a-4,
e, o: -) temperature.
E, Emittance of the receiver surface at the radiating
where

45

45
 Renewable Energy Systen

2.62 Receiver System

Disadvantages of Contral
2.7.7.
Advantages and
temperature is suitable for electricin,
High
Advantages:
temperature is obtained.
1. Very high
methods such as a steam turbine.
conventional system can get betler
generation using sunlight, this
concentrating the
provides good
efficiency. By
It
efficient than simple solar cells. than uek
mirrors rather
by using relatively inexpensive
3. Alarger area can be covered
expensive solar cells.
can be redirected to a suitable location via,
optical fiber cable E
4. Concentrated light
to hybrid solar lighting.
example, illuminating buildings similar

Disadvantages:
sun tracking to maintain the sunlighe
1.
Concentrated collector systems require dual axis
focus at the collector.
2. Inability to provide power in diffused light conditions. Solar cells
are able to provide
some output even if the sky becomes cloudy but power output from concentrating
systems drop drastically in cloudy conditions as the diffused light cannot be

concentrated pasively.

2,8. EFFICIENCY ANDPERFORMANCE OF SOLAR FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

The main parameters affecting the performance
of solar collector are area, absorber
absorptivity and emissivity, emissivity of glass cover, temperature
of absorber plate, collector tit
angle and number of glass covers. The solar
collector efficiency specifies the fraction of solar
energy which can be
transferred to the thermal fluid in the receiver.
The parabolic solar
collector efficiency varies much on
the fluid temperature.
2.8.1. Terms and Definitions
for Thermal Analysis of Solar
Flat Plate Collectors
Thermal efficiency
of the solar collector is always based on
collector surface area, Incidence the many factors such
Angle Modifier (IAM) or sun b
coefficient (U), mean temperature angle, overall heat transis
of the plate and mcan temperature
1. Collector
surfuce area:
of the fluid.
Solar collector performance
variables are used to
collector in terms enhance the performance
of peak efficiency value. The
the thermal solar collectors. efficiency of 60-80% is common
of a so
There are three different for most o
thernal solar collector surface areas
used to define the size ofa
such as gross, aperture
and absorber.

46

46
 Soar Energy
2.63
aGross area:
Itiscalculated by
Gross area = Total width x Height
This measure includes the frame and manifold casing even in the case of evacuated
tube
collectors.

Aperturearea:
For flat plate collectors, it is calculated as the area
of the glazing (glass) exposed to
light and it is as
calculated the inner diameter of the clear glass tube for evacuated tube
collectors.

Absorber area:

For flat plate collectors, it is calculated as the exposed area of the solar absorber but it is
alculated as the diameter of the round absorber or flat area of the absorber for evacuated tubes
wih absorber fins inside for evacuated tube collector.

2 Incidence Angle Modifier (LAM) or Sun angle:

Depending on the design of the collector, the output may change as the angke betwn the
collector and sun changes. It is called Incidence Angle Modifier (LAM). Generally, flat plate
collectors have the same curves but evacuated tube collectors and collectors with
reflectors
to consider the sun angle
have very different curves throughout the day. So, it is important
fhctor for collectors for comparison.

The two types of IAMs are as follows:

performance as the angle of the sun
1. Transversal IAM measures the change in
throughout the DAY.
related to the collector changes
sun
IAM measures the change in performance as the angle of the
Longitudinal
2 throughout the YEAR.
related to the collector changes

3 Energy interaction on an absorber plate: Figure

transfer from absorber plate to the fluid is illustrated in
The mechanism of heat to bottom of the
energy is absorbed by an absorber plate. Then it is transferred
30. First, solar radiation process. After the heat
reaches the glass
convection and
es cover by combined
by conduction
plate
process. Finally, it istransferred to the
e, it is transferred to the top
of

radiation modes. So, the

is required by convection and
tmedium to which medium the heat energy received by the final
calculate the heat
used to
overall heat
transfer coefficient is overall heatis discussed
below.
medium. Various coefficients of heat transfer
related to

47

47
 RenewableEnergy
Sys
2.64
Glass cover Q, =U{Tm-Ta)

radiatior

solar Absorber plate

Tpm

Risers
Figure 2.30 Energy interactions on
an absorber plate

0 Absorptance coeficient (a):

It is the ratio of the solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate to the solar radiatio
reaching the plate. The value of a is less thanl and it depends on the nature of the absoke
plate surface. Generally, the surface willbe painted in black to enhance the absorption ratc and

reduce the emissivity.

( Transmittance coefficient (r):

tis the ratio of the solar radiation penetrating the glass cover to the radiation incdent
the glass cover. The value of t is also less than 1
and it depends on the purity of the glass an
incident angle.

The coefficients of a and

t are generally combined asa single factor called transmittanct
absorptance product (a).
() Overall heat loss coefficient (UD:

tisa heat transfer coefficient which combines allthermal losses from

the collector
considering the mean plate temperature.

(iv) Mean plate temperature

(T):
It is the mathematical average
of the whole temperature distribution the
generated when the fluid flows
in the riser.
of absorber p
() Mean fluid temperature (Tj):
It isthe mathematical average of the temperature distribution
a single riser along the of the working
fluid
flow direction.

49

48
Solar Energy 2.65
2.8.2. Thermal IEfficiency of Flat Plate Solar Collector

the collector. It is referred to

.
Thermal analysis of any solar collector involves the estimation
of the useful heat gain from

In flat plate collectors, the following energy balance is made as

Useful heat gain Irradiance reaching absorber-Thermal losses from absorber
Mathematically, it can be written as
Useful heat gain, ,
athA-UA(T-T)
O- A(ath-U (Te-T))
where

A- Absorber platearea (mt)

a- Absorptance coefficient
t= Transmittance coefficient

Ih- Iradiance incident normal to the absorber plate (Wm

U=Overall heat loss coefficient (W/m°C)

T,- Mean temperature of the absorber plate (°C) and

T,= Ambient temperature (°C)

@
Collector efficiency (nd:
fluid to the irradiance incident on
It is the ratio of useful heat gain carried by the working
the solar collector.

nc

We know that , - A(ath-UL (T-T.). By substituting . in above efficiency formula

A(acl, -U.-)
U.T-)
mass flow rate of working fluid and
represented in terms of
Also, useful heat gain can be
Inlet and outlet temperatures of working fluid.

49

49
 Renewable Energy Siyl

2.66

So, useful heat

gain, Q,mC,(T, -T,)
where
fluid(C) and
nlet temperature of
T- of fluid (')
T=Outlet temperature
fluid from the collector,
Ta T t
Outlet temperature of the mC,

() Collector stagnation temperature (T):

mass flow
maximum temperature attained by the solar collector when the
It isthe incidey
stagnation temperature is equal to the
becomes zero. It means, the thermal losses at
solar radiation and useful heat gain is zero.
So, it can be written as

0.=0=atA-UAT-T)
athd = UA(Ta-T) since T
T

(üi) Calculation of overall heat loss coefficient:

Overall heat loss coefficient combines all thermal losses mainly by both convection sad
radiation modes. So, the overall beat loss coefficient is the sum
of
three loss coefficients
U=Uu+ U,+U,
where
U-Top heat loss coefficient (through the glass cover)
UU- Back heat loss coefficient
(through the back insulation) and
U,- Side heat loss coefficient (through the sidewise
insulation).
Among these three heat loss coefficients,
the top loss coefficient is more important
other two because these two coefficients can
be minimized by increasing the
t
thickness onboth back and side
layers. Also, the top loss insula
heat insulation coefficient can also be reduced
methods but the collector
efficiency will also
absorption of solar radiation reduce thereby reducing
considerably. Figure 2.31
radiation heat transfer coefficients of shows the different convection
theabsorber plate and glass cover.

50

50
SolarEnergy 2.67
Glass cover
h
Absorber plate her

Risers

h
Figure 2.31 A gpical flatplate collector of varlous heat transfer coefficlents
So, the quantity of heat loss by convection of the absorber plate per unit area is given by

where
hp=Convection heat transfer coefficient (Wim"C) of the air gap between

absorber plate and glass cover

T=Glass cover temperature (°C)
per unit area can be written
Then quantity of heat loss by radiation of the absorber plate
25

where
G= Stefan-Boltzman
coefficient =5.67 x 10WI(K')
=Emissivity of glass cover and

Absorber plate.

of absorber plate to the glass cover, 4, t

.Total heat loss

Above equation can be expanded into

51

51
 Renewable Energy by

268
-)
-),
+)+)\ -)

4, -) R

absorber plateand glass cover

where RThermal resistance between

The same procedure is repeated for the glass cover. So, the convection heat trans
per unit area of the glass cover is given by

where
h,=Convection heat transfer coefficient (Wim") of wind
T= Ambient temperature (°C)
Also, the convective heat transfer coefficient
of wind can be calculated by
h, 2.8+3V.
where
V,- Wind velocity (mls)
So, the quantity of
heat loss by radiation per unit area can be
of the absorber plate
as

where
T,- Effective sky temperature (C)

52

52
Solar Energy 2.69

Effective sky temperature can be estimated by

T, = 00559T

:Total heat loss of glass cover,

qegetqo
4,-(7,-T)+o(r -)

,-) R
where Ra-Thermal resistance between glass cover and surroundings.
=
R
(T.-T)
We know that
Heat loss by the collector from the top side,

(-)(-T)
R Ra

(-)
R +R
Also,

where U=Top hcat loss coefficient (W/m)

U,R+Ra

Collectors
28.3. Solved Problems on Flat Plate Solar

Problern 2.6
A
flat Plate solar thermal collector of 5
m area s subjected to a normal irradiance of
The transmittance
an overall heat loss coefficient of 5.2 WKm °.
wich
900 W/ as
which makes the collector eficiency 65% If
absorptance product of the collector is 0.8

53

53
 Kenewaue ther9y Sy

|2.74 collector
of the
C=Concentration ratio
coefficient (Wm°C)
U-Overall heat loss
temperature (() and
T= Inlet
temperature (°C)
T,-Ambient calculated by
concentrating collector is
So,the efficiency
of
the

F(m)
RoF(a),n e-)
APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR COLLECTORS
2.10. DIRECT THERMAL
use af
energy. Direct thermal applications involve the direct
There are many uses of solar
space heating and cooling df
heat thereby resulting the absorption of solar radiation for
residences and other buildings, to provide hot-water for such buildings, and to provide
hezt

for agricultural, industrial and other processes that require only moderate temperatures The
use of solar energy for these types of applications is unlimited.

Various solar direct thermal application systems are discussed briefly here.

2.10.1.Solar Water Heater

It is a device to heat water using solar energy. Solar water heaters are one the bes
of
options to be adapted in the developing country. Solar water
heating systems are commercialy
produced in the country. Most of the systems
available in India are designed to give wate
temperature from 60 to 90°C. These are
suitable for preheating of feed water to boiler an
processing industries and hot water
application in hotels, bakeries, industries
etc.
The term solar water heater
includes conventional flat
thermosyphon or forced circulation plate collector with ee
flow system. A solar water
following components. heater normally consists ot

(a) A flat plate collector to

absorb solar radiation
and convert it into thermal energ
(b) Storage tank to hold water
for use and cold water
feeding the flat plate collector.
(c)Connecting pipes inlet and
outlet for feeding cold water
taking hot water to the storage from the storage tank
tank or point ofuse.

54

54
Solar Energy
2.75
0 Thermosyphon or natural circulation system:
The schematic diagram of a solar water heater
with natural circulation mode is shown in
Sieure 2.32. In this system, the circulation
of heated water is accomplished by the natural
convection. A simple small capacity natural circulation system
is suitable for domestic purpose.

Hot water
outlet
un
radiation Storage
tank
Solar
Cold water
inlet
collector

Solar
Upown comer

Figure 2.32 Thermosyphon or natural circulation water heater

The storage tank is an insulated and contains two inlets. One is for the hot water from the
collector and other one is to allow the cold water from the main to reach the bottom of the tank
without mixing with hot water. There are two outlets. One is for the withdrawal of hot water
and other one is used to feed cold water to the collector inlet. The tank is located above the
level the collector. The entire length of the connecting pipes is covered with glass-wool
of
insulation to reduce the heat loss.
energy, it flows automatically to the
As water in the flat plate collector is heated by solar
top of the water tank due to low density. The
vacuum created by this flow is filled up by the

cold water from top of the storage tank. Whenever this

is done, cold water automatically enters
use on cloudy or rainy days.
at the bottom. An auxiliary heating system is provided for
adequately
Typically, such systems have capacities ranging from 100 to 200 liters and
Supply the needs of a family of four
or five persons.

() Forced circulation system: shown in

diagram a solar water heater with forced circulation mode is
The schematic of water between flat
Figure 2.33. In this system, a small water pump is required for the flow of
water
The collectors can also be connected in series for higher
platecollector and storage tank.
temperature if required.

55

55
 RenewaDre Energy Systen

|276 Hot water to

load

Storage
Sun tank
radiation
Inlet water to
Solar collector

Solar
collector
Inlet line to
collector
Pump

Figure 2.3.3 Forced circulation water heating

system

2.10.2. Solar Cooker

In developing countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc. energy consumed fur
cooking shares a major portion of the total energy consumed in a year. Varieties of fuel such
as coal, kerosene, cooking gas, firewood, dung cakes and agricultural waste are used for

cooking, There is a rapid deterioration in the supply of these fossil fuels. The solution for te
above problem is the harnessing of solar energy for cooking purpose. The department of new
conventional energy source has calculated that a family using a
solar cooker 275 days a yez
would save 800kgs of fire wood or 65 liters kerosene.
of Similarly, an industrial canteen or a
hostel mess using the larger community solar
cooker which can cook for 20 to 25 people couit
save 400kgs of fire wood or
335 liters of kerosene per year.
Types of
solar cooker:
Basically, there are three designs
of solar cooker.
) Flat plate box type solar cooker
with or without reflector,
(i) Multi reflector type solar cooker,
(i) Parabolic disc concentrator type
solar cooker.
Flat plate box type design
is the simplest
radiation to enter through a of all the designs. This cooker allows
double walled glass cover
placed inside a blackened
so
well insulated and made box whica
airtight. Maximum no
up to 160C. load temperature with a single reflectorre
Flat plate box type cooker
is shown in Figure
2.34.

56

56
 2.77

Sun

Solar radiation
Glass cover
Rubber packing

Inner box
Outer box

Insulation Cooking Blackened

utensils metal tray

Figure 2.34 Flat plate box type solar cooker

Solar radiation
Reflector

Blackened
metal tray
cooker
reflector ype solar
Figure2.35 Multi or triangular
or rectangular
2.35, four square
Figure cooking
lai reflector type,
eurs are
as shown in
oven body. They all
reflect the solar radiation into the
mounted on
the

57

57
 Renewable Energy
Syslen

|2.78 obtained the order of 200°C.

are placed. Temperature
is
utensils system
zone in which cooking compound cone reflector used. is
temperature can reach
to 250°C if the
maximum a parabolic surface
sun rays are made to reflect on
cooker, parallel
In parabolic type Utensils for cooking
are placed. The temperatureeof
on which the the
concentrated on focus
a
are concentrated on to a focal
in which solar radiation poit
onder of 45SO°C can be obtained
in Figure 2.36.
schematie diagram of parabolicdisc solar cookers is shown
The

ESun

Sun rays

Cooking pot

Parabolic mirror

Figure 2.36 Parabolic disc type solar cooker

Construction and Working Principles of box type solar cooker:
The solar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed
bya blackened metal try
kept inside the solar box. The solar radiations entering
the box are of short wave length Twe
glass covers are provided to minimize the heat loss.
The loss due to convection is minimized
by making the box air tight by providing a
rubber strip all around between upper lid and box.
Insulating materials such as glass-wool, saw
dust or any other material is filled in the spac
between blackened tray and outer cover
of the box. It minimizes the heat loss due to conductol
The top cover contains 3 mm thick two
plain glasses fixed on wooden or
about 25 mm distance between metal frame, keple
these two. Neoprene rubber
contact surfaces sealing is provided around
of the glass cover and hinged on one
side of the glass frame.
When the cooker is placed
in the sun the blackened
temperature inside surface starts absorbing sun rays
the box starts rising. The
cooking pots which are
inside with food material
get heat energy also blackened are placo
depending upon the intensity and food will be cooked tine
of solar radiation and material in a certain period of
of solar radiation intensity can of insulation provided. The ai
be increased by provided
made up of inner and outer metal or wooden
mirror or mirrors. The coos
solar
box with double glass
sheet on it.

58

58
Ahanteges erfsolar cooker: 2.79

attention is needed during

(O No. cooking as in other
devices.
No fuel is required.
()
0)
Negligible maintenance cost.

There is no pollution.
()
(5) Vitamins of the food are not destroyed and food cooked
is nutrition and delicious vwith
natural taste.
(0) There is no problem ofover flowing of food.
Dhaduntages efsolar cooker:

)Cook depends on sunshine, the menu has to preplanned according to the same.
Ct is not possible to cook at short notice and food cannot be cooked night or during
cloudy days.
) More time is required for cooking.

(9 Chapaties cannot becooked as it requires high temperature for baking.

210.3. Solar Crop Dryer

The drying is necessary to store it for long time ie. between harvesting and
of food
sOSumption. High moisture content in the food spoils it due to fungus formation
during the

Biage time of harvesting. This problem

can be solved by drying of a crop with optimum
storage.
osture content. Dried crops can be used for long period after
energy drying
The following methods are used for solar

9Open sun drying:

system shown in Figure 2.37. It is the simplest
Ihe working principle of
open sun drying is
parts our nation. In this system, the crops are spread on the
em stillwidely used in rural of
short-wavelength solar radiation falls on
pen surface is direct sun light. The
area where there part is absorbed
energy is reflected back. The remaining
e uneven crop
surface. A part of this converted
crops. The absorbed radiation is
bythe erop colourof the
surface depending upontthe crop starts increasing. It
results the long
othermal temperature of the
energy. Due tothisthe
blowing wind losses
from the surface
welength heat loss due tothe the form
iradiation and convective of moisture takes place in
evaporation
toambient air. The crop is dried due to
crop
energy is conducted into
the
thermal
tvaporative of the absorbed drying.
losses. Further, a part temperature of the
crop and further
erior of the
the product. It causessaa rise in

59

59
 Renewable Energy Systenm

2.80

Sun
Long-wavelength
solar radiation
Short-wavelength
loss to ambicnt
solar radiation
Reflected ay
High convective
tevaporative heat loss
Heat absorbed Crop

Convective
losses
Figure 2.37 Open sun crop drying
a considerable loss due to various reasons such as rodents,
In this type of drying, there is
birds, insects and micro-organisms. The unexpected rain or storm further worsens the situation.
Further, there may be a possibility of overdry ing, insufficient drying, contamination of foreiga
materials such as dust, dirt, and insects.

() Direct solar drying:

The working principle of direct solar drying system is shown
in Figure 2.38. It is refered
to as a cabinet dryer.

Sun

Short-wavelength Low convective Transparent

solar radiation heat losses cover
Reflected rays ]Air out

Long-wavelength
Jsolar radiation
Crop

Air in
Figure 2.38 Direct
solar crop drying

60

60
 Solar Eney
2.81
le this system, the crops are spread inside the chamber
base having metallic net frame
sich is covered by a transparent glass cover. An air vent is provided on side of the chamber
beilitate escape of hot air and moisture. A part of the incident solar radiation on glass
er is reflected back to the
the atmosphere. Remaining part of solar radiation is transmitted
erough the glass cover inside the cabinet dryer. Further, a part
of transmitted radiation is
eflected back from the surface of the crop. The rest part is absorbed by the surface
of the crop.
Due to the absorption
of solar radiation, the crop temperature increases and the crop starts
emitting long-wavelength radiation that is not allowed to escape to atmosphere due to
the
presence of theglass cover, unlike open sun drying. Thus, the temperature above the crop inside

chamber becomes higher.

Indirect solar drying:

The working principle of indirect solar drying system is shown in Figure 2.39. In this
ystem, the crop is not directly exposed to solar radiation to minimise the discolouration and
cncking on the surface of the crop. A separate unit termed a solar air heater is used for erop
heating by allowing hot air into the drying chamber. The hot air is allowed to flow through the
wet crop. The drying is basically achieved by the difference in moisture concentration between
drying air and air at the vicinity of crop surface.

Sun

Short-wavelength
solar radiation
Air out
Convective losses
Cop
Reflected ray

Air in Drjer
Conductivelconvective
losses
crop drying
Figure 2.39Indirect solar

L104.Solar Distillation or Solar Still

pure drinkable water by using solar
convert saline water into
Solar still is a device used to distillation. The
process converting saline water into pure water is called
Ey. This of

61

61
 Renewable Energy System

2.82 distillation, reverse

osmosis
processes such as thin-film and
conventional distillation solar distillation is an attractive
energy intensive techniques. Therefore,
are labo
electrodialysis
technology and non-requirement of highly skilled
alternative due to its simple is generally knowna
consumption. The simplest solar still
energy
maintenance work and low
2.40.
"basin type solar stil shown in Figure
Transparent
Cover
Solar
Solar radiations
radiations
Filler (Impure
water inlet)

Condenséd water
droplets'
Distilled water
outlet
Impure water

Overflow pipe
Insulation Basin liner
(Blackened surface)

Figure 2.40Solar distillation

It consists of a blackened basin containing saline water at a shallow depth. A transparent

air tight cover encloses the space above the basin completely. It has a roof-like shape. The
cover which is usually glass may be of plastic is sloped towards a collection through solar
radiation passes through the cover and it is absorbed and converted into heat in the black
surface.
Impure saline water in the basin or tray is heated
by the solar radiation and the vapor
produced is condensed to purified water on the cooler
interior of the roof. The transparent root
material transmits nearly all radiation falling on it
and absorbs very little. Hence, it remain coo
enough to condense the water vapor. The
condensed water flows down the sloping root
there is a provision to collect the distillate at
lower end of the glass cover. Saline water can
a
replaced in the operation by either continuous b
operations or by batches. Solar still may prov
about 15 to 50 litres/day/10 m².

Advantages of solar distillation:

() Low energy consumption.

62

62
 Solar Energy

(2) No fuel is required. 243

3) Low maintenance cost.

(49) No pollution.
(5) Simple design.
(6 Less skilled labour may be sufficient to operate
the plant.

210.5.Solar Pumping
Solar pumping uses the solar energy
for water pumping which is useful for imigation.
Solar pumping offers the following
features that make its utilization for
irigation pumping
quite attractive.

() The greatest need for pumping occurs during summer months

when the solar radiation
is maximum.
(2) The solar pumping can be intermittent to an extent during period low solar
of adiation
when pumping decreases and the evaporation losses from crops are also low.

3) Relatively inexpensive pumped storage can be provided in the forms of solar ponds
The major obstacle to increase use of solar iigation system is relatively high capital cost.

In this system, water pump is driven directly by water heated by solar energy which
operates either a heat engine or turbine. Flat plate collectors are used for low head pumping
and for high head pumping parabolic trough collector is used.
The basic system consists of the following components.

(1) Solar collector

(2) Heat transport system
(3) Boiler or Heat exchanges
(4) Heat engine
(5) Condenser
(6) Pump.
a low
pump is not much different from a solar heat engine working in
The solar
is the solar collector and sink is the
water to be pumped.
nperature cycle. The source 'of heat
primary
system is shown in Figure 2.41. The
ypical solar powered water pumping engine with
system are an array of flat-plate collectors and a Rankine heat
nponents of the

63

63
 Renewable Energy
Syn
24 transfer fluid(Pressurized
substance. During the flow of heat
as the working
n organic fluid temperature andthus, the solareener
arrays is heated to high
water) through the
solar collector exchanger (boiler)
energy. The fluid (water)flows
into a heat
themal
is converted tothe in the boiler. This fluid
evaporates
intermediate organic fluid
heat to an condensed at low
pressure
it transfers its reaching the condenser where itis
expands in the engine before
e
fluid is then reinjected in the boiler to
water to be purmped. The
condenser is called by the pump and it could of course be
coupled
engine is coupled to the
the cycle. The Rankine heat
an electric generation.
Organic Water
turbine pump
Fresh water
Sun Hot water

radiations

Heat
collector
(Flat-plate) exchanger
Solar ]Condenser
Solar
array

Circulating Fecd Well

pump pump

Figure 2.4I Solar pumping system

2.10.6.Solar Chimney or Ventilator

A solar chimney employs convective currents to
draw air out of a building. By creatng
warm or hot zone with an
exterior exhaust outlet, air can be drawn into the house
the structure. Figure 2.42 illustrates
ventilat
the principle
of
operation of a solar chimney used n
house. The solar chimney consists of a heated
black metal absorber on the inside behin
glazed front that itcan reach high temperature
and be insulated from the house. A
metal scoop at
the top which opens opposite the wind
will allow heated air to exhaust
withou rot
being overcome by the prevailing wind.

64

64
Solar Energy
2.85
Rotating turbine

High
temperature
increase
updraft

Sun

Insulation

Damper
Replacement air
Metal absorber drawn from cool
with black side of house
sclective
coating
Figure 2.42 Solar chimney

210.7.Solar Furnace
A solar furnace is a structure that captures sunlight to produce very high temperatures
which is used for industrial purposes. It is done with a curved mirror (or an array of mirors)
that acts as a parabolic reflector for concentrating light onto a focal point. The temperature at
the focal point may reach 3,500°C and this heat can be used to generate electricity, melt steel
in its
and make hydrogen fucl or nano-materials. The term "solar furnace" has also expanded
scope to refer to solar concentrator heating systems using parabolic mirors or heliostats where
1000 kW output is at
S38°C is now commonly achieved. The largest solar furnace producing
Odeillo in France, opened in 1970.

Figure 2.43 shows the typical paraboloidal

collector solar furnace with heliostats. Solar
Turnace primarily consists of solar
concentrator, heliostat and sun tracking device. A
or a spherical reflector concentrator collector is
paraboloidal dish type concentrator collector energy.
energy and converting it into useful heat
Commonly used for receiving the solar concentrator. If
Heliostats are used to orient solar radiation
parallel to the optical axis of the
should be
concentrator istaken as x, then the size of the heliostat
e size of the
x.
aperture
Sun
of
tracking
the
system is used to continuously position the heliostat in the
direction
14x14 so optimum output can be produced by the
Of sun as it moves from morning to evening that the
concentrator.

65

65
 Renewable Energy
Sy

2.86

Sun

Sun rays

Receiver

Heliostats
Paraboloidal
concentrator

Figure 2.43 Solar furnace

Advantages of solar furnace system:
(1) Simple in design and working principle.
(2) It uses no fossil fuels and hence, no polluted
greenhouse gases are formed.
3) It requires less operational cost.
(4) It has no moving part except the motor sun tracking system
and hence, it pro
less wear.
(5) High heat flex is obtained.
(6) Controlling of temperature easy.
is
(7) Less maintenance is required.

2.11. SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE

Although
thesun provides an abundant,
energy is periodic following clean and safe source Supplyofti
of
yearly and of energy,
diurnal cycles. the unpredicast
and diffused. Its density It is
is low compared with intermittent, often
fossil energy devices such as the energy convention
coal or oil-fired flux densities found in
hand, also
is unsteady following furnaces. The the
ote
demand for energy, on
yearly and
needs. Therefore,
necessary diurnal cycles persa
it is tostore solar energy for both industrial and
ene
in some forms. Otherwise,
solar

66

66
/215. FUNDAMENTALS OF SOLAR PHOTO VOLTAIC CONVERSION
215:1. Basics of Semiconductors
Solids can be divided into three categories on the basis through
of electrical conduction
one
iem. They are: conductors, semiconductors and insulators. The best conductors have

67

67
 Renewable Energy
ySyste
2.100
valence electrons. A semiconducte
whereas the best insulators have eight
valence electron between those ofa conductor and
an
insulator.
properties A
an element with electrical valence electrons,
electrons. Silicon (Si) has four Therefom,
semiconductor has four valence
An isolated silicon
atom has 14 protons and 14elecd
for semiconductor.
is the best choice a
electrons. When silicon atoms combine to form solid,
The outermost orbit
contains four te)
pattern called a crystal. Each silicon atom shares electrn
arange themselves into an orderly s
a way to have eight electrons in its valence orbit
with four neighbouring atoms in such
with coual
of electronsbelongs to two neighbouring atoms and it is attached by them
pair
chemical bond is known as covalemt be
opposite forces keeping them bonded together. This

The behaviour of a semiconductor can be explained with the

help of quantum theory. Sg
a
energy is needed to lift an electron into lr
an clectron
isattracted by the nucleus, extra
can lift the electron to higher energy levt
orbit. Some of the external energy sources which
are heat, light and voitage.

2.15.2. p-n Junction

The basic requirement for photovoltaic energy conversion is an electronic asymmetry a
the semiconductor structure known as a junction. When n-and p-type semiconductors a
brought into contact, then electrons from n-region near the junction would flow to p
semiconductor leaving behind a layer that is positively charged. Similarly, holes will flowa
the opposite direction leaving behind a negatively charged layer. A steady state is finay
reached in resulting a junctionwhich contains practically no mobile charges. Hence, it is name
as depletion region.

Energy

Conduction band

Valance band

Flgure 2.50 Energy bands of a step

graded pn junction
A
typical solar cell consists of a p-n junction simi
formed in asemiconductor material
to a diode. Figure
2.50 showsthe energy bands of a step materia
graded pn junction where the
changes suddenly
fromp to n before diffusion process. p
bands are slightly higher hhan n
bass
because p type atoms
have slightly bigger than n
bands. Also, p type atoms havetslightlylarg

68

68
Solar Energy
2.101
orbits than1n type atom due to a pentavalent
aton with a core charye of +5 attracting an
more than a trivalent atom core electron
witha charge of 43.
When a junction between p
and n type materials is formed,
oles) diffuse from higher concentration the carriers (free electrons and
side to lower concentration
crossing, these carriers recombine side. Immediately, after
with other types of carriers found in majority on
side. Similarly, electrons near the other
the junction in n-type side have recombined
with holes which
have crossed the junction from p-side.

The p-n junction may be connected to a

battery in two ways as follows:
(vi) Forward bias in which the positive conventional
circuít current passes from p to n
material across a reduced band potential difference.

(vii) Reverse bias in which the conventional positive current has an

increased band
potential difference to overcome.

215.3. Photovoltaic Effect

When the solar cell (p-n junction) is illuminated, clectron-hole pairs are generated and it
is acted upon by the internal electric fields, thereby resulting in a photocurrent (/). The
generated photocurrent flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in the
absence of an external applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is measured
as the short-circuit current
(). This phenomenon is called photovoltaic efect. This short
circuit current depends 1inearly on the light intensity because the absorption of more light
results in additional electrons to flow in the internal electric field force. The overall cell current
D is determined by subtracting the light induced current () from the diode dark current ((o).
Overall PV cell current, I= Ip-I

2.15.4. Photovoltaic Materials

structure in order to reduce
The solar cells are made of various materials and with different
are various types of solar cell material such
the cost and achieve maximum efficiency. There
thin-film material, and
single-crystal, polycrystalline and amorphous silicon, compound
8 layers that give highly efficient cells for specialised
other semiconductor absorbing
applications.

though they are expensive. Amorphous

Crystalline silicon cells are the most popular
both
thin-film solar cells are less expensive. The amorphous silicon layer is used with
slicon
structure.
ydrogen and fluorine incorporated in the

69

69
 RenewableEnergy System
102
2 common types of silicon (Si) semiconductor
material used are:
The most
Sicells
(a) Single erystalline
(b) Polycrystalline Sicells
(c) Amorphous Si cells.
cell:
() Single crystal sillicon solar comme
It is the most efficient and most robust of the
silicon PV family. The most
type structure where the base materialika
commercially produced silicon cell has an orp
n
layer is relativel
type and it has a thin diffused n layer at the top of it. Since, the diffused
a
heavily doped, it is likely to have large number of
unwanted recombination centers. In this
a
holes in silicon. Therefore.
the minority carrier diffusion length for electron is twice the
are preferred for making
type silicon base material which has electrons as its minority carriers
asingle crystalline bulk silicon solar cell.

(B) Multicrystalline silicon solar cell:

multicrystalling
It is less costly as compared to a single crystal silicon cell. Commercial
solar cells have efficiencies in the range 10%-14%. Impurity segregation in grain boundaries
which act as recombination centers has limited the achievable maximum conversion efficiency.

(c) Amorphous silicon solar cell:

These materials are cheaper alternatives to single or multi-crystalline cells. It has les
efficiency in the range of 4-8%. It performs the best when indoors are used with difused o
indoor lights, It is used in pocket calculators, electronic watches, radio receivers and low power

band-held electronic instruments.

Cadmium telluride is an efficient light-absorbing material for thin-film solar cells.

Compared to other thin-film materials, this material is easier to deposit and more suitable for
large-scale production.
Copper-Indium Selenide based materials are of interest for photovoltaic applications.
These semi-conductors are especially attractive for thin-film solar cell application because of
their high optical absorption coefficient and versatile optical and electrical characteristics. k
has a direct band gap of 1.0 eV, Incorporation of Ga into CIS mixture increases the band gap
beyond 1.1 el. Its main attraction is inexpensive preparation. It is more stable as comparcd w
a Si cell in outdoor applications and it has the efficiency around 10%.

Gallium Arsenide (Gads) Multijunction based solar cells are high efficiency cells that
have been developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration. It has a
direct band gap of 1.43 eV which makes it an attractive PV material. Simple GaAs cels have

70

70
 Energy
Solar
2.103
flms
of type and p type GaAs grown onasuitable substate. These
n
thin multijunction cells
multiple thin films produced using molecular beam epitaxy.
consisttof The semiconductors are
Garefully chosen to absorb nearly the entire solar spectrum. Thus, it generates electricity from
much of the solar energy as possible. The efficiency of GaAs cell is 30% but
the high
production costthas limited their utilization.

Ligh-Absorbing Dyes Typically,. a ruthenium metalorganic dye is used as a monolayer of

ight-absorbing material. This type of cell allows a more flexible use of materials andit is
opically manufactured by
screen printing with the potential for lower processing costs than
hose used for bulk solar cells.

Oronic solar cells and poymer solar cells are buit from thin films (typically 100 nm) of
as
aanic semiconductors such as polymers and small molecule compounds such
fullerenes.
hpherylene vinylene, copper phthalocyanine and carbon
same thín-film light
Nanocrystalline Solar Cell structures make use of some of the
an on a supporting matrix
sorbing materials but these are overlain as extremely thin absorber
a very high surface area to increase
af conductive polymer or mesoporous metal oxide having
light absorption is increased.
iteral reflections and hence, the probability of

26. SOLAR CELLS

216.1. Solar Cell Principles
create free electrons with
from the sun are absorbed in semiconductor, they
When photons Once these
electrons which provide the bonding in the base crystal.
igher energies than to flow out of
an electric field to higher energy electrons
electrons are created, there must be a cell to make
useful work. The most normal configuration for solar
to
te semi-conductor do
Figure 2.51.
4p junction semiconductor is shown in
Sun light

N-type .P-ype

ww
Load
principles
Figure 2.51 Solar cell

71

71
 Renewable Energy System
2.104 an inherent electric fieeld
type' materials provide which
p type' and 'n
The junction of of sunlight. Each of
the individual solar
created by the absorption cells
separates the charge proportional to the cell area
0.5Vwith the current directly
power output of about
produces a

Mechanism of Solar Cell

2.16.2. Structure and
a silicon solar ell
schematic of structure and mechanism of
Figure 2.52 shows the
a0.2-0.3 mm thick mono-crystalline or
polycrystalline silicon wafer having t
consists of
impurities (e
layers with diferent electrical properties
formed by "doping'" it with other
negativeh
is established at the junction between
boron and phosphorus). An electric field The
doped (using phosphorus atoms) and positively doped
(using boron atoms) silicon layers.
rear of
by contacts to the front and
electric current generated in the semiconductor isextracted
the cell. The cell is covered with a thin layer of dielectric
material and antireflection coatine
(ARC) to minimise the reflection loss from the top surface.

Pd
Antireflection layer
SiO,

D+
Holes

Aluminium

Figurè 2.52 Structure of a solar cell

2.16.3. Types of Solar Cells

Solar cells are classified on the

basis of the following factors.
1. Thickness of active material

2. Type of junction structure

and
3. The type of active material used
in its fabrication.

72

72
SolarEnergy
2.105
L Thickness of active
material:
dhe basis of thickness
of active material, the solar cell is classified into two types.
1. Bulk material cell
2. Thin film cell.
In bulk material cells, the base material is itself an active material.
In thin film cells, a thin
6lm deposition of active material is carried out on the sheet. Thin film solar cells
have the
osior advantage of significantly low active materialconsumption and continuous production
processes. At present, the bulk material single crystal and multi-crystalline cells are
the most
Successful for terrestrial applications.

2On the basis of junction structure:

Solar cells are classified into five types based on junction structure.

(a) p-n homojunction cell

b) Hetero-junction cell
(c) p-n multi junction cell
(d) metal-semiconductor Schottky junction
(e) p-i-n semiconductor junction
In homogeneous p-n junction, the semiconductor material
on both sides of the junction is
same but a
doping materials are different. In heterogeneous
p-n junction, two dissimilar
or Groups II-VI are used. The compound
semiconductor materials such as Groups II-V
are used to form the junction.
semiconductors with closely matching crystal lattice
contact
junction formed by bringing metal in
A Schottky junction is a metal semiconductor
an ohmic contact or a
with a moderately doped
n type semiconductor material by either
to fabricate but it is
is relatively straight forward
rectifying contact. Schottky barrier junction
as a It is a unilateral junction conducting currents in one direction
not very efficient PV cell.
semiconductor) and restricting in the other.
(Conventional current flow from metal to
structure the structure where intrinsic
is
Ap--n type (p type- intrinsic
-n type) junction amorphous-silicon solar
Silicon is interposed between n and p layers and it is used in tandem in
cells.

3.On the basis of type of active material:

fabrication of
junction is
cell depending on the type of material used for the
he solar
classified in, seven types.

73

73
 RenewableEnergy System
2.114

System size or Power input, P = 2.62 KW Ans.

System size
Number of panels Production ratio x Solar panel wattage
2.62 5 Ans.
PnSPW
PRX | x0.554.33

2.17.7. -V and Power-Voltage

Characteristics of a Solar PV Cell
characteristic of a solar module or panel operating unde
A typical current-voltage (/-) can be wired or connected
conditions is shown in Figure 2.55. Photovoltaic panels
nomal
or both to increase the voltage or curent
together in either series or parallel combinations,
capacity of the solar aray. If the
array panels are connected together in a series combination

then the voltage increases and if connected together in

parallel then the current increases.

Pm

Power
(WW)
Current
() Power
Current

Maximum Power
Point (MPP)

0
Voltage
(nVA Vae

Figure 2.55LV and power-voltage characteristics of asolar cell

As we know, power delivered by the PV cell is the product of voltage () and current
5 The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations will
still be the product times the current, (P =Vx). However, the solar panels are
of the voltage

connected together, the upper right-hand corner will always be the maximum power pomt
(MPP) of the array. The maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own
constriction. It is measured by short circuiting the terminals the cell at the most optimizcu
of
condition to produce maximum output.

At both open and closed-circuit conditions, the power delivered zero.

is At some po

the power a
delivered is maximum.

74

74
 EnergY
Solar

2115
Amps
VI Curves Power
-ParallelMPP

Parallel

() Single MPp Series MPP

Amperes
()
Power

Single Series

Voltage (V) Volts

Figure 2.56 I-V and Power-Voltage characteristics of

single, series and parallel
solar cell
Volage () -Current () characteristics curve is plotted to analyse its behavior. It is plotted
fom values obtained by measuring voltage and current.

For this, open circuit voltage is measured by measuring voltage across the terminals of the

l when no load is connected to the cell. Also, it depends upon the techniques of
anufacturing and temperature. Generally, open circuit voltage of so lar cell nearly equal to 05
Bl6volt which is denoted by
V
The maximum amount of current that a PV cell can deliver
ste short circuit current which denoted At one point of voltage and corresponding
cellL. So, the performance of solar cell is
Tent, maximum power is delivered by a solar
acided by a factor called fill factor.

Tracking (MPPT) of a PV Solar

JOperating Regions and Maximum Power Point
Cell
The solar cell M-N, when the load resistance is smal. On the other
loperatesin the region curve. When
land, the cell operates in the regions P-Qof the
f loaddresistance is large, the solar
its minimum
any load, the current will at
be
he solar cell not connected to
is open-circuited i.e. known as the
open circuit
which is
(o) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum
positive and
is short circuited ie. the
liage At the other extreme, when the solar
cell
(V.
teative leads across the cell is at its minimum
(zero) but the
connected together, the voltage

75

75
 Renewable Energy Syste

|2.116 as
its maximum which is known the short circuit current
out ofthe cell
reaches
current flowing short circuit current
LV characteristics curve ranges from the
span of the solar cell open circuit voltage (Vo). In other words
(). The zero current at the full
output volts, to
() at zero available from a cell is at open circuit, and the
maximum current at
shoon
maximum voltage
the
circuit.
Amps
Maximum Power
Point (MPP)
max

()
Currrent

olVmax
Volts
0 Vmp Voc
Voltage (V)

Figure 2.57 I-V characteristies of a PV cell

There are two extreme operating conditions of solar cells such as zero output voltage and
zero output current conditions. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any
electrical power but there must be a point somewhere in between where the solar cell generates
maximum power. However, there is one particular combination
of current and voltage for
which the power reaches its maximum value, at Imp and
Vp In other words, the point at which
the cell generates maximum electrical power and this is
shown in Figure 2.57 at the top rig
arca of thedotted rectangle.
This is the maximum power point" or MPP. Therefore, the
ide
operation of a photovoltaic cell (or panel)
is defined to be at the maximum power point.
Solar tracking is a technology for orienting a
solar collector, reflector, or photovolak
panel towards the sun. As the sun moves across
the sky, a tracking device makes sure ha
solar collector automatically follows
and maintains the optimum angle to
the solar radiation. In order to receive the mos
get maximum concentration,
a
an arrangement for tracking t
sun's virtual motion is required.
MPPT stands for maximum power point tracking.
celltemperature. Tracking is done It depends on the solar irradianceaand
by using modern inverters
which have mechanisms to

76

76
 Energy
Solar
cell. delivers maximum 2.117
point, PV possible power
Atthis called maximum power
(AMPPTD)
point tracking

The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell

is positioned near the bend in -V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of
Vp and Jep Can be estimated
from the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current:

Vap (0.8-0.90)V
Lny
(0.85-0.95),e
Since solar cell output voltage and current
both depend on temperature, the actual output
power will vary with changes in ambient temperature.

a73.Efficiency and Fill Factor of the Solar Cell

The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one
solar cell to another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cellto
input energy from the sun. It is a measurement of a solar panel's ability to convert sunlight into

sable electricity. Given the same amount of sunlight shining for the same duration of time on

o 5olar panels with different efficiency ratings, the more efficient panel will produce more
dectricity than the less efficient panel. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar

clitself, the efficiency depends on the spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the
must
temperature of the solar cell. Therefore, conditions under which efficiency is measured
one device to another.
be carefully controlled in order to compare the performance of

measured under AM1.5 conditions and at a temperature 25°C. Solar

of
Terestrial solar cells are
ceils intended for space use are measured under
AMO conditions.

as fraction of incident power which is

The efficiency of a solar cell is determined the
Gomverted to electricity and is defined as:
Maximum Power (Pmo Voxle x FE
Efficiency, n =Incident power (Pa) Pm

voltage,
where
V is the open-circuitcurrent,
Le is the short-circuit

FF is the fill factor.

outliers on either side the
of
efficient, with
ST Solar panels
are between 15% and 20% some cases, but the majority
of
Tange.
High-quality solar panels can exceed 22% efficiency in
shotovoltaic are not above 20% efficiency.
panels available

77

77
 Renewable Energy
Syten
2.118
power to the product of the open circuit
Fll factor is the ratio
of
the maximum voltlag

current.
and short circuit

Fill factor

Generally.,commercialh
the performance ofa solar cell better.
be
Ifthe fil factor is high,
a greater than 0.7. If the fill factor of
available PV cells in market will have fill factor sl
cells is less than 0.7, they are not recommended for larger electricity generation projects

SYSTEMS
2.18. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SOLAR PV

Advantages:
1. It has no moving parts and hence no wear.
2. Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity conversion is obtainel

through simple devices.

3. It produced no pollution.

4. It has a wide power handling capacity.

5. It has the ability to work for a long period without maintenance.
6. It needs low maintenance cost.
7. It has long effective life.
8. It is highly reliable.
9. Power to weight ratio is high.
10. It can be used with or without sun tracking.
11. Desired currents and voltages can be achieved by mere
integration.
12. It is easy to fabricate because the connection of semiconductor devices
is easy.
Disadvantages:
1. Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce due to the cost of manufactur
PV devices and the conversion efficiencies of
theequipment. The system requires
initial cost.
2. Solar power is a variable energy source with energy production dependent on the
It makes solar energy panels less reliablea solution. s
3. Energy storage is required because of no insolation at night.

78

78
Solar Energy
2.119
4.
This system require addditional equipment
(inverters) to convert
into alternating electricity t direct electricity (DC)
(AC) in order to be used on power
the network.
5.
In case of land-moountedPV panel installations,
they require relatively
deployment. large areas for

6 Solar panels efficiency levels are

, relatively low (between 14%-25%),.
Though PV panels have no considerable
maintenance or operating costs,
fragile and can be damaged relatively easily. they are

R Some toxic chemicals such as cadmium

and arsenic are used in the PV production
process. Therefore, it requires
recycling and proper disposal.

249. SOLAR PV APPLICATIONS

Photovoltaic cells could be applicable to either small or large power plants
since they
unction well on a small scale and it may be adaptable to local energy gencration on building
roof tops. The cost of energy storage and power conditioning equipment might be high.
However, it makes the most economical method of energy generation in large stations.
A
variety of PV system configurations have been developed and deployed for rural
spplications such as drinking water supply, stret lighting, irrigation water pumping and for
operation of electronic equipment. Solar cells have also been used to operate navigational
signals, high way emergency call system, rail road crossing wanings, automatic
meteorological stations, etc. in location where the access to utility
power lines is difficult.

Some of the typical applications include the following.

1. Grid interactive PV, power generation.

drinking water supply.
2. Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and
3. Lighting.
4. Medical refrigeration.
5. Community radio and television sets.
6. Weather monitoring.
7. Powering small village.
8. Telecommunication and signaling.
9. Railway signaling equipment.
10. Battery charging
11. Street lighting

79

79
 Renewable Energy
Sytan
2.120 sector
Other market
Communications
Electric utility sector Consumer goods
Transportation sector

Industrial sector

Grid interactive
Govemment sector

Remote

Commercial sector
Health
Residential sector
OEM
Other end üse Transportation
Water pumping

Figure 2.58 Solar direct thermal applications

Figure 2.58 shows the proportion of direct solar photovoltaic cell energy applications B
various household, industrial and commercial sectors.

219.1. Solar PV Battery Charging

solar charger utilizes solar energy to supply electricity to device or charger batterics
A

This lectricity is used to charge electrical devices such as

cell phones, laptops, car batters
reading lights and personal fans. They are mostly portable. A series
of solarcells are connecte
in a stationary location and can be connected to a
battery bank to store energy for oft-pe
usage.

A battery charger bank functions

similar to a solar photovoltaic system and a
traditional battery bank storage system.
First, sunlight strikes the surface
Photovoltaic solar convert
of the PV e
cels sunlight directly into solar power electrici
moves solar
(electricity). This
toa battery charger kit to store
the electricity until any compatible device is ready
to charge. Then, a charge
inverter which is changing altermating
from direct current (DC) to
current (AC) turns
the electricity back into a more use D
usable form. Also, certain devices

80

80
 Energy
Solar
2.121
to charge their batteries while other
electricity
devices primarily use
do not require a charge AC electricity. TTherefore,
some devices inverter.
The charge controller is a converting device
which connects and
a way
to disconnects the charger
tothe
battery in take control over
charging and to stop
e batteries charging at the correct voltage.
twill protectthe from damage from over-charging
to the batteries. Therefore,
and regulate the power going fromn
solar panels
the the electricity is kicked out of
httery and poured into an electrical device. the extended-life

Solar PV panel

Charge controller
Battery
DC power

Figure 2.59 Solar battery charging system

318:2. Solar PV Domestic Lighting

one of the most convenient and preferred
Electricity used for lighting during night time is
in our Country. Out of them, lakh villages
1

form of energies because more than 6 lacks villages

electrified
a quarter of house-holds have proper connection in
do not be electrified. Also, only many
in villages is unwarranted due to power shortage in
Vilages. Electricity supply situation most
available even in electrified villages for lighting when it is
Bages. Also, it is not mostly

eeded.
as follows.
system configurations are available
For village lighting, three major

Domestic lighting system or solar

lantern
()
street lighting system and
(9 Pole mounted standalone
lighting system.
6) Non-grid interactive centralized

81

81
 Renewable Energy
Systen

Solar photo-voltaic powered lights called lanterns are considered to be alternative solui
mod
to village lighting needs. A typical solar lantern consists of small photovoltaic
alighting device, high frequency investor, battery charge controller and appropriate houi
During day time, the module is placed under the
sun and it
is connected to lantern throuh
of the lamp is 3 to 5
cables for charging a lantern using 10 W lamp. The expected life
Storage battery is the main component in lantern. Frequent maintenance is not needed
electrotype batteries.

radiation

Solar PV array

Power conversion AC power

Charge controller device (Inverter)
DC power

Power storage system

(Batteries)

AC power to home
Figure 2.60 Solar domestic lighting system

Z19.3. Solar PV Street Lighting

Street lighting system consists of two photo-voltaic
modules, mounting frame, 4m long
pole, battery box, tubular type lead-acid
battery, charge controller, investor and day
sensors. The photovoltaic lg
modules charge the batteries during day time.
During night time, a
automatic light sensor shifts on a powerful
high efficiency light and the lamp is switched ou
automatically during morning time. Time
module sensing is used to switch on lights on
evening. It works for one fluorescent
tube lights of 20 W for whole night. An example is gve
in Problem 2.4 on Page 2.132 for both
domestic lighting and street lighting to get be

understanding.

82

82
SoarEnery
2.123
Solar PV module

Module mounting structure

Mild steel pole

Luminary
Bend pipe

Solar charge
controller

Battery box

Battery stand

Figure 2.61 Solar Street lighting system

219.3.1. Solved Problem on Solar PV Lighting system

Problem 2.13

A solar PV LED lamp operates with a voltage of 3.5 V DC and draws a current of
U6A The lamp is required to operate for 6 hours every night. Assuming the configuration,
energy
culate the wattage and area of PV module required which would collect enough
year. Also caleulate the
ough the day and operate satisfactorily at night through the
paciy of the battery voltage 2.5 V and depth discharge 85%
of

Gien:
a
radiation varies from a
minimum of 5 kWh in the winter to
d The daily global
maximum of 8
kWh/ in summner charging efficiency is 94%% and
module eiciency is l8% while the battery
he Py
lhe battery ischarging efficiency is 88%,
The LED driver efflciency is 90%.
Given
data:
For PV
module,

83

83
SolarEnergy
2.125
PV module wattage -Power output of the solar
PV module/time
-3.085/6=0.514 W
Ans.
It is assumed that the standard value
of global radiation, S.I 1000 Wim and
loss power factor = 0.9.
Power input to the solar PV module =
Global radiation x Area x Time x
Module
efficiency x Loss power factor
. Power input tothe solar PV module/day
3.085
SIxAx u x0.9
1000×Ax6x0.18x0.9
. Area, A
=0.003 174 m²31.74 cnt Ans.

L194. Solar PV Water Pumping

In many remote and rural areas, hand pumps or diesel driven pumps are used for water
sply. Diesel pumps consume fossil fuel and they affect the environment. So, they need more
maintenance but they are less reliable. PV powered water pumps have received a considerable
stention because of major developments in the field of solar-cell materials and power
electronic systems technology.

Solar PV panel
Maximum power
point tracker

DC-DC converter
brushless motor Brushless Pump
controller DC motor

Figure 2. 63 Solar PV water pumping system

Fumping of water for the
purpose of drinking during sunshine hours isa successful
storage. Solar PV water pumping system is
pication of stand-alone PV system without
This water pumping
eSstully used in many parts the world in the range of5 kWto 10kW.
of
70,000 literslday for 2250 W
ers a minimum of 15,000 liters/day for 200 W panel and
2.63 shows
panel
from a suction of 7 m and a total head of 10
m on a
clear sunny day. Figure
DC motor to drive positive
layout of a solar PV water pumping system using brushless
isplacement pump.

84

84
 Renewable Energy
Systen

2.126 water-pumping applications such as positive

used for
pumps are commonly directly proportional
Two types of
Displacement pumps have water output
displacement and centrifugal. These pumps are used
independent of head. fot solar
the pump but it is almost low-head
the speed of are used for
Centrifugal pumps
applicationy
deep wells or bores.
water pumping from panels. The centrifugal pumps have
interfaced with the solar
especially if they
are directly
which can be problem for asola
a
it decreases at lowspeeds
relatively high efficiency but
light levels.
water-pumping system at times of low
used. They are as follows:
In water pumping, three types
ofmotors have generally been

1. Permanent magnet DC motors

2. Brush-less DC motors
3. Low capacity pumping systems.
close to thei
These power-conditioning units are also uscd for operating PV panels
maximum efficiency for fluctuating solar conditions, The speed of the pump is govemed
by

the available driving voltage. If current becomes lower than the acceptable Ilimit, then pumpig
willstop. When the light level increases, the operating point will shift from the maximu

power point leading to a reduction in efficiency.

A Maximum-Power Point Tracker (MPPT) can be used for controlling the voltage-cumet
output from PV inverters to operate PV close to the maximum operating point for smoth
operation of motor pump units. DC-DC converter can be used to keep PV panel output volage
constant and to help in operating the solar arrays close to the
maximum-power point.
In the beginning, a high starting current is required to produce a high
starting torque. PN
pancls cannot supply this high starting current without adequate power
conditioning equipmen
such as a DC-DCconverter or by using a starting capacitor.
high starting current by regulating the excess PV array
DC-DCconverter can generate e
voltage. DC-DC converter can be
boost or buck converter. PV inverters are
used to convert DC output the solar arrays to
of

ACquantity so as to run the ac

motor-driven pumps.

2.194.1. Solved Problem on

Solar PV Water, Pumping System
Problem 2.14
A PVsystem supplying
drinking water is installed in a
drinking water mission. The water
vijay-sundari agriland of mau
is pumped from bore well
The array consists from the depth of
ofi5 modules, each having an area of S000 cn standurd
and an overall
conversion efficiency of 14.5%, for solar insolation, ot
The conversion s based
efficiency

85

85
 Renewable Energy
Sysl

2.134
regulate the charge transfer and prevent the bbaltery
are used to with
PV modules fren
Charge controllers Blocking diodes in series arewweA
discharged.
excessively charged and through PV cells at night when there
being
batteries from being discharged isno
protect the battery from short
to prevent the diodes also
blocking circin
generate energy. These connected
available to
power system consisting ofmore
than one string
other
in
PV
parallel,
if
short-cioa
strings from dischar
In a solar diode prevents the
blocking
occurs in one of the strings, the in a PV system should be proper
string. The battery storage
through the
short-circuited as overcharging or frequent
catastrophic operating conditions such de
controlled to avoid
discharging.
and the excess of lo
array after converting to AC is fed to loads
The output the
of
battery. When the
sun is not available, the battery supple
requirement is used to charge the

the load through the inverter.

220.3. Gid Connected PV Systems

Components ofa grid connected PV system:
are essential for grid connecte
The key components of a grid-connected solar PV system
PV system.
L
Solar panels:
convert it
Solar panels are the main parts of the system. They capture sunlight and i
clectricity. The selection of panels are based on the factors such as efficiency, durability a
manufacturer warranties.

2 Inverter:
The inverter is used to convert DCelectricity from the solar panels into AC electnd
usable by homes and grids. Moden inverters come with advanced features such as moaitot
and optimization.
3.
Mounting structures:
Mounting structures ensure secured installation of solar panels on the roof or the g

Proper installation is necessary to maximize

the energy production.
4. Monitoring system:
Many solar PV systems includea monitoring system
which allows homeownes
their energy production and system performance
in real-time.

86

86
 Energy
Solar

connection: 2.135
Grid
Grid connection involves the installation ofa bidirectional meter
electricalI connections to ensure the system can interact and the necessary
without any flaws with
the grid.
Workingprinciple:

Theprocess begins when sunlight strikes

the solar panels installed on
structures. the roof or ground-
mounted These pancls are equipped
with photovoltaic cells which
consist
semiconductors made of silicon. When sunlight
strikes these cells, will excite
it the electrons
podcing aflow of direct current(DC) electricity. The electricity
generated by the solar panels
sinthe form f
of DC. An inverter is used to convert
DC electricity into altermating current
(AC)
Ah is standard form of electricity required in homes and on the grid. After converting
the
AC, it is used to power your
home's electrical needs. When the solar panels generate more
dlectricity than home consumption, the excess power will
flow back into the grid.

PV array

Grid

Power conversion
device (Inverter)
Local load
AC power

DC power

Power storage system

(Batteries)

PVpower system
Figure 2.68 Grid connected
system
a meter. It tracks the electricity of solar
Grid-connected systems often feature net
more than home consumption. The surplus electricity is
g when it
to the grid produces
Snt back to on utility bil.
the grid to receive credits for it the
when
remain connected tothe utility grid
Grid-connectedIsystems are unique becausethey can be drawn from
thesolar electricity during nighttime, the power
system is not generating
te grid scamle
asly

87

87
 Renewable Energy
Sy
2.136
connected PV System:
while instaling a grid
Factors to be considered common in the area,
and if windy weather is then
) Ifthe roof is
high enough
company installing it.
it shol
installation before
be consulted with
systems possess more weight than solar
panels. Therefore
() Solar PV
years.
it
should
b
next 25
ensured with roof load to install for the
a
Some electrical componentswill need more time to fix. It is time-consuming proce
(i)
Advantages of grid-connected solar PV ystems:
1. Itreduces electricity bills.
2. It provides Environmental benefits.
3. It ensures a good grid support.

4. It ensured financial incentives.

A20.4. Battery for Solar Applications

1. Lead acid GEL battery:
Lead-acid GEL battery has standard lead-acid
accumulators. It provides a voltage of 12 7
or 24 V.The open lead battery
is
economical to buy; however, there are some details
neglect.
not
t

2. AGM battery:

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

battery has water and
battery. The structure acid solution found in the open lkat
of the AGM battery electrolyte is based on
maintenance. First, its energy fiber sheet. It does not requr
output relative to its
charge corespond ing to 250 Ah.
weight is good. It can produce an el

3. Lithium-Jon battery:

They are reserved

for portable photovoltaic
is most interest. systems where
A lithium.battery their large discharge cap
contains series-welded
to manage the cells and an electronic
charging and discharging card pe
there itself.

221. TWO MARK QUESTIONS

AND ANsWERS
1. What is
solar constant and what is its value?
Solar No20
constant Anna Univ. Noov'19 &

is the amount of energy

perpendicular tothe sun's direction received in unit se
at the mean time on a unit
distance of Th
the earth from the sun

88

88
SolarEnergy
2.137
constanttis expressed in three common
solar units as per the World
Radiation Centre. They
are:
1. 1.367 kW/m or 1367 W/m

2. 1165 kcal/mIper hour,

3. 432 Btu per sqft per hour.

This value has been accepted and adopted universally as a

standard value of solar
constant.

2 What is beam, diffuse and global radiation? [Anna Univ. Nov'21]

) Beam radiation:
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sum is called direct radiation or Beam radiation.

() Diffuse radiation: (Anna Univ, May 22]

It is the solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by
reflection and scattering by the atmosphere.

(ii) Global or total radiation:

radiation
Global radiation is also called as total radiation. It is the total short-wave
on the ground. It includes both the direct
from the sky falling onto a korizontal surface
reflected or scattered sunlight in
solar radiation and the diffuse radiation resulting from
flat plate type collectors.
(Anna Uni. Nov'21)
3. Differentiate between beam and diffuse radiation.

Diffuse radiation
S. No. Beam radiation
The sunlight has been scattered by
1, It describes solar radiation molecules and particles in the
from the
travelling on a straight line
atmosphere.
sun down to the surface ofthe earth
an uncertain
a Diffuse radiation follows
2. Beam radiation has definite more scattered.
path which is much
dircction.
Shadows are not produced when
produced when
3. Shadows are only diffuse radiation occurs.
blocked.
beam radiation is

89

89
 Renewable Energy
System
2.138
(Anna Uniw. Ape
4. What is solar time?
time (or) local apparent
hour angleisthe local solar i
The time used for calculatingthe on a clock by
time
observed
The solar time can be obtained from the standard time applying
tw
a magnitude of 4 minutes for every degree difference
corrections. The first correction has in

longitude. The second correction

called equation of time correction.

Local Solar Time (LST) (Longitude Equation

Standard
- Standard Time t time of of time
longitude location correction
)
The positive sign is used for western hemisphere and the negative
sign is applicable f
the castern hemisphere.

S. Define hour angle.

ofa
Hour angle is the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the
meridian
per hour.
point directly in the line with the sun rays. It is equivalent to 15

6 What is Zenith angle?

Zenith angle is a vertical angle between the sun rays and a line perpendicular to te
horizontal plane through the point.

It is denoted as , and 6,-a

where a = solar altitude.
7. What is pyrheliometer and pyranometer?
Pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures the beam radiation.
Pyranometer is an instrument which measures the total or global radiation over

hemispherical field of view.

8. What is the use of sunshine recorder?
The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means a
of sunshine recou
9. Define local apparent time.
The time used for calculating the hour angle o is
the local apparent time. It c
obtained from the standard time observed on a
clock by applying two corrections.
10. What is angle of
incidence?
Angle of
incidence is the angle between the (N)
incident beam (Ton) and normal
surface (S). It isshown in Figure 2.69.

90

90
Solar
Energy
2.139
N

Sun ray Ib, cos 0

Figure 2.69
1. What is angle latitude?
of

Angle of latitude is the angle between equatorial plane

of earth and line joining the
on
point the earth's surface and earth's centre.

12 Eplain angle of declination.

Angle of declination is the angle between the line joining centre of the sun and earth
and the equatorial plane.
Earth

Sun
Equator
plane Declination angle &

Figure 2. 70

13. What is total radiation?

which are
diffuse component of solar radiation
Total radiation is the beam and
absorbed in flat plate type collectors.
radiatlon and type of solar radiation measured
Mention the instruments used for solar
Anna Uni%. '20]
Nov
using each instrument.

L Pyrheliometer: at normal
measurement of 'direct solar radiation flux'
for the
Itis an instrument used
mount
to an electrically driven equatorial
usually attached
cidence. This instrument is
which tracks the sun.

91

91
 Renewable Energy
2.140
Sye
2. Pyranometer:
actinometer used for measuring 'solar irradiance
A pyranometer is a type of
measure the solar radiation flux density (Wim)
planar surface' and it is designed to from
um. an instrument
a wavelength range 0.3
m
to 3
the hemisphere above within which

measures the total or global radiation over a hemispherical field of view.

measure Solar radiation and Sunshine hours.
IS Name the instrunments used to
(Anna uni. Apr3
on a horizontal surb
A pyranometer is used to measure global solar radiation falling
means af,
The duration of bright sunshine in a day ie. sunshine hours is measured by
Campbell Stokes sunshine recorder.
of
methods for solar energy utilization. (Anna univ. Nov 21)
I6 Gie the classification
) Direct source of energy
() Indirect sources of energy
() Supplementary sources of energy.
17. What is solar collector? What are the different types of
collectors used?
[Anna Uni%. Nov'19|

Solar collector is a device used for collecting the solar radiation and it transfers energy
to fluid passing in contact with it. The collectors receive heat from solar rays and give itto
the heat-transport fluid. Solar collector surface is designed for high absorption and low
emission. So, the utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors.
These collectors ar
classified into two types. They are as follows:

) Non-concentrating or flat plate type solar collector.

(i) Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector.

18 Litfew applications of
low temperature water heaters in domestic
and industrial s
Uni%. Nov 21
Domestic uses
Anna
) Swimming pools
() Laundries
(i) Hotels and
(iv) Restaurants.

92

92
Salar
Energy
2.141
Industrial uses:
() Food and beverages industries
() Processing industries, and
(i) Textile industries.
IR Sate
any bvo advantages
and disadvantages of solar alr heaters.
Adantages ofsolar air heaters:
1. It is compact, simple in construction and requires little maíntenance.
2. The need to transfer thermal energy from the working fluid to another fluid is
eliminated as air is used directly as the working fluid.

Disadvantages of
solar air heaters:
fluid is to be handled due to low density. As a result, the
.A large amount of

electrical power required to blow the air through the system can be significant if
the pressure drop is not kept within prescribed limits.
poor.
2. Heat transfer between the absorber plate and air is

22 Write down the applications of solar air heaters.

1. Heating greenhouse buildings
2. Drying agricultural products
3. Heat source for a heat engine
4. Air-conditioning buildings.
collectors.
21. Write down the advantages of flat-plate radiations.
solar
using both beam and difuse
It has the advantages
of
1.
orientation towards the sun.
2. It does not require
maintenance.
3. It requires a little reflectors.
collectors are simpler than concentrating
4. These
collectors.
Mention the disadvantages offlat-plate
2 temperature attained by the
working fluid is low.
I. The
weight.
construction is heavy in
2. The
more as the area is large.
Conduction heat loss is
3.
cost of the collector is more.
4. Initial installation

93

93
 Renewable Energy
S
2.142
plate selar collecters. Anna Uni. New
23. Specify the applications efflat
water beating systems.
1. Itis used in solar
cooling systems.
2. It is used in solar space heating and
temperature power generation.
3.
tis used in low
4. Itisused in solar heating dryers.
24, What s heliostat sun
Heliostat is a large and flat reflecting mirror with a provision to track the i
planes. The solar rays are reflected by each individual heliostat onto the central receh
mounted on a tall towver. A central receiver is mounted
on a tall tower.

28 Define concentration ratio ofsolar collector. (Anna Unin. Nov'20 & Apr29
Concentration ratio (CR) is the ratio of solar power per unit area of the concentraty
surface (kW) to solar powerper unit area on the line focus or point focus (kWFr
flat plate collectors, CR =1. Using heliostats with sun-tracking in two planes, CR ofthe
order of 1000 can be obtained.

26 Define the terms: Aperture (W), area concentration ratio (C), intercept factor (9: and
the acceptance angle (20a) in concentrating collectors. [Anna Univ. Nov 21|
Aperture ():
Aperture is the plane opening of the concentrator through which the solar radiation wil
pass. For a cylindrical or linear concentrator, it
is described by width and diameter of the
opening.
Area concentration ratio (C or CR):
Concentration ratio is defined as the ratio the area aperture
of of of the system to the
arca of the receiver. The aperture
of the system is the projected area of the collector facin$
(normal) the beam.
KWIm in solar radiation on
CR= kWlm on surface surface
of focus of collector
Intercept factor
():
Intercept factor (y) is the fraction
of the radiation refracted from the concentrator
is incident on
the absorber. It is usually close to unity.
Acceptance angle (2 Qu):

Acceptance angle is the angle over

which beam radiation deviates from
the aperture plane and upto the nor
reach the absorber. Collectors angls
with large acceptance

94

94
 occasional adjustments 2143
rquire only but collectors with
continuously. small acceptance angles need to be
ajusted
collector eiciency.
Cslector eficiency is defined as [Anna Uni. Nov'22|
the ratio of useful heat gained
t of aperturearca (m) to the total irradiation of the collector by the collector per
(Wim.
Whatt are the dierent types ef concentrating
collectors?
1. Line focusing and
2. Point focusing type.
What are the main (ypes ef concentrating collectors?
1. Parabolic though collector
2. Mirror strip reflector
3. Fresnel lens collector
4. Flat plate collector with adjustable mirors.

A Slate the uSage ofvarious (ypes ofconcentrating collectors. (Anna Uni%. Nov'19)
The usage of various types of concentrating collectors as follows.
(a) Parabolic trough collector
power plants and for home
This type of collector is generally used in solar
or small business solar water heating applications.

b) Paraboloidal dish collector

furnaces and solar power plants.
This geometry may be used in solar

(c) Minor strip reflector

power plants operating in
type collector is generally used in solar
This of
medium scale industries.
(d) Fresnel lens collector process heat for industrial
is useful for generating
This type of collector
applications.t
collector with adjustable mirrors
(e) Flatplate in home or small business solar
used
collector is generally
This type of
water heating applications.

95

95
 Renewable Energy
Syste
2.144
(CPC).
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
0 as primary concentrator
with photovoltaic
CPCs are used the cellsth

require water for space heating

collectors over flatplate collectors,.
31, List oua the advantages of concentrating
|Anna Univ. Apr'29
material
1. The reflecting surface of the concentrating collector requires less
structurally simpler than flat-plate collectors.
a svstem
2. The absorber area ofa concentrator system is smaller than flat-plate
3. It can be used for electric power generation.

32. What are the disadvantages of concentrating collectors?

1. In concentrating collectors, only the beam component is collected because the
diffuse component cannot reflect.
2. Costly orienting systems must be used to track the sun.
3. Additional maintenance is required to retain the quality of reflecting surface

against dirt, weather and oxidation.

33. Name three solar collectors requiring one axis sun-tracking.
Anna Uni%. Apr23|
) Flat plate collectors
(ii) Paraboloidal dish collector
(ii) Solar PV systems.
34. Name the types of solar energy storage methods.
(iv) Thermal energy storage
() Sorption storage
a. Chemical energy storage.
35. Differentiate between flat-plate
and concentrating collectors.
S. No. Concentrating collectors
Flat-plate collectors
1
Concentrating collectors can absorb
Flat-plate collectors can absorb both
only direct solar radiation.
direct and diffuse solar radiation.
2. They need continuous tracking
These collectors do not require
mechanisms and more expensive
tracking mechanisms and
mounting i
(pivoting) mounting structure.
simple.

96

96
 EnergY
Solar
2.145
They can generate high temperature
3. of They can generate low temperature of
about 750°C.
about 140°C.
The amount of heat which can be
4. The amount of heat which can be
stored per unit volume is more.
stored per unit volume is less.
5.
They can be used for electric power They can be used only for heating of
generation. domestic water and heating, and
cooling of buildings.

6 The absorber area ofa concentrator The absorber area of a flat-plate

system is small. system is big.

Name the components of a

solar water heater.
(a) A flat plate collector to absorb solar radiation and convert it into thermal energy.

(b) Storage tank to hold water for use and cold water feeding the flat plate collector.

(c) Connecting pipes inlet and outlet for feeding cold water from the storage tank
and taking hot water to the storage tank or point of use.
37. What do you mean by solar direct thermal applications?
use of heat, resulting from the
Direct thermal applications involve the direct
absorption of solar radiation for space heating and cooling of residences
and other
to provide heat for agricultural,
buildings, to provide hot-water for such buildings, and
temperatures.
industrial and other processes that require only moderate
34 What is passive solar heating?
a
solar energy, store and distribute it in
Passive solar energy technologies absorb
use natural ventilation.
hatural manner without using mechanical elements and also

39. List down the methods of thermal energy storage.

) Sensible heat storage

(i) Latent heat storage
(iii) Stratified storage.
40. Bricfly heat storage.
explain the principle of sensible temperature
thermal energy is stored by raising the
n Sensible Heat Storage (SHS),capacity. SHS system utilizes the heat capacity andthe
ofa solid or liquid by using its heat discharging. The
the process of chargingand
material during
in temperature of the

97

97
 Renewable Energy Syston

2.146 medium, temperature change

on the specific heat the
of
depends and
amount of heat stored
amount of storage material.
principle of latent heat storage?
41. What is the basic
material to store thermal Ienergy. Laent
uses
the latent heat of the
Latent heat storage of the material
heat absorbed
or released duringthe change fromone
heat the amount
of
is

phase to another phase.

(PCM).
42. Classif Phase Change Materlals
) Organic PCM (paraffin, fatty acids)
metal) and
() Inorganic PCM (hydrates, molten salts,
organic-inorganic, inorganic-inorganic
(ii) Eutectic PCM (organic-organic,
compounds).

43. What are the advantages of latent heat

or PCM storage?
It includes large density of heat storage and constant
temperature.
)
The process is completely reversible and it can be repeatedly utilized
without
(i)
degradation.
Anna Univ. Nov' 29|
44. What is meant by solar pond?
Solar pond is a body of water that collects and stores solar energy. Solar energy wil
warm a body of water but the water loses its heat unless some method is used to trap it.
Water warmed by the sun expands and rises as it becomes less dense. Once it reaches the
surface, the water loses its heat to the air through convection or evaporation process. The
cold water is heavier which moves down to replace the warm water thereby creating 1
natural convective circulation.

45. Sketch the solar pond and name diferent zones.

Upper convective zone (Fresh water)

-Non convective zone (Gradient

zone)
.Lower convective zone
(Salt saturated)

Figure 2.71 Convective zones in

solar pond

98

98
 EnergyY
Solr
does
a
solar pond work? 2.147
a
Solar pondis bbody of waterthat collects (Anna Uni. Nov'21|
a body of water but
and stores solar energy.
Warm the water loses its heat Solar energy will
unless some method
Water warmed by the sun expands is used to trap it.
and rises as it becomes less
dense. Once it reaches
surface, the water loses its heat to the airthrough the
convection or evaporation process.
is heavier
cold water which moves down to replace The
the warm water thereby creating a
natural convective circulation. It mixes
the water and dissipates heat.
So, the major
attention is given in designing the solar ponds reduce
to either convection or evaporation
for storing the heat collected by the pond. So, it can be operated

. Give the pes ofsolar pond.

under any climate.

[Anna Univ. Nov'20|

(a) Convective solar ponds
(b) Non-convective solar ponds.

& Define energy effieiency. Anna Uni. Nov 20|

Energy eficiency is defined as minimum energy to perform the task in which waste
energy is eliminated. Energy efficiency provides the benefits of reducing greenhouse gas

emissions, reducing demand for energy imports, and lowering our costs on a household
and economy-wide level.

9. What are the applications of solar pond?

1. Power generation
2.-Space heating and cooling
3. Crop drying
4. Desalination
5. Process heat.

Siate anw four advantages and isadvantages of solar pond.

Advantages of solar ponds:
area.
costs per installed collection
0 lt provides low investment very low cost.
storage is incorporated into the collector and it is of
) Thermal

() Diffuse radiation (cloudy days) is fully used.

large scale energy generation is possible.
can be built. Thus,
) Verylarge surfaces
Disadvantages of
solar ponds: energy
construct, they are costly in terms of
are simple to 17% when it is
Alhough solar ponds efficiency of a solar pond is
theoretical
eiency. The maximum
operated between 80°C and 20°C.

99

99
 Renewable Energy
Syten
2.148
area to function properly.
(ii) lt needs large land
have to be removed periodically and
The accumulated salt erystals it ad
(ii)
maintenance expense.
sunny days and if the site is
shaded
(iv) It can be only operated only operate in bytal
trees or building, it may not work properly.
(Anna Uni. Apr'2
SI. Glve some applications of solar energy storage systens.
. Industrial process heating
2. Power generation
3. Punmping of water
4. Water desalination
4. Food drying
5. Refrigeration and air conditioning.

S2. Define photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result f

the absorption of ionizing radiation.
When the solar cell(p-n junction) is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated and
it is acted upon by the internal electríc fields, thereby resulting in a photocurrent (lL) The
generated photocurrent flows in a direction opposite to the forward dark current. Even in

the absence of an external applied voltage, this photocurrent continues to flow and it is
measured as the short-circuit current (Isc). This phenomenon is
called photovoltaic effect.
53. What s Solar cell? What are the uses ofsolar cells?
Anna Univ. (EEE) May'12, Dec'12 &Nor'
Solar cell is a device which directly converts
the energy of light into electrical energ
through the process of photovoltaic effect.

Solar cells have been developed and deployed

for rural applications such as drinkn
water supply, street lighting,
irrigation water pumping and
for operation of electro
cquipment. Solar cells have also been
used to operate navigational signals, high a
emergency call system,
rail road crossing warnings, automatic
in location where the access to
meteorological stations,
utility power lines is difficult.
S4. The maximum efficiency of
thesolar cells is very low- Justify
this statement
The problem with
Anna Un. Apr 2
solar cell efficiency
lies in the physical conversion of sunlig
Some photons that hit a solar cell are reflected away
Out ofthost
from the cell's surface.

100

100
 Energy
olar
2.149
photonsthat
absorbed, some have
are
their energy turned into heat in a process of
recombination instead of producing electric internal
current. It is one of
efficiency. the fundamental factors
that limits
Diferentiate between solar cell and solar array or module.
single converter cell is called a solar cell or more
A
generally a photovoltaic cell and
combination of
such cells are designed to increase the electric power output
called solar
module or solar array.

K What is the principle of

solarphotovoltaie energy conversion?
|Anna Univ. Nov'21, May'22 & Apr23]
Photovoltaic power generation is based on the principle of photovoltaic effect in
which solar cells to convert solar energy directly into useful electrical energy. Solar
hotowoltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive force as a result of the
absorption of ionizing radiation. So, solar photovoltaic (PV) systems convert solar energy
directly into electrical energy.

S7. Briefly explain the working of solar PV cell. Anna Univ. Nov'21J
when
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of semiconductors which generate electricity
power is caused by radiation that separate
they absorb light. Photovoltaic generation of
semiconductor material. In the presence
positive and negative charge carriers in absorbing
use in an external circuit. Such
an electric field, these charges can produce current for
of
a

in materials as "built-in" electric fields

and provide
ficlds exist permanently at junctions
the required EMF for useful
power production.
Anna Univ. Nov '22
S& Draw the equivalent circuit of a solar cell.
Rs

SH

RsH

solar cell
2.72 Equivalent circuit ofa
Figure
59, What of
PNjunction?
are the different Opes
1. Cadmíum-sulphide

101

101
 Renewable Energy
2.150 y
2. Gallium-arsenide
3. Zinc-sulphide
4. Gallium-antimonide.
types of Homojunction'PV cells?
60. What arethe three different
1. Amorphous silicon
2. Poly crystalline silicon
3. Single crystal silicon.

61. List the types of solar cells.

Solar cells are classified as follows.
1. On the basis of thickness of active material
(a) Bulk material cell
(b) Thin film cell
2. On the hasis of junction structure
(a) p-n homojunction cell
(b) Hetero-junction cell
(c) p-n multi junction cell
(d) metal-semiconductor Schottky junction
(e) pi-n semiconductor junction
3. On the basis of type of active material
(a) Single crystal silicon cell
(b) Multicrystalline silicon cell
(C) Amorphous silicon

(d) Gallium arsenide cell

(e) Copper indium diselenide cell
(f) Cadmium telluride cell and
(g) Organic PV cel.
62. Write short note on
PV module, panel and array.
A
photovoltaic module P
is made of multiple A solr
a
panel is collection of modules interconnected solar cells.
supp
physically and electrically a
structure. These modules are grouped together on
connected in series/parallel voltagekue
to increasethe

102

102
 2151
When modulesare connected series,
ratings. in it is desirable to have each module's
BANimum
power production occurring with the same curent.
a
PV array is collection of panels. The modules
in a PV aray are sually first
A

1 series to obtain
connected in the desired voltage. The individual strings are then connected
parallelto allow the system to produce more current.
in
& Uhder whatt circumstance the solar cells are connected in parallel and series?
cells may be connected in parallel to achieve the desired current and they are
onnected in series to achieve the desired voltage,

L he facters determiningthe output of solar celts.

The following four factors determine output of any solar electric panel.

() Efficiency of the photovoltaic cells

(b) Load resistance
(c) Solar iradiance and
() Cell temperature.
E What is the efficiency of a solar cell?
=
Electrical power output
Efficiency of a solar cell Power intercepted

lesser than other sgstems?

solarthermal power generation
is
the efficiency
of
K Why

Anna Unin. Nov 20}

power generation systems need to generate steam of such high
The solar thermal
energy to electricity being more efficient. Also,
lemperature for the conversion of heat
unable to efficiently store electricity by being able to
iese plants get around the issue of power plants
the main components affect the efficiency of thermal
Slore heat instead. So,
generator. major energy loss in a thermal power
The
Which include boiler, turbine and mechanical Ioss, and
loss, pipe heat loss, cold source loss,
pant includes boiler heat
generator loss, etc.
67, What
are of photovoltaie system?
the components
I. Solar cell array
2. Load leveler
3. Storage system
4. Tracking system.

103

103
 Renewable Energy
Syten
2.152
system?
applications of solar photooltaic
68 Hhat are the micro irrigation and drinking water supply.
1. Water pumping sets for

2. Weather monitoring.
3. Railway signaling equipment.
of photovoltaic solar energy conversion.
6%. Slate the advantages
parts.
1. It does not need moving
highly reliable.
2. tis
3. It isa long effective life.
4. It does not create pollution.

70. What are the disadvantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion?

1. Itis costly.
2. It requires energy storage.
3. It needs no insolation at night.
71. Lat the different modes of solar cooling. [Anna Uni. No 2

1. Vapour compression cooling

2. Sorption-based cooling (including absorption and adsorption chilling)
72. When the solar distillation
and dryers are used? lAnna Uni. Nov'19
Solar water distillers or solar stills are usually used in remote areas
where there
limited access to freshwater. It is used for
low capacity and self-reliant water supplys
systems. A solar dryer is used immensely
in the food and agriculture industry. They
used for drying of food products
such as agricultural crop drying. food processing
industries for dehydration of fruits
and vegetables, fish and meat drying, wood or
chips.

2.22. SOLVED QUESTIONS

1 Explain the physics of the sun.

Refer chapter 2.1.1 on Page
2.2.
2. Define solar constant.

Refer chapter 2.1.2 on

Page 2.3.

104

104
 EnergyY
soar
2163
necessary diagram, explain in detail
With the propagation of solar radiation
terrestrial and extraterrestrial radiations. in terms of
(Anna Univ. Apr 23)
Refer chapter 2.1.4 on Page 2.4.
2.
Define: 1. Altitude angle Incident angle 3. Declination angle
4 4. Solar azimuth angle.
Refer chapter 2.1.5 on Pages 2.5-2.7.

&
Deefine clarity index and concentration ratio.

Refer chapter 2.1.8 on Page 2.10.

s

What is solar insolation? List down the various parameter affecting solar insolation.
s

6
Refer chapter 2.1.9 on Page 2.10.

How diflerent radiations such as beam, diffuse, reflected and total radiations on tilted
sarface are calculated? Explain.

Refer chapter 2.1.10 on Page 2.10.

Discuss about the terrestrial and extraterrestrial solar radiation. Derive the equation for solar
[Anng Univ. Nov '201
adiation faling on a tilted surfaçe.
and extraterrestrial solar radiation
Refer chapter 2.1.4 on Page 2.4 for terrestrial
on a tilted
and chapter 2.2.2 on Page 2.14 for
equation of solar radiation falling

surface.
3 Compare pyrheliometer and pyranometer.

Refer chapter 2.3 on Page 2.30.

help of neat sketch.
and Pyrheliometer with the
Explain the working of Pyranometer [Anna Unin, Nov 21)

and chapter 2.3.2 on Page

on Page 2.30 for Pyrheliometer
Refer chapter 2.3.1
respectively.
2.34 for Pyranometer are used for the
Which instruments
global radiation? Pyranometer for measuring
What
is beam, diffuse and working of Solar
radiations? Explain the
urement of these [Anna Univ, Nov 201
Global Radiation in detail. global
explanation of beam, diffuse and
on Page 2.3 for instruments used for
the
Kefer chapter 2.1.3 on Page 2.30 for
chapter 2.3
fadiation, refer

105

105