TABLE OF FIGURES

INTRODUCTION 3

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE 3

1 SENSORS 4

1.1 Temperature Sensor 4

1.2 Pressure Sensor 6

1.3 Ultrasonic Sensor 8

1.4 Infrared Proximity Sensor 9

1.5 Vibration Sensor 11

2 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES 12

2.1 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge 12

2.2 Bellows Pressure Gauge 14

2.3 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge 16

3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES 19

3.1 Optical Pyro meter 19

3.2 Thermocouples 21

3.3 TiS75+ Thermal Camera 23

4 TRANSDUCERS 26

4.1 Variable Resistance Transducers 26

4.2 Linear Variable Differential Transducer 28

DISCUSSION 30

CONCLUSION 30

1|Page
TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 : Industrial RTD Pt100 Temperature Sensor with KNE Terminal Head – PPL3 RTD Sensor 4

Figure 1-2 : Pressure sensor 6

Figure 1-3 : DMP333 High Range ATEX IECEX Pressure Transmitter 100 bar to 600 bars 6

Figure 1-4 : Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04 and Arduino 8

Figure 1-5 : HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor Module 8

Figure 1-6 : E18-D80NK - Infrared Proximity Sensor 10

Figure 1-7 : SW-420 Vibration Sensor Module 11

Figure 2-1: Bourdon tube pressure gauge 12

Figure 2-2 : Bourdon tube pressure gauge2 13

Figure 2-3 : Bellows Pressure Gauge 15

Figure 2-4 : Differential pressure principle 15

Figure 2-5 :Diaphragm Pressure Gauge 17

Figure 3-1 : Optical Pyro meter 19

Figure 3-2 : Thermocouple 21

Figure 3-3 : TiS75+ Thermal Camera 24

Figure 4-1 : Linear Potentiometer 26

Figure 4-2 : Linear Variable Differential Transducer 28

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INTRODUCTION

Instrumentation and measurement are vital components in engineering, particularly in mechanical

engineering, where accurate measurements are essential for design, analysis, and quality control.
This lab manual provides an in-depth overview of various sensors, pressure measuring devices,
temperature measuring devices, and transducers, detailing their specifications, working principles,
advantages, disadvantages, and applications.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

• To understand the principles and applications of various measurement instruments.

• To develop practical skills in using instrumentation tools and techniques.
• To develop practical skills in using instrumentation tools and techniques.

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1 SENSORS

Sensors are devices that detect changes in the environment and convert them into signals that can
be measured or recorded. Below are five types of sensors commonly used in engineering
applications-

1.1 Temperature Sensor

A temperature sensor is a device that detects and measures heat in an environment, converting
thermal energy into an electrical signal. These sensors are widely used in various applications,
from household thermostats to industrial processes, to monitor and control temperature.

(ProcessParametersLtd, www.processparameters.co.uk, n.d.)

Figure 1-1 : Industrial RTD Pt100 Temperature Sensor with KNE Terminal Head – PPL3 RTD
Sensor

4|Page
Specifications
Sensor Type Platinum Resistance Thermometer—Pt100 or Pt1000. Other types
available.
Operating Range -50 to +250°C unless otherwise requested
Sheath Material 316 stainless steels
Tolerance Band Class B, Class A, 1/3 DIN, 1/5 DIN or 1/10 DIN
Wiring System 2, 3 or 4 wire, Simplex or Duplex
Head Types A - KNE Aluminum Alloy, IP68
B - KSE Aluminum Alloy, IP68
C - ABS, IP67
D - Glass Filled Nylon, IP65
E - 316 stainless steel, IP68 (Other heads available upon request)
Head Options A - Ceramic Terminal Block
B - In Head Transmitter—various types
C - Tails for Customers Own Transmitter

Quality & Features -

► Plain Stem Probe below Terminal Head
► Heads available in Aluminum, Stainless Steel, Nylon or ABS.
► Up to IP68 environmental protection
► Choice of Head Fittings - Block, Transmitter or Tails
► Ideal for Sliding Compression Fittings or Pockets
► Battery powered or loop powered displays

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1.2 Pressure Sensor

A pressure sensor is a device that converts pressure into an electrical signal. It is used to measure
the pressure of gases or liquids within a system, and the output is an electrical signal that is
proportional to the pressure applied.

(www.flintec.com, n.d.)
Figure 1-2 : Pressure sensor

(ProcessParametersLtd, www.processparameters.co.uk, n.d.)

Figure 1-3 : DMP333 High Range ATEX IECEX Pressure Transmitter 100 bar to 600 bars

6|Page
Specifications
Sensor Type DMP 333 Industrial Pressure Transmitter for High-Pressure,
Stainless-Steel Sensor
Operating Range Nominal pressure from 0 ... 100 bar up to 0 ... 600 bar
Overpressure from… 210 bar up to …1000 bar
Output Signals 2-wire: 4 ... 20 mA
3-wire: 0 … 20 mA / 0 … 10 V
(others is available on request)
Accuracy standard: ≤ ± 0.35 % FSO
option 1: ≤ ± 0.25 % FSO
option 2: ≤ ± 0.10 % FSO
Permissible Temperatures Medium -40 ... 125 °C
Electronics / environment -40 ... 85 °C
Storage -40 ... 100 °C
Mechanical Stability Vibration 10 g RMS (25 ... 2000 Hz) according to DIN EN
60068-2-6
Shock 100 g / 11 msec according to DIN EN 60068-2-27
Materials Pressure port - Stainless steel 1.4404 (316 L)
Housing - Stainless steel 1.4404 (316 L)
Option compact field housing - Stainless steel 1.4301 (304)
cable gland M12x1.5, brass, nickel plated (clamping range 2
… 8 mm)
Seals - Standard: FKM options: EPDM (for pN ≤ 160 bar)
others on request
Diaphragm- stainless steel 1.4435 (316 L)
Media wetted parts - Pressure port, seals, diaphragm

Quality & Features -

► Excellent long-term stability, also with high dynamic pressure loads
► Insensitive to pressure peaks
► High overpressure capability
► Options like digital displays, data logging, and wireless connectivity.

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1.3 Ultrasonic Sensor

An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses high-frequency sound waves to measure distance. It
works by emitting a sound wave and then detecting the reflected wave, allowing it to calculate the
time it takes for the sound to bounce back. This makes ultrasonic sensors useful for applications
like object detection, distance measurement, and proximity sensing.

Figure 1-4 : Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04 and Arduino

(Mechatronics, n.d.)

Figure 1-5 : HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor Module

(Components101, n.d.)

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 Specifications
Sensor Type HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor
Operating Range Max- 4m; Min- 2cm
Working Current 15 mA
Working Frequency 40 Hz
Measuring Angle 15 degrees
Trigger Input Signal 10uS TTL pulse
Echo Output Signal Input TTL lever signal and the range in proportion
Dimension 45*20*15mm

Quality & Features -

► Ultrasonic ranging module HC - SR04 provides 2cm - 400cm non-contact
measurement function, the ranging accuracy can reach to 3mm
► Using IO trigger for at least 10us high level signal
► The Module automatically sends eight 40 kHz and detect whether there is a
pulse signal back
► IF the signal back, through high level, time of high output IO duration is the
time from sending ultrasonic to returning.

1.4 Infrared Proximity Sensor

The infrared proximity sensor can detect the presence and distance of objects using infrared light.
It emits an infrared beam and measures the time it takes for the beam to reflect off an object and
return to the sensor, allowing it to determine the object's proximity. This type of sensor is
commonly used in applications that require non-contact object detection, such as robotics,
automation, and security systems.

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 Figure 1-6 : E18-D80NK - Infrared Proximity Sensor
(explorer.globe.engineer, https://explorer.globe.engineer/, n.d.)

Specifications, Quality & Features

Sensor type E18-D80NK - Infrared Proximity Sensor, Diffuse reflective type
Operating Voltage 5V DC
Current Consumption 25-100 mA
Response time < 2ms
Sensing Distance Adjustable from 3 cm to 80 cm
Dimensions Diameter: 18 mm, Length: 65 mm
Weight Approximately 150 g
Cable length 45 cm

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1.5 Vibration Sensor

The Vibration Sensor Module is an electronic component that can detect and measure vibrations.
It is commonly used in various applications, such as security systems, industrial machinery
monitoring, and motion detection, to sense and respond to physical movements or disturbances.

Figure 1-7 : SW-420 Vibration Sensor Module

(explorer.globe.engineer, https://explorer.globe.engineer/, n.d.)

Specifications
Sensor type SW-420 Vibration Sensor Module
Operating Voltage 3.3V to 5V DC
Current Consumption 15mA
Output Signal Digital (Logic High/Low)
Sensitivity Adjustment Adjustable via potentiometer
Dimensions 40 mm x 20 mm x 10 mm
Weight Approximately 4.3 g
LED Indicators Power and Output Status

Quality & Features -

► Digital output (logic high when vibration is detected)
► On-board potentiometer for adjusting the threshold sensitivity
► Compact Design: Small form factor for easy integration into various projects
► Easy Installation: Bolt holes provided for mounting

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2 PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Pressure measuring devices are instruments used to determine the force exerted per unit area, often
in the context of gases or liquids. Common examples include manometers, barometers, and
pressure gauges, which use various principles like liquid displacement or deformation of
mechanical components to quantify the pressure being measured.

2.1 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges are a type of mechanical pressure measuring device that use a
curved, hollow metal tube to detect changes in pressure. As pressure increases, the tube tries to
straighten out, and this movement is translated into a reading on the gauge's dial. Bourdon tube
gauges are widely used to measure pressure in various industrial and commercial applications

Figure 2-1: Bourdon tube pressure gauge

(www.blogger.com/profile/07389864790841118668)

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 Working Principle
The Bourdon tube is a coiled or C-shaped metal tube
that is sealed at one end and connected to a pressure
source at the other. When pressure is applied to the
inside of the tube, it tends to straighten out due to the
internal pressure. This movement is proportional to
the amount of pressure applied. The key steps in its
operation are:
1. Pressure Application: The fluid or gas whose
pressure is being measured enters the
Bourdon tube through a fitting.
2. Tube Deformation: As pressure increases, the (adda247.com/school)
tube deforms from its natural curved shape Figure 2-2 : Bourdon tube pressure
towards a more straightened position. gauge2
3. Mechanical Linkage: The movement of the tube's free end is transmitted through a
mechanical linkage (often a series of gears) to a pointer on a dial.
4. Pressure Indication: The pointer moves across a calibrated scale, providing a visual
indication of the pressure reading.
The Bourdon tube is typically made from materials such as phosphor bronze, brass, or stainless
steel, which provide durability and resistance to corrosion.

Advantages
1. Accuracy: Bourdon tube gauges are known for their high accuracy, especially at high
pressures, making them suitable for critical applications.
2. Durability: These gauges are robust and can withstand harsh environmental conditions,
including high pressures and temperatures.
3. Simplicity in Construction: The mechanical design is straightforward, which simplifies
maintenance and repairs.
4. Wide Pressure Range: They can measure a broad range of pressures, from low to very
high (up to 7000 bar).
5. Cost-Effective: Compared to electronic gauges, Bourdon tubes are generally less
expensive and do not require external power sources.

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Disadvantages
1. Slow Response Time: Bourdon tube gauges may respond slowly to rapid changes in
pressure, which can be a limitation in dynamic applications.
2. Sensitivity to Vibrations: Mechanical components can be affected by vibrations, leading
to inaccurate readings over time.
3. Temperature Sensitivity: Extreme temperatures can affect the accuracy and lifespan of
the gauge; they may require temperature compensation in some applications.
4. Hysteresis Effects: There may be discrepancies in readings due to hysteresis (the lag
between input and output), especially when measuring fluctuating pressures.
5. Limited Precision for Low Pressures: While effective for high pressures, they are not
ideal for very low-pressure measurements due to their design limitations.

Applications:
Commonly used in hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems, and general industrial applications.

2.2 Bellows Pressure Gauge

In a bellows pressure gauge, the bellows consists of thin, flexible metal tubes arranged in an
accordion-like shape and sealed at one end. When pressure is applied, it acts on the bellows,
causing it to expand and create movement. These gauges are highly sensitive and are typically
used for measuring low-pressure applications.
Bellows gauges come in two main forms. In one type, pressure applied to the bellows causes
deformation, which is counterbalanced by a spring. In the other type, the gauge operates on the
differential pressure principle, with the bellows sealed between two chambers that have different
pressures.

Working Principles
The bellows pressure gauge consists of a flexible metallic bellows that expands or contracts when
subjected to pressure variations. The key steps in its operation are:
1. Pressure Application: The pressure to be measured is applied to the interior of the bellows
through a pressure port.

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 (iqsdirectory.com)
Figure 2-3 : Bellows Pressure Gauge

2. Bellows Deformation: As the internal pressure increases, the bellows expand, while a
decrease in pressure leads to contraction. This deformation is proportional to the applied
pressure.
3. Mechanical Linkage: The movement of the bellows is transmitted through a mechanical
linkage (often involving levers or gears) to a pointer or
dial.
4. Pressure Indication: The pointer moves across a
calibrated scale, providing a visual representation of the
measured pressure.
Bellows can be designed as single or double configurations:
• Single Bellows: Measures gauge or vacuum pressure.
• Double Bellows: Used for measuring absolute and
differential pressures by comparing two different
pressure sources.
(instrulearning.com)
Figure 2-4 : Differential pressure principle
Advantages
1. High Accuracy: Bellows pressure gauges provide accurate measurements, especially for
low to medium pressures.
2. Durability: They are robust and can withstand harsh environments, making them suitable
for industrial applications.
3. Versatility: Capable of measuring absolute, differential, and gauge pressures.

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 4. Simple Design: The mechanical design is straightforward, facilitating easy maintenance
and calibration.

Disadvantages
1. Limited Pressure Range: Bellows gauges are generally not suitable for high-pressure
applications; they are best for low to medium pressures (typically up to 25 bar).
2. Sensitivity to Overpressure: Excessive pressure can damage the bellows, leading to
inaccurate readings or failure of the gauge.
3. Temperature Sensitivity: Changes in temperature can affect the accuracy of
measurements if not properly compensated.
4. Hysteresis Effects: Mechanical deformation may lead to hysteresis, where the gauge
does not return to its original position after a pressure change.

Applications
Bellows pressure gauges find applications across various industries due to their reliability and
accuracy:
• Process Control: Used in monitoring and controlling pressures in piping systems,
reactors, and vessels in chemical processing.
• Oil and Gas Industry: Employed in drilling operations and refining processes to ensure
safe handling of fluids.
• Manufacturing: Utilized in machinery for monitoring fluid power systems and ensuring
optimal performance.
• HVAC Systems: Commonly used for measuring air and fluid pressures in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning systems.
• Laboratories: Ideal for precise measurements in experimental setups involving gases
and liquids.

2.3 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

The diaphragm pressure gauge is a widely used instrument for measuring pressure in various
industrial applications. It operates based on the deformation of a flexible diaphragm in response
to pressure changes. Below is a comprehensive overview of its working principles, advantages,
disadvantages, and applications.

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 ([email protected]) (instrumentationtools.com)
Figure 2-5 :Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

Working Principles
The diaphragm pressure gauge consists of a flexible membrane (diaphragm) that deforms when
pressure is applied. Here’s how it works:
1. Pressure Application: The fluid or gas whose pressure is being measured enters the
gauge through a pressure inlet.
2. Diaphragm Deformation: The pressure acts on one side of the diaphragm, causing it to
deflect. The amount of deflection is proportional to the applied pressure.
3. Mechanical Linkage: The movement of the diaphragm is transmitted through a
mechanical linkage (often involving a connecting rod and gears) to a pointer or display
mechanism.
4. Pressure Indication: The pointer moves across a calibrated scale or digital display,
indicating the measured pressure.

Advantages
1. Corrosion Resistance: Diaphragm gauges can be constructed from materials that resist
corrosion, making them suitable for measuring aggressive fluids.

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 2. Sensitivity to Low Pressures: They can accurately measure low pressures (as low as 10
mbar), which is beneficial in applications requiring precise measurements.
3. Isolation from Process Media: The diaphragm isolates the internal components from the
process media, preventing contamination and ensuring accurate readings without
interference from solid particles or viscous fluids.
4. Compact Design: Diaphragm gauges are generally smaller than other types of pressure
gauges, making them easier to integrate into tight spaces.

Disadvantages
1. Limited Pressure Range: Diaphragm gauges are generally best suited for lower pressure
ranges (up to about 40 bar), which may not be suitable for high-pressure applications.
2. Temperature Sensitivity: Changes in temperature can affect the accuracy of
measurements; therefore, temperature compensation mechanisms may be necessary.
3. Potential for Damage: If subjected to pressures exceeding their specified limits,
diaphragm gauges can become damaged or fail.
4. Maintenance Requirements: Regular inspection and maintenance are necessary to
ensure accuracy over time since the diaphragm can wear out or degrade due to
environmental conditions.
5. Sensitivity to Vibrations: Mechanical components may be affected by vibrations,
leading to inaccurate readings over time if not properly protected.

Applications
Diaphragm pressure gauges are utilized in a wide range of industries due to their reliability and
versatility:
• Chemical Industry: Measuring pressures in processes involving corrosive substances
such as acids and bases.
• Food and Beverage Industry: Monitoring pressures in food processing systems where
hygiene and contamination prevention are critical.
• Pharmaceuticals: Used in processes requiring sterile conditions and accurate pressure
monitoring.
• Oil and Gas Industry: Employed in drilling operations and refining processes where
accurate pressure measurements are essential.
• Water Treatment Plants: Measuring pressures in systems handling viscous or
contaminated liquids.

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3 TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES

3.1 Optical Pyro meter

An optical pyrometer is a device that measures the temperature of an object by detecting the
amount of infrared radiation it emits. It works by comparing the brightness of the object to that of
a calibrated internal filament, allowing for non-contact temperature measurement, often used for
high-temperature applications.

(Shubhamkola) (advancedenergy.com, n.d.)

Figure 3-1 : Optical Pyro meter

Working Principles
1. Brightness Comparison: The optical pyrometer uses a filament lamp as its reference
light source. The operator adjusts the current flowing through the filament to change its
brightness.
2. Radiation Detection: The device captures the thermal radiation emitted by the hot object
through an optical lens. This radiation is focused onto the filament.
3. Adjustment for Match: The operator adjusts the current until the brightness of the
filament matches that of the heated object. When both brightness levels are equal, the
filament becomes indistinguishable against the background of the object.
4. Temperature Measurement: The current flowing through the filament at this point is
directly related to the temperature of the object being measured. The pyrometer can be
calibrated to provide an accurate temperature reading based on this current value.

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Optical pyrometers are typically effective for measuring temperatures above approximately
700°C (1292°F), making them suitable for high-temperature applications in industries such as
metallurgy and ceramics.

Advantages
1. Non-Contact Measurement: Optical pyrometers measure temperature without coming
into contact with the object, which is essential for very hot or hazardous materials.
2. High Accuracy: They provide accurate temperature readings, often within ±1% of full
scale, depending on calibration and environmental conditions.
3. Wide Temperature Range: Optical pyrometers can measure a broad range of
temperatures, typically from 700°C up to 3000°C or more.
4. Fast Response Time: Since they do not require physical contact, optical pyrometers can
provide quick measurements, which is crucial in dynamic processes.
5. Versatility: They can be used for various applications, including monitoring moving
objects and measuring temperatures in hard-to-reach places.

Disadvantages
1. Ambient Light Sensitivity: The accuracy of optical pyrometers can be affected by
ambient light conditions, which may interfere with brightness comparisons.
2. Limited to High Temperatures: They are generally ineffective for measuring
temperatures below 700°C, making them unsuitable for low-temperature applications.
3. Manual Calibration Required: The operator must manually adjust settings to match
brightness, which can introduce human error and slow down measurements.
4. Requires Line of Sight: The device must have a clear line of sight to the object being
measured; obstructions can lead to inaccurate readings.
5. Subjective Measurements: Measurements can be subjective since they rely on human
perception of brightness unless automated systems are used.
6. The accuracy may be affected by dust, smoke and thermal background radiation.

Applications
Optical pyrometers are widely used across various industries due to their effectiveness in high-
temperature environments:

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 • Metallurgy: Used for measuring temperatures in furnaces and during metal processing
operations.
• Glass Manufacturing: Essential for monitoring the temperature of molten glass during
production processes to ensure quality control.
• Ceramics Production: Employed in kilns to monitor firing temperatures and optimize
production cycles.
• Power Generation: Used to monitor boiler and turbine temperatures in power plants to
ensure safe operation.
• Chemical Processing: Useful for controlling reaction temperatures in processes
involving high heat or hazardous materials.
• Aerospace and Automotive Industries: Applied in testing and monitoring components
subjected to extreme temperatures during manufacturing or operation.

3.2 Thermocouples

A thermocouple is a widely used temperature measurement device that operates based on the
thermoelectric effect. It consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end, forming a junction
that generates a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the junction and a
reference point.

(electricaltechnology.org, n.d.)
Figure 3-2 : Thermocouple

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 Working Principles
The working principle of a thermocouple is based on the Seebeck effect, which states that when
two different metals are joined together and subjected to a temperature difference, an
electromotive force (EMF) is generated. The key steps in its operation are as follows:
1. Junction Formation: Two dissimilar metals (e.g., copper and constantan) are joined at
one end to create a measuring junction.
2. Temperature Gradient: When the measuring junction is exposed to a temperature
different from the other ends of the wires (reference junction), a voltage is produced.
3. Voltage Generation: This voltage, known as thermoelectric voltage, is proportional to
the temperature difference between the measuring junction and the reference junction.
4. Temperature Measurement: By measuring this voltage with a calibrated instrument, the
temperature at the measuring junction can be accurately determined.
Thermocouples can be classified into various types (e.g., Type K, J, T, E) based on the materials
used, each suited for specific temperature ranges and environments.

Advantages
1. Wide Temperature Range: Thermocouples can measure temperatures from -200°C to
over 2000°C, depending on the type used.
2. Fast Response Time: They provide quick temperature readings due to their small size
and low thermal mass.
3. Robustness: Thermocouples are durable and can withstand harsh conditions, making
them suitable for industrial applications.
4. Simplicity and Cost-Effectiveness: They are relatively simple in design and inexpensive
compared to other temperature sensors like RTDs or thermistors.
5. Versatile Applications: Thermocouples can be used in various applications, including
gas turbines, furnaces, and cryogenic systems.

Disadvantages
1. Accuracy Limitations: While thermocouples are generally accurate, they may require
calibration to ensure precision, especially in critical applications.
2. Non-linearity: The relationship between voltage output and temperature is not perfectly
linear across all types of thermocouples, which can complicate readings.

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 3. Cold Junction Compensation Required: To obtain accurate readings, the reference
junction's temperature must be known and compensated for, often requiring additional
circuitry.
4. Susceptibility to Noise: Thermocouple signals can be affected by electromagnetic
interference (EMI), which may lead to inaccurate readings if not properly shielded.

Applications
Thermocouples are widely used across various industries due to their versatility and reliability:
• Manufacturing Processes: Used in ovens, kilns, and furnaces for monitoring and
controlling temperatures during production.
• Aerospace Industry: Employed in jet engines for measuring exhaust gas temperatures.
• Automotive Testing: Utilized for engine temperature monitoring during performance
testing.
• Food Processing: Used in cooking equipment and pasteurization processes to ensure
food safety.
• HVAC Systems: Applied in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems for
temperature regulation.

3.3 TiS75+ Thermal Camera

A TiS75+ Thermal Camera is a type of infrared imaging device that can detect and measure the
temperature of objects by sensing their heat signatures. These cameras are used to identify heat
patterns and anomalies, making them useful for applications like building inspections, electrical
system monitoring, and predictive maintenance.

Working Principle
1. Infrared Radiation Detection: The camera detects infrared radiation emitted by objects
based on their temperature. All objects above absolute zero emit infrared radiation, and the
amount of radiation increases with temperature.
2. Image Formation: The camera's sensor converts this infrared radiation into a thermal
image (thermogram). The thermal resolution of the TiS75+ is 384 x 288 pixels, allowing
for detailed imaging.

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 (datatec.eu/de/en, n.d.)
Figure 3-3 : TiS75+ Thermal Camera

3. Temperature Measurement: The camera can measure temperatures ranging from -20°C
to 550°C (-4°F to 1022°F). It uses built-in algorithms to calculate the temperature of the
objects in view based on the detected infrared radiation.

4. Data Analysis and Reporting: The TiS75+ supports video recording (IS3 and AVI
formats), data streaming, and includes features like dew-point calculation to assist in
moisture detection and analysis.

Advantages
• -20 °C to 550 °C temperature range
• 3.5" VGA Touchscreen LCD display
• Water and dust resistant (IP54)
• Engineered to withstand a 2-meter drop
• Record up to 60 seconds per thermal image
• Identify exactly what you see in real time

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Disadvantages
1. Cost: High-quality thermal cameras like the TiS75+ can be expensive compared to simpler
temperature measurement tools, which may not be feasible for all users or applications.
2. Calibration Needs: For accurate measurements, regular calibration is necessary,
especially if used in varying environmental conditions or for critical applications.
3. Limited Low-Temperature Measurement: The camera is not calibrated for temperatures
below -20°C, which may restrict its use in extremely cold environments.
4. User Training Required: To maximize its potential and interpret thermal images correctly,
users may require training or experience in thermography.
5. Battery Life: While it has a decent battery life (≥3.5 hours), extended use may require
additional battery management or replacements during long inspection sessions.

Applications
1. Building Inspections: Ideal for identifying moisture intrusion, insulation deficiencies, and
HVAC issues within buildings by detecting temperature differences.
2. Preventive Maintenance: Used in industrial settings to monitor electrical systems,
mechanical equipment, and process systems to detect overheating components before
failures occur.
3. Electrical Inspections: Helps identify hot spots in electrical panels, connections, and
circuit breakers that could indicate potential failures or fire hazards.
4. Manufacturing Processes: Employed to monitor temperatures during manufacturing
processes to ensure quality control and operational efficiency.
5. Automotive Diagnostics: Useful for diagnosing issues related to engine overheating or
exhaust systems by visualizing heat patterns.
6. Research and Development: Applied in experimental setups where temperature
monitoring is critical for material testing and product development.

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4 TRANSDUCERS

A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ONE FORM OF ENERGY INTO ANOTHER ,

TYPICALLY converting a physical or chemical input into an electrical signal. Transducers are
essential components in many electronic and measurement systems, enabling the conversion
between different energy domains like sound, light, heat, or motion into electrical signals that can
be processed and analyzed.

4.1 Variable Resistance Transducers

A variable resistance transducer is a type of sensor that converts a physical quantity (such as
displacement, force, or temperature) into a change in electrical resistance. These transducers are
commonly used in various applications due to their simplicity and effectiveness. The variable-
resistance transducer fundamentally is a device for converting either linear or angular
displacement into an electric signal.

(instrumentationtoday.com, n.d.)
Figure 4-1 : Linear Potentiometer

Working Principles
1. Length Change: In many variable resistance transducers, such as potentiometers or strain
gauges, the effective length of the conductor changes when it is subjected to an external
force or displacement. This change in length alters the resistance.
2. Displacement Measurement: For example, in a sliding contact type transducer (like a
potentiometer), a slider moves along a resistive element. As the slider moves, it changes
the length of the conductive path, thereby changing the resistance.

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 3. Output Signal: The change in resistance can be measured using voltage or current
measurements, allowing for accurate determination of the input physical quantity.
4. Temperature Sensitivity: Some variable resistance transducers, like thermistors, exploit
materials whose resistance changes significantly with temperature. This property allows
them to measure temperature variations effectively.

Advantages
• Cost-effective
• Simple design and simple working
• Can be used for measuring even large displacements.
• The device produces a large output and hence can be used for control purposes without
further amplification steps. Thus, the whole operation is bounded to a single device.
• Can produce a high electrical efficiency.
• All devices other than wire-wound potentiometer can be used for a large frequency range.
• Except wire wound, all other potentiometers can provide excellent resolutions.

Disadvantages
1. Power Loss: The sliding contacts in devices such as potentiometers can lead to power loss
due to friction and heat generation.
2. Mechanical Wear: Moving parts can wear out over time, leading to decreased accuracy
and reliability.
3. Noise Generation: The movement of sliding contacts can produce electrical noise, which
may interfere with signal integrity.
4. Calibration Needs: These transducers often require calibration to ensure accurate
readings, especially if used in varying environmental conditions.
5. Limited Range: Some types may have limited measurement ranges or may not be suitable
for high-precision applications compared to other sensor types.

Applications
1. Displacement Measurement: Potentiometers are used for measuring linear and angular
displacements in robotics and automation systems.

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 2. Pressure Measurement: Strain gauges can be applied to measure pressure by detecting
changes in resistance due to deformation under load.
3. Force Measurement: Variable resistance transducers are used in load cells to measure
weight and force by detecting changes in strain.

4.2 Linear Variable Differential Transducer

LVDT stands for Linear Variable Differential Transformer, which is a type of electromechanical
transducer used to measure linear displacement. It consists of a primary winding and two
secondary windings wrapped around a movable core. As the core moves, it induces different
voltages in the secondary windings, allowing the displacement to be measured precisely.

(Subhamkola, n.d.)
Figure 4-2 : Linear Variable Differential Transducer

Working Principles
The working principle of an LVDT is based on the mutual induction effect. Here’s how it operates:
1. Construction: An LVDT consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings
wrapped around a cylindrical core. The primary winding is connected to an AC power
supply, which energizes the system.
2. Induction Process: When AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it creates an
alternating magnetic field. This magnetic field induces voltages in the two secondary
windings (S1 and S2) based on the position of a movable ferromagnetic core placed inside
the transformer.

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 3. Core Movement:
• When the core is at the null position (center), the induced voltages in both
secondary windings are equal, resulting in zero output voltage.
• If the core moves to the left, more magnetic flux links with S1 than S2, leading to
a positive output voltage.
• Conversely, if the core moves to the right, more flux links with S2 than S1, resulting
in a negative output voltage.
4. Output Signal: The output voltage E is given by, (E = E1- E2). where E1 and E2 are
the induced voltages in the secondary windings. The magnitude of this output voltage is
proportional to the displacement of the core from its null position.

Advantages
1. High Accuracy: LVDTs provide high precision measurements with excellent linearity,
making them suitable for critical applications.
2. No Physical Contact: The core does not make contact with any electrical components,
leading to reduced wear and tear and a longer operational life.
3. Infinite Resolution: Theoretically, LVDTs can achieve infinite resolution due to their
inductive nature, limited only by the electronics used for signal processing.
4. Low Power Consumption: They typically consume low power (around 1W), making
them energy-efficient.
5. Fast Response Time: LVDTs have a quick response to changes in displacement, which is
beneficial in dynamic applications.
6. Robustness: They can operate in harsh environments with high levels of vibration and
shock without compromising performance.

Disadvantages
1. Cost: LVDTs can be more expensive than other types of displacement sensors due to their
complex construction and high precision capabilities.
2. Calibration Needs: Regular calibration may be required to maintain accuracy over time,
especially in varying environmental conditions.
3. Temperature Sensitivity: Performance can be affected by temperature variations unless
compensated for properly.

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 4. Limited Range: While they can measure significant displacements, they may not be
suitable for very large ranges without modifications.
5. Complex Signal Processing: The output signal often requires additional processing
(demodulation and filtering) to convert it into a usable format (e.g., DC voltage or current).

Applications
LVDTs are employed across various industries due to their versatility and reliability:
1. Industrial Automation: Used for precise position control in manufacturing processes and
robotics.
2. Aerospace Testing: Employed in testing applications for measuring deflections and
displacements of aircraft components under load.
3. Civil Engineering: Utilized for monitoring structural movements in bridges and buildings
during stress tests or seismic activity assessments.
4. Medical Devices: Applied in medical instrumentation for precise measurements in devices
like surgical robots or diagnostic equipment.
5. Automotive Testing: Used for measuring suspension travel and other critical parameters
during vehicle testing.
6. Research Laboratories: Commonly used in experimental setups where accurate
displacement measurements are essential.

DISCUSSION
The integration of various sensors and measuring devices is crucial in modern engineering
practices. Understanding their specifications helps engineers select appropriate instruments for
specific applications, ensuring accurate data collection and optimal system performance.

CONCLUSION
This lab manual provides an overview of essential instruments used in instrumentation and
measurement sessions within mechanical engineering. Mastery of these tools is vital for successful
engineering practice.

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