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Graphs and Networks
Graphs and Networks
Multilevel Modeling

Second Edition

Edited by
Philippe Mathis
First edition published 2007 by ISTE Ltd
Second edition published 2010 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA.
Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2007, 2010

The rights of Philippe Mathis to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Graphs and networks : multilevel modeling / edited by Philippe Mathis. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84821-083-7
1. Cartography--Methodology. 2. Graph theory. 3. Transport theory. I. Mathis, Philippe.
GA102.3.G6713 2010
388.01'1--dc22
2010002226

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84821-083-7

Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne.
 Table of Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

PART 1. GRAPH THEORY AND NETWORK MODELING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1. The Space-time Variability of Road Base Accessibility:

Application to London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Manuel APPERT and Laurent CHAPELON
1.1. Bases and principles of modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1. Modeling of the regional road network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2. Congestion or suboptimal accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2. Integration of road congestion into accessibility calculations . . . . . . 10
1.2.1. Time slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.2. Evaluation of demand by occupancy rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.3. Evaluation of demand by flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.4. Calculation of driving times. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3. Accessibility in the Thames estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.1. Overall accessibility during the evening rush hour (5-6 pm) . . . . 21
1.3.2. Performance of the road network between 1 and 2 pm and
5 and 6 pm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.3. Network performance between 1 and 2 pm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.4. Network performance between 5 and 6 pm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.5. Evolution of network performances related to the Lower Thames
Crossing (LTC) project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
vi Graphs and Networks

Chapter 2. Journey Simulation of a Movement on a Double Scale . . . . . . 31

Fabrice DECOUPIGNY
2.1. Visitors and natural environments: multiscale movement . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1. Leisure and consumption of natural environments . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.2. Double movement on two distinct scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.3. Movement by car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.4. Pedestrian movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2. The FRED model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1. Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2. Structure of the FRED model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3. Part played by the network structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4. Effects of the network on pedestrian diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.1. Determination of the potential path graph: a model of
cellular automata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.2. Two constraints of diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4.3. Verification of the model in a theoretical area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Chapter 3. Determination of Optimal Paths in a Time-delay Graph . . . . 47

Hervé BAPTISTE
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2. Floyd’s algorithm for arcs with permanent functionality . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3. Floyd’s algorithm for arcs with permanent and
temporary functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.1. Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.3.2. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4. Conclusion: other developments of Floyd’s timetable algorithm . . . . 60
3.4.1. Determination of the complete movement chain . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.2. Overview of all the means of mass transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.4.3. Combination of means with permanent and
temporary functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.4.4. The evaluation of a timetable offer under the constraint of
departure or arrival times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4.5. Application of Floyd’s algorithm to graph properties. . . . . . . . . 65
3.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Chapter 4. Modeling the Evolution of a Transport System and

its Impacts on a French Urban System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Hervé BAPTISTE
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2. Methodology: RES and RES-DYNAM models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2.1. Modeling of the interactions: procedure and hypotheses . . . . . . . 68
 Table of Contents vii

4.2.2. The area of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4.2.3. Initial parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3. Analysis and interpretation of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1. Demographic impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.2. Alternating migrations revealing demographic trends . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.3. Evolution of the transport network configuration . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

PART 2. GRAPH THEORY AND NETWORK REPRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . 91

Chapter 5. Dynamic Simulation of Urban Reorganization of

the City of Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Philippe MATHIS
5.1. Simulations data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.2. The model and its adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.1. D.LOCA.T model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.2. Opening of the model and its modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2.3. Extension of the theoretical base of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3. Application to Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3.1. Specific difficulties during simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.3.2. First results of simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 6. From Social Networks to the Sociograph for the Analysis

of the Actors’ Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Sébastien LARRIBE
6.1. The legacy of graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.2. Analysis of social networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.3. The sociograph and sociographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.4. System of information representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Chapter 7. RESCOM: Towards Multiagent Modeling of Urban

Communication Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Ossama KHADDOUR
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2. Quantity of information contained in phatic spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7.3. Prospective modeling in RESCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.1. Phatic attraction surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.3.2. Game of choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
viii Graphs and Networks

7.4. Huff’s approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

7.5. Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Chapter 8. Traffic Lanes and Emissions of Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Christophe DECOUPIGNY
8.1. Graphs and pollutants emission by trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.1.1. Calculation of emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
8.1.2. Calculation of the minimum paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8.1.3. Analysis of subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2.1. Section of the A28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.2.2. French graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2.3. Subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
8.3. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

PART 3. TOWARDS MULTILEVEL GRAPH THEORY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Chapter 9. Graph Theory and Representation of Distances:

Chronomaps and Other Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Alain L’HOSTIS
9.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.2. A distance on the graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.3. A distance on the map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.4. Spring maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.5. Chronomaps: space-time relief maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Chapter 10. Evaluation of Covisibility of Planning and

Housing Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Kamal SERRHINI
10.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
10.2. The representation of space and of the network:
multiresolution topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.2.1. The VLP system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.2.2. Acquiring geographical data: DMG and DMS . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.2.3. The Conceptual Data Model (CDM) starting point of a graph . . . 197
10.2.4. Principle of multiresolution topography
(relations 1 and 2 of the VLP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
 Table of Contents ix

10.2.5. Need for overlapping of several spatial resolutions

(relation 2 of the VLP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.2.6. Why a square grid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.2.7. Regular and irregular hierarchical tessellation: fractalization . . . 202
10.3. Evaluation of the visual impact of an installation: covisibility . . . . . 202
10.3.1. Definitions, properties, vocabulary and some results . . . . . . . . 202
10.3.2. Operating principles of the covisibility algorithm
(relations 3 and 4 of the VLP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.3.3. Why a covisibility algorithm of the centroid-centroid type? . . . . 212
10.3.4. Comparisons between the method of covisibility and
recent publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
10.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Chapter 11. Dynamics of Von Thünen’s Model: Duality and

Multiple Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Philippe MATHIS
11.1. Hypotheses and ambitions at the origin of this dynamic
von Thünen model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.2. The current state of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.3. The structure of the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
11.4. Simulations carried out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.4.1. The first simulation: a strong instability in the isolated state
with only one market town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
11.4.2. The second simulation: reducing instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.4.3. The third simulation: the competition of two towns . . . . . . . . . 237
11.4.4. The fourth simulation: the competition between five
towns of different sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Chapter 12. The Representation of Graphs: A Specific Domain of

Graph Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Philippe MATHIS
12.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.1.1. The freedom of drawing a graph or the absence
of representation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.2. Graphs and fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.2.1. Mandelbrot’s graphs and fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.2.2. Graph and a tree-structured fractal: Mandelbrot’s H-fractal . . . . 251
12.2.3. The Pythagoras tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
12.2.4. An example of multiplane plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
x Graphs and Networks

12.2.5. The example of the Sierpinski carpet and its use in

Christaller’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.2.6. Development of networks and fractals in extension . . . . . . . . . 258
12.2.7. Grid of networks: borderline case between extension
and reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
12.2.8. Application examples of fractals to transport networks . . . . . . . 260
12.3. Nodal graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
12.3.1. Planarity and duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
12.4. The cellular graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
12.5. The faces of the graph: from network to space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Chapter 13. Practical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Philippe MATHIS
13.1. Premises of multiscale analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
13.1.1. Cellular percolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
13.1.2. Diffusion of agents reacting to the environment . . . . . . . . . . . 303
13.1.3. Taking relief into account in the difficulty of the trip . . . . . . . . 304
13.2. Practical application of the cellular graph: fine modeling of
urban transport and spatial spread of pollutant emissions . . . . . . . . . . . 305
13.2.1. The algorithmic transformation of a graph into a cellular graph
at the level of arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
13.2.2. The algorithmic transformation of a graph into a cellular graph
at the level of the nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
13.3. Behavior rules of the agents circulating in the network . . . . . . . . . 309
13.3.1. Strict rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
13.3.2. Elementary rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
13.3.3. Behavioral rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.4. Contributions of an MAS and cellular simulation on the basis of
a graph representing the circulation network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.4.1. Expected simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
13.4.2. Limits of application of laws considered as general . . . . . . . . . 312
13.5. Effectiveness of cellular graphs for a truly door-to-door modeling . . 314
13.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
13.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

PART 4. GRAPH THEORY AND MAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

Chapter 14. Cellular Graphs, MAS and Congestion Modeling . . . . . . . . 319

Jean-Baptiste BUGUELLOU and Philippe MATHIS
14.1. Daily movement modeling: the agent-network relation . . . . . . . . . 320
14.1.1. The modeled space: Indre-et-Loire department . . . . . . . . . . . 320
 Table of Contents xi

14.1.2. Diagram of activities: a step toward the development

of a schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
14.1.3. Typology of possible agent activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
14.1.4. Individual behavior mechanism: the daily scale . . . . . . . . . . . 323
14.2. Satisfaction and learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
14.2.1. The choice of an acceptable solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
14.2.2. Collective learning and convergence of the model toward
a balanced solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
14.2.3. Examination of the transport network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
14.3. Local congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
14.3.1. The peaks represent different types of intersections . . . . . . . . . 329
14.3.2. The emergence of congestion fronts on edges . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
14.3.3. Intersection modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
14.3.4. Limited peak capacity: crossings and traffic circles . . . . . . . . . 336
14.3.5. In conclusion on crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
14.4. From microscopic actions to macroscopic variables a global
validation test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
14.4.1. The appropriateness of the model with traditional throughput-
speed, density-speed and throughput-density curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
14.4.2. The distribution of traffic density over time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
14.4.3. The measure of lost transport time by agents because of
congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.4.4. Spatial validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
14.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
14.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

Chapter 15. Disruptions in Public Transport and Role of Information . . . 363

Julien COQUIO and Philippe MATHIS
15.1. The model and its objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
15.1.1. Public transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
15.1.2. Hypotheses to verify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
15.2. The PERTURB model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
15.2.1. Theoretical fields mobilized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
15.2.2. Working hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
15.2.3. Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
15.3. The simulation platform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
15.4. Simulations in real space: Île-de-France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
15.4.1. Disruptions simulated in the Île-de-France public transport . . . . 374
15.4.2. Node-node calculations: measure of the deterioration of
relational potentials between two network vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
15.4.3. Unipolar calculations: measures of the deterioration of
traveling opportunities from a network vertice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
xii Graphs and Networks

15.4.4. Multipolar calculations: global measures of structural

impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
15.5. Simulations in theoretical transport systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
15.5.1. The initial network and line creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
15.5.2. Studied disruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
15.5.3. Multipolar calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
15.5.4. Simulations integrating capacity constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
15.6. Discussion on hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
15.6.1. Field of structural vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
15.6.2. Field of functional vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
15.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
15.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
 Preface

This work is focused on the use of graphs for the simulation and representation
of networks, mainly of transport networks.

The viewpoint is intentionally more operational than descriptive: the effects of

transport characteristics on space are just as important to the planner as the transport
itself.

The present work is based on the research conducted at Tours since the 1990s by
various PhD students who have become researchers, lecturer researchers or
professionals.

The book is structured in four parts following an introductory chapter which

contains a reminder of the necessary definitions from graph theory and of the
representation problems.

Part 1 presents the traditional applications of graph theory in network modeling

and the improvements required for their use as a planning tool.

Part 2 tackles the problem of the representation of graphs and exposes a certain
number of innovations as well as deficiencies.

Part 3 considers the prior achievements and proposes to develop their theoretical
justifications and fill in some gaps.

Part 4 shows how we can use micro-simulations with MAS models with the help
of cellular graphs reversing the original top down viewpoint for multi-scale spatial
and temporal bottom up models, partially integrating information and learning.

Philippe MATHIS
 Introduction

Strengths and Deficiencies of Graphs for

Network Description and Modeling

The focus of this book is on networks in spatial analysis and in urban

development and planning, and their simulation using graph theory, which is a tool
used specifically to represent them and to solve a certain number of traditional
problems, such as the shortest path between one or more origins and destinations,
network capacity, etc. However, although transportation systems in the physical
sense of the term are the main concern and will therefore form the bulk of the
examples cited, other applications, such as player, communication and other
networks, will, nevertheless, be taken into account and the reader is welcome to
transfer the presented results to other domains.

All of the examples presented below essentially correspond to a decade of

research and some ten PhDs. of the Modeling Group of the Graduate Urban
Development Studies Center of Tours. Obviously, these will be supplemented by
other contributions.

In network modeling, which is a field stemming from operational research, a

certain form of empiricism tends to dominate, in particular in the intermediate
disciplines between social sciences and hard sciences, such as urban development,
which, essentially, borrow their tools. However, their specific needs are barely taken
into account by fundamental disciplines, such as mathematics, or more applied ones,
such as algorithmics, undoubtedly simply because the dynamics of research are very
different. We will try to contribute to the mitigation of this difficulty.

Introduction written by Philippe MATHIS.

xvi Graphs and Networks

The modeling and description of networks using graphs: the paradox

The aim of this work is, among other things, to highlight a paradox and to try to
rectify it. This paradox, once identified, is relatively simple. Since Euler’s time
[EUL 1736, EUL 1758] it has been known how to efficiently model a transport
network by using graphs, as he demonstrated with the famous example of the
Königsberg bridges and, following the rise of Operations Research in the 1950s and
1960s, a number of optimization problems have been successfully resolved with
efficiency and elegance.

According to Beauquier, Berstel and Chrétienne: “graphs constitute the most

widely used theoretical tool for the modeling and research of the properties of
structured sets. They are employed each time we want to represent and study a set of
connections (whether directed or not) between the elements of a finite set of objects”
[BEA 92]. For Xuong [XUO 92]: “graphs constitute a remarkable modeling tool for
concrete situations” and we could cite numerous further testimonies.

The power of the method increased considerably with the fulgurating

development of computers and microcomputers1. However, although graphs are a
powerful tool for the modeling and resolution of certain problems, they otherwise
appear unable to represent and describe precisely and without implicit assumptions a
network of paths on the basis of elements which are needed for the calculation such
as, for example, minimal path or maximum flow, etc. Since, on the basis of a matrix
definition2 of the graph, all the plots (i.e. representations) are equal and equivalent in
graph theory.

We thus have a method that is simultaneously very simple and has great
algorithmic efficiency, but is otherwise deficient, unless it were only to model a
network represented on a roadmap, on which basis it delivers knowledgeable and
powerful calculations. It does not satisfy the two essential criteria of all scientific
work: reproducibility and comparability, particularly with respect to network
modeling and the production of charts and/or synthesized images. It also does not
allow for the ongoing movement between graph and cellular in an algorithmic
fashion, or the use of multi-agent systems. Finally the theory of traditional graphs
makes a congestion approach, still limited to network edges, difficult, since the
peaks are neutral by definition.

1 Has the generation of 50 year-olds not also been called the Hewlett-Packard generation? Its
ranks remember calculations with a ruler, with logarithmic tables or with the
electromechanical four operations machine, etc.
2 See below for the definition of the adjacency matrix, often referred to as associated matrix
in the works from the 1960s, and of the incidence matrix.
 Introduction xvii

At first we propose to show the effectiveness of graph theory in the field of

calculation, which we could quickly call of optimization. Then, we propose to
demonstrate that the practice of modelers anticipated the theorization with
pragmatism and efficiency, and, finally, to suggest some solutions and research
paths to establish and generalize what has been conjectured by usage. In the last
section, we will discuss in detail the Bottom Up approaches with multi agent
systems which can learn and partially use information, moving in cellular graph. We
will show that the capacity of peaks is clearly more limited than that of edges and
consequently its non application in the urban transport systems of the Ford-
Fulkerson theorem and the importance of learning to avoid the biggest congestions.
Similarly, we will show with the help of the Ile de France transit system example
that the problem can be handled from two different points of view which are both
legitimate and inseparable and that the information and capacity constitute criteria of
differentiation points of view.

Strength of graph theory

Simplicity of the graph

A graph can be defined as a finite set of points called vertices (i.e. nodes)and a
set of relations between these points called edges (i.e. arcs).

Graph theory relates primarily to the existence of relationships between vertices

or nodes and, in the figure that represents the graph, the localization of nodes is
unimportant unless otherwise specified, and only the existence of a relationship
between two nodes counts.

Formally, the graph G = (V, E) is a pair consisting of:

– a set V = {1,2,…, N} of vertices;
– a set E of edges;
– a function f of E in {{u, v}⏐u, v∈V, u ≠ v}.

An element (u, v) of VxV may appear several times: the arcs e1 and e2, if they
exist, are called multiple arcs if f(e1) = f(e2). The graph will then be a multigraph or
p-graph, where the value of p is that of the greatest number of appearances of the
same relation (u, v), i.e. the number of arcs between u and v.
xviii Graphs and Networks

If the arcs are directed, we will then talk of a directed graph or digraph. If the
arcs are undirected, we are dealing with a simple graph that can be a multigraph3.

The graph G is similarly characterized by the number of vertices, the cardinal of

the set X, which is called order of the graph.

The total number of arcs between two nodes has a precise significance with
regard to the definition of the graph only if: p ≠ 1.

When p > 1, the number of relations between two nodes i and j may be between
0 and p. The graph is then called p-graph and multigraph when the arcs are
undirected.

In order to know the number of pairs of connected nodes it is therefore necessary

to have the precise definition of the relations, i.e. an integral description of E which
is generally expressed in the shape of a file or a table4.

If the graph admits loops, i.e. arcs, whose starting points and finishing points are
at the same node, and it admits multiple arcs, we call it a pseudo-graph, which is the
most general case.

Graph theory only takes into account the number of nodes and the relationships
between them but does not deal with the vertices themselves. The only exception to
this rule is the characteristic of source or (and) wells which is recognized at nodes in
certain cases, such as during the calculation of the maximum flow for Ford-
Fulkerson [FOR 68], etc.

However, merely taking into account the existence of nodes, their number and
the relationships between them in graph theory is insufficient for network modeling.
A better individual description of network vertices is an important problem that
graph theory must also tackle to enable certain microsimulations, such as the study
of flows and their directions within the network crossroads, or the capacity of the
said crossroads, etc.

Thus, graph theory only deals with relationships between explicitly defined
elements which are limited in number. Indeed, in order to determine certain
traditional properties of graphs, such as the shortest paths, the Hamiltonian cycle,
etc., the number of nodes must necessarily be finite.

The graphic representation of G is extremely simple: “it is only necessary to

know how the nodes are connected” [BER 70]. The localization of the nodes in the

3 See below the definition of the simple undirected graph and the multigraph.
4 See section 11.1.2.
 Introduction xix

figure, i.e. implicitly on the plane, the representation or drawing of the graph do not
count, nor does the fact that the latter has two, three or n dimensions.

This offers great freedom in representing a graph. On the other hand, for the
reproduction of a transport network, for example, and if we wish the result to
resemble the observation, in short, if we want to approximate a map, this
representation will have to be specified. This is done by associating to it the
necessary properties or additional constraints, so that the development process of the
representation can be repetitive and the result reproducible (for example, definition
of the coordinate type attributes for the nodes), which is what Waldo Tobler requires
for maps.

Simplicity of the methods of definition and representation of graphs

Let us consider the associated matrix or adjacency matrix A of graph G. It is the
Boolean matrix n × n with 1 as the (i, j)-ith element when u and v are adjacent, i.e.
joined together by a edge or a directed or undirected arc and 0 when they are not
[COR 94].

Other authors [ROS 98] generalize this notation by accepting the loop (by noting
it 1 at the (i, i)-ith position) and multiple arcs, thus considering that the adjacency
matrix is then not a zero-one or Boolean matrix because the (j, i)-ith element of this
matrix is equal to the number of arcs associated to {ui, vi}. In this case, all the
undirected graphs, including multigraphs and pseudo-graphs, have symmetrical
adjacency matrices.

The problem of the latter notation is that it can be difficult to distinguish, unless
we define beforehand a valuated adjacency matrix when the valuations are expressed
as integers and small numbers.

The list of adjacency

The use of the adjacency matrix is very simple. However, it may be
cumbersome, in particular in the case of a large graph whose nodes are only
connected by several arcs which is, for example, the case of a road network or a
lattice on a plane. In this case, the matrix proves very hollow and the majority of the
boxes are filled with zeros. To optimize the calculation procedures we then use
methods which make it possible to remove these zero values and to only retain the
existing arcs.

One of the simplest ways of describing a graph, in particular by using a machine,

is to enumerate all its arcs when there are no multiple ones or to enumerate them by
identifying [MIN 86] those whose origin and destination are identical when we are
xx Graphs and Networks

dealing multigraphs or directed p-graphs, which constitutes an arcs file5. The writing
can be simplified by using an adjacency list.

This adjacency list specifies the nodes which are adjacent to each node of the
graph G. We can even consider for a Boolean adjacency list of a p-graph or of a
multigraph that the number of times where the final node is repeated indicates the
number of arcs resulting from the origin node and leading to the destination node,
half a bipolar degree. If the description of the graph is not only Boolean, it might
then be necessary to identify each arc between the same two nodes, in particular, by
their possible valuation, weighting or another characteristic, such as a simple
number.

The incidence matrix

For a graph without loop, the values of the incidence matrix “vertices-edges”
Δ(G) are defined [BEA 92] by:
– 1 if x is the origin of the arc;
– -1 if x is the end of the arc, 0 otherwise.

In order to avoid confusion let us recall that it is completely different from the
“node-node” adjacency matrix whose valuation is equal to 1 when the two nodes
considered are connected by an arc. It is this latter matrix, which in certain works is
referred to as the associated matrix.

The algorithmic ease has already been underlined and the methods of description
of graphs listed above, which are naturally usable by a machine, do nothing but
amplify it.

The adjacency matrix enables a simple usage of numerous algorithms, as well as

numerous indices, as we will be able to see. It also makes it possible to use sub-
tables, etc. However, the description by using an adjacency list enables a greater
processing speed due to the absence of zero values tests and the possibility of using
pointers6.

Hereafter we will establish that with some supplements this description of graphs
enables us to describe representations and reproducible plots, and that it is
sufficiently flexible to extend the formalism of graphs to other fields.

5 See in Chapter 12 an example of time-lag graphs.

6 It can be defined as the address of an element.
 Introduction xxi

Glossary of graph theory for the description of networks

The definitions of graph theory are commonly allowed and scarcely leave ground
for ambiguity. However, certain terms have evolved through time, just as it happens
in any active field. We propose to develop the representations of graphs by
considering them as strictly belonging to the theory and to express other
representations in the form of graphs. Therefore, we must now specify the
definitions of the most used terms.

Indeed, since the fundamental work of Berge [BER 70] was published in France
30 years ago a certain number of definitions have evolved through use (see below).

Directed graph
A directed graph (V,E) consists of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E, which
are pairs of the elements of V [ROS 98].
“Pseudographs form the most general type of undirected graphs, since they can
contain multiple loops and arcs. Multigraphs are undirected graphs that may
contain multiple arcs but not loops. Finally, simple graphs are undirected graphs
with neither multiple arcs, nor loops” [ROS 98].

Arc and edge

An arc is a directed relation between two nodes (U, v) of the set of nodes of G.
An edge is always an undirected arc between two nodes (U, v) of G.

Adjacency
Adjacency defines the contiguity of two elements. Two arcs are known as
adjacent if they have at least one common end. Two nodes are adjacent if they
are joined together by an arc of which they are the ends. The nodes u and v are
the final points of the arc {u, v}.

Incidence
Incidence defines the number of arcs, whose considered node is the origin
(incidence towards the exterior: out-degree) or the destination (incidence
towards the interior: in-degree). Since the degree of a node is equal to the
number of arcs of which it is the origin and/or destination, each loop is counted
twice.

Regular graph
When all the nodes have the same degree, the graph is known as regular.

Degree of a node
The degree of a node in an undirected graph is the number of arcs incidental to
this node, except for a loop that contributes twice to the degree of this node. The
degree of this node is noted by deg(v).
xxii Graphs and Networks

Symmetric graph Complete graph

A graph is known as symmetric, if A complete graph is a graph where each
each node is the origin and node is connected to all the other nodes by
destination of the same number of exactly one arc. A complete graph with n
arcs. nodes is noted by Kn. A complete directed
graph is a digraph where each node is
The adjacency matrix of a connected to all the others by two arcs of
symmetrical graph is symmetrical. opposite directions.

Subgraph
A subgraph is defined by a subset A⏐A⊂ V of nodes of G and by the set of arcs
with ends in A⏐UA⊂ U, GA = (A,UA). For example, the graph of the Central
region is a subgraph of France. It is fully defined by an adjacency submatrix.

Partial graph
A partial graph is defined by a subset of arcs H⊂E/GS = (V,E). A partial graph
may be a monomodal graph of a multimodal graph as well as a graph of trunk
roads within the graph of all the roads in France. The adjacency matrix of a
partial graph has the same size as the adjacency matrix of the complete graph.
For example, if the partial graph is a modal graph (i.e. defined by a specific
means of transport), the adjacency matrix of the complete graph (i.e. of the
transportation system) is the sum of all the adjacency matrices of the partial
graphs (various means of transport).

Partial subgraph Chain

A partial subgraph combines the A chain is a sequence of arcs, such that
two characteristics mentioned each arc has a common end with the
above: it is formed by a subset of preceding arc and the other end is in
nodes and a subset of arcs GSA = common with the following one. The
(A,V) such as, for example, the cardinal of the considered set of arcs
partial subgraph of TGV cities. defines the length of the chain. In a
transport network where the arcs are, by
definition, directed, the chain only makes
sense only if the arcs are symmetrical, i.e.
directed both ways.

Path Circuit
A path is a chain where all the arcs A circuit is a path whose origin coincides
are directed in the same way, i.e. with the terminal end.
the end of an arc coincides with the
origin of the following one.
 Introduction xxiii

Cycle Eulerian cycle

A chain is called a cycle if it starts An Eulerian cycle in a graph G is a simple
and finishes with the same node. cycle containing all the arcs of G. An
Eulerian chain in a graph G is a simple
chain that contains all the arcs of G.
A chain is known as Hamiltonian, if it
contains each node of the graph only once.

Connected graph Strongly connected graph

An undirected graph is connected if A graph is described as strongly
there is a chain between any pair of connected if, for any pair of nodes,
nodes. there exists a path from the origin
A directed graph is known as connected node to the destination node.
if there is there a path between any pair In other words, in a strongly
of nodes. connected graph it is possible to go
from any point to any other point and
to return from it, which is one of the
essential properties of a transport
network.

Quasi-strongly connected graph Bi-partite graph

A graph is known as quasi-strongly A graph G is bi-partite if the set V of
its nodes can be partitioned into two
connected if for any pair of nodes u, v,
non-empty and disjoined sets V1 and
there is a node t, from which a path
V2 in such a manner that each arc of
going to u and a path going to v start
simultaneously. the graph connects a node of V1 to a
A strongly connected graph is thus node of V2 (so that there is no arc of
quasi-strongly connected. G connecting either two nodes of V1
or two nodes of V2)7.

A joint or pivot
A node is a joint if upon its suppression the resulting subgraphs are not
connected.

Isthmus
An isthmus is an edge or an arc whose suppression renders the resulting partial
subgraphs unconnected.

Articulation set
By extension, a set UA ⊂ U is an articulation set if its withdrawal involves the
loss of the connectivity of the resulting subgraphs G.

List 1. Essential definitions

7 See below the K3,3 graph.

xxiv Graphs and Networks

Description, representation and drawing of graphs

For the majority of authors the term representation indicates the description of
the graph by the adjacency matrix and the adjacency list or the incidence matrix and
the incidence list, as well as that the graphic representation of the considered graph
in the form of a diagram, whose absence of rules we have seen8.

For representations in the form of a list or a matrix table we will use the term
description, possibly by specifying computational description and by mentioning the
possible attributes of the nodes, such as localization, form, modal nature9,
valuations10 of the arcs, etc.

For graphic, diagrammatic representation we will use the term (graphic)

representation or drawing of the graph.

This notation appears more coherent to us since, in the first case, we describe the
graph by listing all of the nodes and arcs, possibly with the attributes of the nodes
and the characteristics of the arcs: modal nature, valuation, capacity, etc., which are
necessary for computational calculation. For the computer the representation of arcs
has neither sense nor utility.

On the other hand, in the second case, we carry out an anthropic representation
of the graph, possibly among a large number of available representations according
to constraints that we set ourselves, such as planarity, special frame of reference,
isomorphism with a particular graph, or geometrical properties that we impose on a
particular plot, such as linearity of arc, etc.

Isomorphic graphs

The simple graphs G1 = (V1,E1) and G2 = (V2,E2) are isomorphic if there is a

bijective function f of U1 in U2 with the following properties: u and v are adjacent in
G1 if and only if f(u) and f(v) are adjacent in G2 for all the values of u and v in E1.
Such a function f is an isomorphism.

8 See section 1.1.1.1.

9 Here the term indicates the means of transport which is possibly assigned to the arc:
terrestrial, such as a car, a truck, a train, or maritime, by river or air.
10 Indicates a qualifying value allotted to an arc or an edge, such as distance, duration, cost,
possibly modal capacity, etc. Two arcs stemming from the same node and having the same
node as destination can have different valuations, for example, distance by road and rail
between two cities.
 Introduction xxv

V2

U1 U2 V1 V2
U2 V3
V1
U3
U1

U5 U4 V5 V4 U3 U4 V3 V4

Figure 1. Example of isomorphic graphs

Plane graph

A plane graph is a graph whose nodes and arcs belong to a plane, i.e. whose plot
is plane. By extension, we may also speak of a plot on a sphere, or even on a torus.

Two topological graphs that can be led to coincide by elastic strain of the plane
are not considered distinct.

All the graph drawing are not necessarily plane; they can be three-dimensional
like the solids of Plato, or like a four-dimensional hypercube traced in a three-
dimensional space and projected onto a plane as the famous representation of The
Christ on the Cross of Salvador Dali.

Planar graph

It is said that a graph G is planar if it is possible to represent it on a plane, so that

the nodes are distinct points, the arcs are simple curves and two arcs only cross at
their ends, i.e. at a node of the graph.

The planar representation of G on a plane is called a topological planar graph

and it is also indicated by G.

Any planar graph can be represented by a plane graph, but the reciprocal is not
necessarily true.

Saturated planar graph

A planar graph is described as saturated when no arc can be added without it

losing its planarity. In a saturated planar graph the areas delimited by arcs are
triangular.
xxvi Graphs and Networks

Christaller’s transport network (Figure 3) [CHR 33] is a plane graph based on

triangular grids it is neither planar nor saturated because some arcs do not only cut
across each other at the nodes and some areas are quadrangular.

Figure 2. European11 quadrimodal graph

11 Graph plotted by CESA Geographical position working group 1.1 Study Program on
European Spatial Planning, December 1999. An extended version integrates the ferry boat
into this graph which represents four modes of transport.
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 1.º AUTORE.

Merlini ed io ci stiamo
Dividendo il lavoro. Andiam nelle idee d'arte
Tanto d'accordo...

AUTORE.

Vedo!

1.º AUTORE.

Che ognun fa la sua parte

Quasi senza bisogno dell'altro. Scusa sai...

(lo lascia per volgersi al suo compagno)

Finiam la divisione...

AUTORE.

Oh fa pure! fai! fai!

Ohe, là, Bardi! E la prova?

BARDI.

Manca men di mezz'ora.

AUTORE.

Bravo, per quei due tagli, possiam combinar ora.

(L'autore va a sedersi al tavolino di Bardi, estrae il copione e tra di
loro due vi riscontrano e segnano a matita i tagli)
1.º AUTORE.

(nel lato opposto della scena seguendo a confabular col suo

compagno, sulle mosse entrambi per andarsene)

Sicchè dunque io m'incarico... dei caratteri...

2.º AUTORE.

Bene!

1.º AUTORE.

Dell'intreccio?...

2.º AUTORE.

Benissimo...

1.º AUTORE.

Del taglio delle scene?...

2.º AUTORE.

Perfettamente...

1.º AUTORE.

(un po' sorpreso guardandolo)

 E... d'altro?

2.º AUTORE.

... Del dialogo se vuoi...

È un lavor materiale per me seccante...

1.º AUTORE.

E poi?

2.º AUTORE.

Quanto ai finali d'atto, sai che ho fiducia in te...

1.º AUTORE.

(sconcertato)

O allora?

2.º AUTORE.

... Tutto il resto lo lasci fare a me.

(esce precedendo il compagno)

1.º AUTORE.

Ma come?...

(va dietro al compagno)

FULVIO.
 (fermandolo)

Ma è giustissimo! mi pare un patto onesto.

Tu intreccio, scene, dialoghi, finali — e lui fa il
resto.

1.º AUTORE.

Ma io...

FULVIO.

Ma tu stai zitto. E prima che tu vada,

Se prometti esser savio ti conto una sciarada.

1.º AUTORE.

Ah! ah! le tue sciarade...

FULVIO.

Stai zitto. Ce ne' ho qui

Una che non la sciogli nemmanco in cento dì.

Io Sulamita, dei canti sposa,

Vo' dei capelli primi orgogliosa:
Io son la fine: la fine è il nulla:
Io sono il tutto sin da la culla.

Chi la indovina è bravo!...

1.º AUTORE.

E s'io te la indovino?
 FULVIO.

Scommettiamo.

1.º AUTORE.

Eh?

FULVIO.

Da bere — giusto ho sete.

1.º AUTORE.

Adagino.
La Sulamita biondi capei dovrebbe avere
... Il primo è biondi.

FULVIO.

(trionfante)

Bestia! hai perso.

(al Cameriere)

Ehi là! da bere.

1.º AUTORE.

(si batte la fronte correggendosi)

— Ah! il primo è fulvi... e il nulla..., la fine, è un o che

è zero...
Io il tutto — tu sei Fulvio... eh già: Fulvio è l'intero.
Ah, ah!

(tutti canzonan Fulvio)

Ci siam?

FULVIO.

(sospirando)

Da bere.

(al Cameriere)

Chartreuse di quella verde...

1.º AUTORE.

Che tu...

FULVIO.

(terminandogli rapidamente la frase)

Che tu mi paghi... Scusa, chi vince perde.

Grazie! alla tua salute.

(beve)

Come presto l'hai sciolta!

(assaporando la Chartreuse)
 Se vuoi scioglierne un'altra...

1.º AUTORE.

(vivissimo)

No, grazie, un'altra volta.

(scappa via)

(Tra il dialogo dei due autori, e il successivo fra Bardi e l'autor della
Lea, intercede qui una piccola scena muta. Una figurina elegante di
donna, apparentemente una qualche attrice, guarda dietro i vetri
della porta d'ingresso; il Cameriere corre a lei, parla seco, rientra
sorridendo con malizia e va a riporre nel casellario vicino al banco
una lettera consegnatagli; l'altro avventore ch'era in bottega si alza,
s'accosta al Cameriere e con gesti gli domanda chi è quell'attrice;
saputolo, le corre dietro. Il padrone del caffè, stando al suo banco,
vede che l'avventore è corso via senza pagare, ne fa cenno al
Cameriere che corre al vassojo dell'avventore, verifica infatti che non
c'è il danaro e corre all'avventore dietro. Ritorna di lì a un momento
mortificato, con gesto espressivo accennando al padrone che non lo
ha potuto raggiungere e soggiunge)
CAMERIERE.

(al padrone)

Noti trenta!

PADRONE.

(dal banco prendendo il mastro e annotando con dispetto)

Notare sempre... pagare mai!

 (fra sè scrivendo nel mastro)

Trenta... e dieci di coda... quaranta! Imparerai!

(chiude il mastro dispettosamente, e va via per l'ingresso interno che

mette al bigliardo)
AUTORE.

(a Bardi nel correggere assieme il manoscritto)

Così ti par che vada?

BARDI.

Sì, sì... mi par... Però

S'intende, questa parte, ricordati, io la fo...
Per favore a te solo... Queste parti, noi, vedi,
Le chiamiam con un nome... lasciamo lì... ma credi
Che se non eri tu...

AUTORE.

Ti ringrazio.

BARDI.

Vuol dire
Che vedrai nei giornali di farlo ben capire...
Non ch'io ci tenga... Ma...

AUTORE.

Sta tranquillo.
 BARDI.

(consulta l'orologio)

Ora vo
Alla prova...

(s'avvia)
AUTORE.

Anch'io vengo.

FULVIO.

(che stava leggendo o scrivendo, a questo punto si alza e ferma

l'autore che sta per uscire)

C'è tempo. Aspetta un po'.

Quando va questa nuova?

AUTORE.

Va sabato — speriamo.

FULVIO.

E nemmeno a me proprio ne vuoi dir nulla? Andiamo!

Via!

AUTORE.

Ma lasciami.
 FULVIO.

Il tema almen. Di me
Ti puoi fidare. Dopo dirotti anche il perchè.

AUTORE.

(impazientito)

Uff! La mia Nicarete l'hai vista sulle scene?

FULVIO.

Già. Quella ch'era moglie a due mariti.

AUTORE.

Ebbene
Tu della greca tunica i personaggi spogli,
E avrai or, viceversa, marito con due mogli.
Sei contento?

FULVIO.

(passandosi la mano sul mento e riempiendo la pipa)

Eh, mi sembra, scusa se mal m'appiglio,

Che il tema abbia la barba lunghetta un mezzo miglio.
La va, capisco al modo di svolgerlo... e poi se
Il tema è vero...

AUTORE.

È storico...
 FULVIO.

(incredulo)

Storico?

AUTORE.

Eh, altro che.

Ti basti che nei fogli fu raccontato un fatto
Preciso tale quale lo narro al second'atto.

FULVIO.

Ne dicon tante i fogli! E poi non è ammissibile

Che un fatto, perchè vero, debba anche esser
possibile.
Esempio: io illustro l'arte: l'arte mi rende zero:
È un fatto non possibile...

(sospirando)

eppur giuro che è vero.

E vuoi...

AUTORE.

Voglio, sian temi moderni o in veste achea,

Cavarmi sempre il gusto di svolger la mia idea.

FULVIO.

Che idea?
 AUTORE.

La mia idea fissa, ch'è il mio chiodo qui in

testa...

FULVIO.

(Oh anch'io... per chiodi...) E in grazia che idea

sarebbe?

AUTORE.

Questa:
Le leggi di natura eterne, immote, arcane
Han dritto a precedenza sovra le leggi umane:
Queste sbagliano, mutano, o di capricci gioco,
O di violenti, o furbi, o deboli, o dappoco:
Variano con le foggie de le mutanti età,
Cogli eventi, coi gusti: e il fio la società
Dei loro sbagli sconta con lagrime e con guai...
Le leggi che natura pose non sbaglian mai.
Contro di lei diritti veri non sono: ell'è
Il diritto supremo: di savii e papi, e re,
Statuti, e dogmi, e codici, ella corregge o cassa:
Se leggi a lei si oppongono... straccia le leggi e passa.
Dice la Chiesa al giovine: — Tua sposa, ecco,
son io,
Affetti e corpo donami, meco t'unisci in Dio:
A me dei verdi aprili dona il fior verginale.
Tutto il resto è menzogna, è peccato mortale. —
La natura risponde: — Ma che! frottole! Io sola,
Della tua vita, o giovane, so la vera parola:
Vuoi lotte? ecco qui il campo. Vuoi luce? ecco là il vero.
Qui cadder veri mártiri: lassù splende il pensiero.
Or per le lotte attingi vigore: ecco la tazza:
La sposa che ti occorre gli è un pezzo di ragazza! —
Sta il poeta a sentire: l'estro soffia nei mantici,
Ed ecco allora scrive... il Cantico dei Cantici.
Dice la legge: — In terra tocca a chi tocca. Gli
uni
Sudino e gli altri godano: quel mangi e quel digiuni:
Il mio ed il tuo gli è il dritto: nel lotto disuguale
Di miseri e gaudenti sta l'ordine sociale. —
Risponde la natura: — Frottole! ognun che nasce
Ha dritto alla sua parte di gioie dalle fasce:
Se gli altri gliela rubano, io d'infelici amori,
Io di sudor sfruttati io vendico i dolori:
Serbo supreme gioie ai vinti nell'agone,
E a furia di compensi rimetto l'equazione. —
Ode il poeta: e nascono così nel suo pensiero
Prima Luna di Miele, dopo, il Povero Piero!
Dice il codice: — Fida sia la moglie al marito:
Sia calvo o bianco il pelo, guai chi ci mette un dito:
Fedel, sin ch'egli vive, lo segua ov'ei soggiorna,
Disonor, multa e carcere castighino le corna. —
Ahi, stolto! la natura prorompe: e che t'attenti
Legare i fiori teneri a tronchi arsi e cadenti?
Non ad amplessi sterili, a carezze senili
Non io dannavo il riso dei cor primaverili.
A forti amplessi e giovani diritto ha giovin core,
Come al suo ciel la rondine, alle sue brine il fiore:
Rondine e fior non badano di tue minaccie al suono:
Se ad esse il cor ribellasi — tu danna! ed io
perdono. —
Attento il vate ascolta la disputa curiosa
E torna a casa a scrivere di Menecle la sposa.
Così i lavor più varii, con gli altri che sorvolo,
Mettono capo tutti ad un concetto solo:
Dall'idea madre scendono sì come varii fili
D'una sola matassa: e per diversi stili
In un sol vero unisconsi, come diverse spume
Per diversi torrenti vannosi a unir nel fiume.

FULVIO.

E dunque, per intenderci più chiaro, la tua Lea...

AUTORE.

È un'altra applicazione di quella stessa idea.

FULVIO.

Bravo! Tò un bacio! Ah! Bravo! Tal e qual come me!

Ma che combinazione! Tal e quale!...

AUTORE.

Cioè?

FULVIO.

Trenta libretti, vedi, tengo nel mio cassetto

Coordinati tutti a un unico concetto:
La legge che a saldare i creditor fa invito
Col dritto di natura compor dell'appetito.
Così ogni atto che scrivo comprende d'ordinario
Un acconto al trattore... o un capo di vestiario.
Quando, vedi, mi occorse comprar questo paltò,
A Corradino il capo troncai per man d'Angiò:
In altri dì rischiavo restar senza merenda
E allor dritto al patibolo mandai Bice di Tenda.
Pel calzolaio ho scritto: Due morti di pugnale!
Che fa precisamente un morto per stivale.
Il guaio gli è che, i conti, quei seguono a venire
 E i drammi nel cassetto...

(sospirando)

talor stanno a dormire:

Le tristi note intanto, da Oriente da Occidente
Ti piovono, ti piovono inesorabilmente,
Si incalzano, si ammucchiano, si aggruppano con arte
Ne le diverse cifre su le diverse carte...

(estrae di tasca e presenta all'altro una nota di conti in una striscia di

carta lunghissima che non finisce mai di svolgersi)

E in un gran conto solo si vanno a riunire...

Come i torrenti al fiume... Prestami venti lire.

AUTORE.

(prima sconcertato, poi lo abbraccia)

Oh mio povero amico! e che vuoi far con venti

Lire sole? Ten presto... Cinquanta. T'accontenti?

FULVIO.

(baciandolo con espansione)

Sei un cuor d'oro. Grazie.

(stende la mano per prendere il denaro)

AUTORE.

S'intende. Non adesso.

 FULVIO.

(sconcertato)

Eh? Quando?

AUTORE.

Appena il dramma avrà avuto successo.

FULVIO.

(con gesto e smorfia di disappunto)

Ah!

(riprendendosi e sforzandosi sorridere)

Ma non c'è alcun dubbio!... Dubbio non c'è! non

c'è...
Un successone!...

AUTORE.

(con effusione stringendogli la mano)

Oh grazie! Voglio credere a te!

Posso credere?...

FULVIO.

Diamine!... ti dico... a gonfia vela...

 (va via lento esitante, e ripetendo, un po' a denti stretti: a gonfia
vela! fatto qualche passo ritorna verso l'autore e senza guardarlo gli
stende la mano)

Senti... dammene cinque... prima ch'alzin la tela.

FINE DEL PROLOGO.

 LEA

Non ci è matrimonio, non unione,

non legame fra due sposi che dal
giorno in cui loro nasce un figlio.
Togliete il figlio, ciò che giustifica
e purifica quel connubio e quel
connubio di fatto è rotto. Due
sposi senza figli non
rappresentano che un progetto
abortito. È una specie di
concubinaggio con autorizzazione
governativa. Non c'è famiglia dove
non sono figli.
P. L. STAHL.

Quel est le père de bonsens qui

voudrait marier son fils à vingt
ans?
Ne connait-on pas le danger de
ces unions précoces?
BALZAC.
 PERSONAGGI DEL DRAMMA

LEA.
RICCARDO VERNEDA.
GIACOMO VERNEDA, suo zio.
IDA.
PLACIDO, maestro e segretario comunale.
PEPPINO, bambino di Ida (anni 5).
SINDACO di Corciago.
MARIETTA, fantesca.
Un giardiniere o domestico.
Operai che non parlano.

Epoca moderna. L'azione del primo atto si svolge in un'osteria di

villaggio in montagna — nel secondo e nel terzo sulla riviera ligure.
Dal 1.º al 2.º atto passano sei anni.
 ATTO PRIMO

Stanza modesta a primo piano in un'osteria da

villaggio. — Un tavolo da pranzo nel mezzo, sedie e
mobiglio alquanto rustico. — Oleografie alle pareti. —
Da un lato un tavolino con oggetti da ricamo, da un
altro un cavalletto da pittore con suvvi una tela in
corso di lavoro. — Porte ai lati verso altre stanze
dell'osteria e porta comune nel fondo a sinistra. — Nel
fondo, in mezzo un balcone che dà sulla campagna.

SCENA PRIMA.

Zio GIACOMO, PLACIDO, un momento MARIETTA.

PLACIDO.

(per di dentro)

Per di qua, signor cavaliere...

GIACOMO.

(affacciandosi all'ingresso seguito da Placido)

Qui stanno?
PLACIDO.
Sissignore. Questa sarebbe la sala comune dell'albergo; ma non ci
sono altri che loro — e siccome è la più bella, vi passano il dì...
GIACOMO.

(guardandosi attorno per la stanza)

Eccoci dunque finalmente nel nido delle due tortorelle... Cerca e

cerca, tortorelline mie, vi ho snidato...
PLACIDO.

Questa osteria ella saprà che si chiama la Madonna della Neve;

perchè la Vergine Santissima fece qui presso una apparizione e nella
neve lasciò l'impronta dei piedi. Abbiamo anche una cappella
dedicata a lei da uno del paese che fu soldato in Russia con
Napoleone I, e fu al passaggio della Beresina, dove pigliò del freddo,
e il freddo gli portò via le due gambe e le due orecchie... Sicchè al
ritorno fabbricò alla Madonna una cappella votiva per ringraziarla...
GIACOMO.

Di avergli fatto perdere orecchie e gambe...

PLACIDO.

No, di avergli risparmiato il naso. Se il signore vuol visitarla...

GIACOMO.

No, no, grazie, più tardi. Dite piuttosto: nessuno è venuto prima di
me oggi a cercar dei due giovani?
PLACIDO.

Nossignore.
GIACOMO.

Meno male... (Arriverà forse domani...) Da quanto tempo i due

ragazzi son qui?
 PLACIDO.

Da tre mesi. Si vede che sono sposini di fresco e passano qui la luna
di miele. Giocano fra loro: un po' lei ricama, lui dipinge: quel quadro
lì è dello sposo...
GIACOMO.

(osservando la tela)

Ah! la fuga in Egitto! (Bravi, bravi! San Giuseppe mi sentirà!)

PLACIDO.

Poi fanno delle lunghe passeggiate. Abbiamo infatti dei dintorni

magnifici. Un panorama del lago e della valle stupendo! la vera
poesia della natura!... Il mio collega segretario comunale che l'ha
diretta a me, le avrà anche detto che io sono un po' poeta... Anche il
signore deve esserlo... Se avrà tempo potrò mostrarle...
GIACOMO.

Grazie. Un'altra volta. Staran molto a tornare?...

PLACIDO.

Sono usciti a passeggio in montagna. Mi ero offerto accompagnarli,

spiegar loro le bellezze... han preferito andar soli...
GIACOMO.

Capisco... Se sapessi da che parte sono andati...

PLACIDO.

(chiamando)

Neh, Marietta!... da che parte hanno preso i due forestieri?...

MARIETTA.
 (affacciandosi da una porta laterale)

Verso Ghevio...
GIACOMO.

È lontano?...
PLACIDO.

Non tanto. Ma la potrebbe cogliere la pioggia per istrada...

GIACOMO.

(osservando fuori dal balcone)

Eh, ora non pare...

PLACIDO.

Gli è che abbiam da qualche giorno tempo instabile. (con fare

d'importanza) Abbiamo delle grandi depressioni barometriche: dei
ciclóni attraversano l'Atlantico, in direzione sud sud-est. Il mio
collega le avrà detto che io sono anche un po' fisico e astronomo...
GIACOMO.

Ah!...
PLACIDO.

A meno che... (guardando fuori dal balcone) Oh aspetti... Passa lo

speziale. (va dal balcone all'uscio da cui si è affacciata Marietta) Neh,
Marietta, corri un po' a vedere il naso dello speziale... passa ora...
MARIETTA.

Ora vado...
GIACOMO.

O che c'entra lo speziale col suo naso?

 PLACIDO.

Ah, il signore si vede che non è del paese. Noi abbiamo il naso dello
speziale che serve all'uso pubblico. È il barometro del comune. Le
nostre donne, prima di mettersi in via per andar lontano al mercato,
lo consultano. Quando vuol fare cattivo tempo, il sangue risalendo
alla fronte nella regione parietale superiore, il naso diventa smorto.
Quando il tempo si mette al secco e al sereno, il sangue discende nei
lobi inferiori e il naso dello speziale è più rosso di un garofano di
quei rossi. Effetto del circolo del sangue. Il mio collega segretario le
avrà detto che...
GIACOMO.

(prevenendolo)

... che lei è anche un po' medico. Ho capito.

MARIETTA.

(parlando dalla strada)

Neh, signor Placido?...

PLACIDO.

(affacciandosi al balcone)

E così?...
MARIETTA.

(come sopra)

Lo speziale ci ha il naso smorto... ci ha... (gettando un grido) Ahi!...

Ahi!...

(Voce d'uomo irritato, dalla via)

Te lo darò io il naso smorto, brutta sfacciata!...

 GIACOMO.

Eh, non pare che il vostro barometro sia molto contento di

funzionare...
PLACIDO.

Ah già, si altera un po'... Io lo faccio apposta... Ha combattuto in

consiglio il mio aumento di stipendio... e, a sentirlo, pretende di
saperne più di me, che sono il segretario e il maestro del comune.
Già, qui tutti, compreso il sindaco, pretendono di saperne... E se
vedesse che zucche!... Intanto la consiglio a non uscire...
GIACOMO.

E allora, per guadagnar tempo, prenderei qualche cosa. Sono

digiuno da stamane. Se volete fermarvi a mangiar due bocconi con
me, senza complimenti...
PLACIDO.

(cerimonioso)

Troppo onore, signor cavaliere!

GIACOMO.

Ma che onore d'Egitto! andiamo! Non siete il segretario comunale?

PLACIDO.

E il maestro, per giunta! Due sacerdozii!... Due volte sacerdote! E sto

peggio del sacrestano! Il signore avrà visto il mio nome nella
petizione dei segretarii al Parlamento... Se vuol gradirne una copia...
GIACOMO.

Grazie. Ce l'ho.
PLACIDO.
Già, in gran parte l'ho redatta io. Eh, se non ci fossi io... Anche qui,
faccio io tutto... Il sindaco è un ignorante presuntuoso... (guardando
fuori) Oh, eccolo che rientra. (È la volta che lo mortifico!) Signor
sindaco! Signor sindaco!...
GIACOMO.

Qui lo chiamate?...
PLACIDO.

Il sindaco è l'oste padrone di quest'osteria...

GIACOMO.

Ah!

SCENA II.

DETTI e il SINDACO.

SINDACO.

(affacciandosi)

Eccomi.
PLACIDO.

Signor sindaco, le ho condotto il signor cavaliere che viene a far

visita ai due sposini qui d'alloggio... e desidera una stanza...
GIACOMO.

Per l'appunto.
SINDACO.
 (inchinandosi e sberrettandosi)

Signor cavaliere!...
PLACIDO.

Intanto amerebbe mangiar qualche cosa...

SINDACO.

Vuol restar servito abbasso?

GIACOMO.

No, no, anche qui. Serviteci pur qui.

PLACIDO.

(al Sindaco, con sussiego, ripetendo)

Ha inteso, signor Sindaco? La ci serva pur qui.

SINDACO.

(rivolto allo zio Giacomo, senza badare alle parole di Placido)

Il signore pranza con un suo amico?... (durante il battibecco che

segue fra sindaco e segretario, Giacomo osserva in giro per la
stanza, esamina il quadro)
PLACIDO.

(c. s.)

Con me. Con me. Il signor cavaliere mi ha fatto l'onore di invitarmi...

La ci serva (appoggia di nuovo con intenzione sulla parola) pur qui,
signor sindaco...
SINDACO.

(ironico, a voce alta)

Non dubiti, signor segretario!... (a denti stretti) (Te la darò io...)
(esce gettando occhiataccie al segretario)

SCENA III.

DETTI, meno il SINDACO.

GIACOMO.

Eh? Si direbbe che tra sindaco e segretario non andiate in

tenerezze!... (E quei due signorini si fanno attendere...)
PLACIDO.

Le dirò... il sindaco non vuole mandar giù che io ne sappia più di

lui... E noti, quando gli occorre di far bella figura, ricorre a me. Un
mese fa era la festa dei due sposini che stan qui da lui...
GIACOMO.

Ah sì?...
PLACIDO.

Il dì della sposa. E per tenerseli dacconto, lui ha fatto venire la

Giunta in corpo a portare gli augurj. Si intende, li ho dovuti far io...
(declamando con enfasi)

In un giorno sì dolce e sì bello

Che d'Imene v'allieta l'ostello,
Io, sebben comunal segretario,
Sciolgo un canto non certo ordinario,
Per offrirvi gli omaggi del cor
Della Giunta coi proprj assessor!...
 Io sebben....

GIACOMO.

(vivamente arrestandolo)

Basta, basta. C'è del Parini.

PLACIDO.

(inchinandosi)

Troppa bontà!

SCENA IV.

DETTI e il SINDACO.

(Il Sindaco rientra colle stoviglie e prepara la tavola alla lesta, dando
occhiataccie al segretario. Dispone sulla tavola intanto pane, salame,
dei peperoni e delle mele)
PLACIDO.

Oh così va bene! Il signor cavaliere qui ha fame... Ci serva presto,

veda di far presto, signor sindaco...
SINDACO.

A lei... (nel porgergli un piatto cava di sotto l'ascella un grosso pacco

di carte e glie lo butta sul piatto)
PLACIDO.

(sconcertato)
Cos'è?...
SINDACO.

Il verbale dell'ultima seduta di consiglio. Favorisca per la prefettura

di farmene due copie.
PLACIDO.

Eh?
SINDACO.

(rifacendogli colla voce il verso)

E me le dia presto... Veda di far presto, signor segretario...

PLACIDO.

(a denti stretti)

Va bene... un momento...
SINDACO.

Ma il signor prefetto non può aspettare, e io come sindaco non lo

posso permettere. Qui (accenna a un tavolino lì presso) c'è penna e
calamaio. Il signore scuserà... Prima il dovere...
GIACOMO.

Ah già... il dovere. Intanto, comincierò a mangiar io. Eh? Ci avreste

(al Sindaco) delle uova?...
SINDACO.

Ma subito...
PLACIDO.

(nel mettersi a scrivere, irritato)

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