Development of Calculus in India
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Development of Calculus in India
Chapter · January 2010
DOI: 10.1007/978-93-86279-49-1_8
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D EVELOPMENT OF C ALCULUS IN I NDIA
K. Ramasubramanian∗ and M. D. Srinivas†
Abstract
In this article we shall present an overview of the development of calculus in
Indian mathematical tradition. The article is divided naturally into two parts. In
the first part we shall discuss the developments during what may be called the
classical period, starting with the work of Āryabhat.a (c. 499 CE ) and extending
up to the work Nārāyan.a Pan.d.ita (c. 1350). The work of the Kerala School
starting with Mādhava of Saṅgamagrāma (c. 1350), which has a more direct
bearing on calculus, will be dealt with in the second part. Here we shall discuss
some of the contributions of the Kerala School during the period 1350–1500 as
outlined in the seminal Malayalam work Yuktibhās.ā of Jyes.t.hadeva (c. 1530).
PART I : T HE C LASSICAL P ERIOD
Āryabhat.a to Nārāyan.a Pan.d.ita (c. 500–1350 CE)
1 Introduction
In his pioneering history of calculus written sixty years ago, Carl Boyer was totally
dismissive of the Indian contributions to the conceptual development of the subject.1
Boyer’s historical overview was written around the same time when (i) Ramavarma
Maru Thampuran and Akhileswarayyar brought out the first edition of the Mathe-
matics part of the seminal text Gan.ita-yukti-bhās.ā, and (ii) C.T. Rajagopal and his
collaborators, in a series of pioneering studies, drew attention to the significance of
the results and techniques outlined in Yuktibhās.ā (and the work of the Kerala School
of Mathematics in general), which seem to have been forgotten after the initial notice
by Charles Whish in early nineteenth century. These and the subsequent studies have
led to a somewhat different perception of the Indian contribution to the development
of calculus as may be gleaned from the following quotation from a recent work on the
history of mathematics:2
We have here a prime example of two traditions whose aims were com-
pletely different. The Euclidean ideology of proof which was so influen-
tial in the Islamic world had no apparent influence in India (as al-Biruni
∗ Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit, IIT Bombay ([email protected]).
† Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai ([email protected]).
1 C.B.Boyer, The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, Dover, New York 1949,
pp. 61–62.
2 L. H. Hodgekin, A Histoty of Mathematics: From Mesopotamia to Modernity, Oxford 2005, p. 168.
1
had complained long before), even if there is a possibility that the Greek
tables of ‘trigonometric functions’ had been transmitted and refined. To
suppose that some version of ‘calculus’ underlay the derivation of the
series must be a matter of conjecture.
The single exception to this generalization is a long work, much admired
in Kerala, which was known as Yuktibhās.ā, by Jyes.t.hadeva; this con-
tains something more like proofs—but again, given the different paradigm,
we should be cautious about assuming that they are meant to serve the
same functions. Both the authorship and date of this work are hard to
establish exactly (the date usually claimed is the sixteenth century), but it
does give explanations of how the formulae are arrived at which could be
taken as a version of the calculus.
The Malayalam work Gan.ita-yukti-bhās.ā (c. 1530) of Jyes.t.hadeva indeed presents
an overview of the work of Kerala School of mathematicians during the period 1350–
1500 CE. The Kerala School was founded by Mādhava (c. 1340–1420), who was
followed by the illustrious mathematician-astronomers Parameśvara (c. 1380–1460),
his son Dāmodara and the latter’s student Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ (c. 1444–1550).
While the achievements of the Kerala School are indeed spectacular, it has now been
generally recognised that these are in fact very much in continuation with the ear-
lier work of Indian mathematicians, especially of the Āryabhat.an school, during the
period 500–1350 CE.
In the first part of this article, we shall consider some of the ideas and methods de-
veloped in Indian mathematics, during the period 500–1350, which have a bearing on
the later work of the Kerala School. In particular, we shall focus on the following top-
ics: Mathematics of zero and infinity; iterative approximations for irrational numbers;
summation (and repeated summations) of powers of natural numbers; use of second-
order differences and interpolation in the calculation of jyā or Rsines; the emergence
of the notion of instantaneous velocity of a planet in astronomy; and the calculation
of the surface area and volume of a sphere.
2 Zero and Infinity
2.1 Background
The śānti-mantra of Īśāvāsyopanis.ad (of Śukla-yajurveda), a text of Brahmavidyā,
refers to the ultimate absolute reality, the Brahman, as pūrn.a, the perfect, complete
or full. Talking of how the universe emanates from the Brahman, it states:
:pUa:NRa:ma:dH :pUa:NRa:a.ma:dM :pUa:Na.Ra:tpUa:NRa:mua:d:. ya:tea Á
:pUa:NRa:~ya :pUa:NRa:ma.a:d.a:ya :pUa:NRa:mea:va.a:va:a.Za:Sya:tea Á Á
That (Brahman) is pūrn.a; this (the universe) is pūrn.a; [this] pūrn.a em-
anates from [that] pūrn.a; even when pūrn.a is drawn out of pūrn.a, what
remains is also pūrn.a.
2
Pān.ini’s As..tādhyāyı̄ (c. 500 BCE) has the notion of lopa which functions as a null-
morpheme. Lopa appears in seven sūtras of Chapters 1, 3, 7, starting with
A:d:ZRa:nMa l;ea:paH Á (1.1.60).
Śūnya appears as a symbol in Piṅgala’s Chandah.-sūtra (c. 300 BCE). In Chapter
VIII, while enunciating an algorithm for evaluating any positive integral power of 2 in
terms of an optional number of squaring and multiplication (duplication) operations,
śūnya is used as a marker:
. +pea ZUa:nya:m,a Á ;a.d
õ H ZUa:nyea Á (8.29-30).
Different schools of Indian philosophy have related notions such as the notion of
abhāva in Nyāya School, and the śūnyavāda of the Bauddhas.
2.2 Mathematics of zero in Brāhmasphut.a-siddhānta (c. 628 CE) of
Brahmagupta
The Brāhmasphut.a-siddhānta (c. 628 CE) of Brahmagupta seems to be the first avail-
able text that discusses the mathematics of zero. Śūnya-parikarma or the six opera-
tions with zero are discussed in the chapter XVIII on algebra (kut..takādhyāya), in the
same six verses in which the six operations with positives and negatives (dhanarn.a-
.sad.vidha) are also discussed. Zero divided by zero is stated to be zero. Any other
quantity divided by zero is said to be taccheda (that with zero-denominator):3
;Da:na:ya.ea:DRa:na:mxa:Na:mxa:Na:ya.ea:DRa:na:NRa:ya.ea.=;nta.=M .sa:mEa:k+.aM Ka:m,a Á
+Na:mEa:k+.aM .. a ;Da:na:mxa:Na:Da:na:ZUa:nya:ya.eaH ZUa:nya:m,a Á Á
õ :Za.ea:DyMa ;Da:nMa ;Da:na.a:dx:Na:mxa:Na.a:d:a.Da:k+.mUa:na.a:t,a Á
+.na:ma:a.Da:k+a:a.d
v.ya:~tMa ta:d:nta.=M .~ya.a:dx:NMa ;Da:nMa ;Da:na:mxa:NMa Ba:va:a.ta Á Á
ZUa:nya:a.va:h.a:na:mxa:Na:mxa:NMa ;Da:nMa ;Da:nMa Ba:va:a.ta ZUa:nya:ma.a:k+a:Za:m,a Á
Za.ea:DyMa ya:d.a ;Da:na:mxa:Na.a:dx:NMa ;Da:na.a:d
õ .a ta:d.a [ea:pya:m,a Á Á
+Na:mxa:Na:Da:na:ya.ea:Ga.Ra:ta.ea ;Da:na:mxa:Na:ya.ea:DRa:na:va:Da.ea ;Da:nMa Ba:va:a.ta Á
ZUa:nya:NRa:ya.eaH Ka:Da:na:ya.eaH Ka:ZUa:nya:ya.ea:va.Ra va:DaH ZUa:nya:m,a Á Á
;Da:na:Ba:M ;Da:na:mxa:Na:&+ta:mxa:NMa ;Da:nMa Ba:va:a.ta KMa Ka:Ba:M Ka:m,a Á
Ba:+.mxa:Nea:na ;Da:na:mxa:NMa ;Da:nea:na &+ta:mxa:Na:mxa:NMa Ba:va:a.ta Á Á
Äâx :ta:mxa:NMa ;Da:nMa va.a ta:. Ce+dM Ka:mxa:Na:Da:na:a.va:Ba:M va.a Á
Ka.ea.;d
+Na:Da:na:ya.ea:vRa:gRaH .~vMa KMa Ka:~ya :pa:dM kx +.a.ta:yRa:t,a ta:t,a Á Á
. . . [The sum of] positive (dhana) and negative (r.n.a), if they are equal, is
zero (kham). The sum of a negative and zero is negative, of a positive and
zero is positive and of two zeros, zero (śūnya).
3 Brāhmasphut asiddhānta of Brahmagupta, Ed. with his own commentary by Sudhakara Dvivedi,
.
Benaras 1902, verses 18.30–35, pp. 309–310.
3
. . . Negative subracted from zero is positive, and positive from zero is neg-
ative. Zero subtracted from negative is negative, from positive is positive,
and from zero is zero (ākāśa).
. . . The product of zero and a negative, of zero and a positive, or of two
zeroes is zero.
. . . A zero divided by zero is zero.
. . . A positive or a negative divided by zero is that with zero-denominator.
2.3 Bhāskarācārya on Khahara
Bhāskarācārya II (c. 1150), while discussing the mathematics of zero in Bı̄jagan.ita,
explains that infinity (ananta-rāśi) which results when some number is divided by
zero is called khahara. He also mentions the characteristic property of infinity that it
is unaltered even if ‘many’ are added to or taken away from it, in terms similar to the
invocatory verse of Īśāvāsyopanis. ad mentioned above:4
ãÉa .=:a:a.ZaH Á Á
Ka:h.=:ea Ba:vea:t,a Kea:na Ba:+.(
È
îåMÁ ;aa:&+t,a KMa Ka:&+tMa a:yMa .. a ZUa:nya:~ya va:ga va:d mea :pa:dM .. a Á Á
;a.d
õ *+
. . . A:ya:ma:na:nta.ea /
3 0 .=:a:a.ZaH Ka:h.=H I+tyua:. ya:tea Á
A:a.sma:
/////// a.nva:k+a.=H
/ Ka:h:=e na .=:a:Za.a:va:a.pa :pra:a.va:e:Sva:a.pa ;a.naH sxa:tea:Sua Á
ba:hu:Sva:a.pa .~ya.a:+.ya:sxa:a.:k+a:le Y:na:nteaY:. yua:tea BUa:ta:ga:Nea:Sua ya:d
õ :t,a Á Á
A quantity divided by zero will be (called) khahara (an entity with zero
as divisor).
Tell me . . . three divided by zero . . . This infinite (ananta or that without
end) quantity 03 is called khahara.
In this quantity, khahara, there is no alteration even if many are added
or taken out, just as there is no alteration in the Infinite (ananta), Infal-
lible (acyuta) [Brahman] even though many groups of beings enter in or
emanate from [It] at times of dissolution and creation.
2.4 Bhāskarācārya on multiplication and division by zero
Bhāskarācārya while discussing the mathematics of zero in Lı̄lāvatı̄, notes that when
further operations are contemplated, the quantity being multiplied by zero should not
be changed to zero, but kept as is. Further he states that when the quantity which is
multiplied by zero is also divided by zero, then it remains unchanged. He follows this
up with an example and declares that this kind of calculation has great relevance in
astronomy:5
4 Bı̄jaganita of Bhāskarācārya, Ed. by Muralidhara Jha, Benaras 1927, Vāsanā on Khasadvidham
. . .
3, p. 6.
5 Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskarācārya, Ed. by H. C. Bannerjee, Calcutta 1927, Vāsanā on verses 45–46,
pp. 14–15.
4
ya.ea:gea KMa [ea:pa:sa:mMa va:ga.Ra:d.Ea KMa Ka:Ba.a:aja:ta.ea .=:a:a.ZaH Á
ãÉa:ntya:(
Ka:h.=H .~ya.a:t,a Ka:gua:NaH KMa Ka:gua:Na:a.( ãÉa Zea:Sa:a.va:Da.Ea Á Á
ZUa:nyea gua:Na:k ãÉea:tpua:na:~ta:d.a .=:a:a.ZaH Á
e .ja.a:tea KMa h.a.=;(
ú
A:a.va:kx +.ta O;:va ¼ea:ya:~ta:TEa:va Kea:na.ea:a.na:ta.*.a
ãÁ yua:taH Á Á
ú ú
KMa :pa.*.a:yu
ãÁ a:gBa:va:a.ta ;a.k ãÉa :pa.*.a
M va:d Ka:~ya va:ga mUa:lM ;Ga:nMa ;Ga:na:pa:dM Ka:gua:Na.a:( ãÁ Á
Kea:na.ea.;d
Äâx :ta.a d:Za .. a k H Ka:gua:Na.ea ;a.na.ja.a:DRa:yua:+.a.~:a: ãÉa:gua:a.Na:taH
/ a.Ba:( Ka:&+ta:a.~:a:Sa:
/ a.H Á Á
. . . A:¼a.a:ta.ea .=:a:a.ZaH ta:~ya gua:NaH 0 Á .sa.a:Da [ea:paH /
1 2 Á gua:NaH 3 Á h.=H 0 Á
dx:ZyMa 63 Á
ta:ta.ea va:[ya:ma.a:Nea:na ;a.va:l;ea:ma:a.va:a.Da:na.a I+:k+.mRa:Na.a va.a l+b.Da.ea .=:a:a.ZaH 14 Á
A:~ya ga:a.Na:ta:~ya g{a:h:ga:a.Na:tea ma:h.a:nua:pa:ya.ea:gaH Á
. . . A quantity multiplied by zero is zero. But it must be retained as such
when further operations [involving zero] are contemplated. When zero is
the multiplier of a quantity, if zero also happens to be a divisor, then that
quantity remains unaltered . . .
. . . What is the number which when multiplied by zero, being added to
half of itself multiplied by 3 and divided by zero, amounts to sixty-three?
. . . Either following the inverse process or by choosing a desired number
for the unknown (‘rule of false position’), the quantity is obtained to be
14. This kind of calculation is of great use in mathematical astronomy.
Bhāskara works out his example as follows:
x 3
0 x+ × = 63
2 0
3x
×3 = 63.
2
Therefore, x = 14. (1)
Bhāskara, it seems, had not fully mastered this kind of “calculation with infinitesi-
mals” as is clear from the following example that he presents in Bı̄jagan.ita while
solving quadratic equations by eliminating the middle term:6
k H .~va.a:DRa:sa:a.h:ta.ea .=:a:a.ZaH Ka:gua:Na.ea va:a.gRa:ta.ea yua:taH Á
ú
ãÉa .ja.a:ta.aH :pa.ãÁ
.~va:pa:d.a:Bya.Ma Ka:Ba:+.( *.a:d:Za.ea:. ya:ta.a:m,a Á Á
Say what is the number which when added to half of itself, multiplied
by zero, squared and the square being augmented by twice its root and
divided by zero, becomes fifteen?
Clearly the problem as stated is
2
0(x + x2 ) + 2 × 0(x + x2 )
= 15. (2)
0
6 Bı̄jaganita, cited above, Vāsanā on avyaktavargādi-samı̄karan
. . am 5, pp. 63–64.
5
Bhāskara in his Vāsanā seems to just cancel out the zeros without paying any heed to
the different powers of zero involved. He converts the problem into the equation
h x i2 h xi
x+ +2× x+ = 15. (3)
2 2
Solving this, by the method of elimination of the middle term, Bhāskara obtains the
solution x = 2. The other solution (− 10
3 ) is not noted.
3 Irrationals and iterative approximations
3.1 Background
√ 7
Baudhāyana-śulva-sūtra gives the following approximation for 2:
:pra:ma.a:NMa txa:ta.a:yea:na va:DRa:yea.a:a .. a:tua:TeRa:na.a:tma:. a:tua:a.~:M
/a:Za.ea:nea:na Á .sa:a.va:Zea:SaH Á
The measure [of the side] is to be increased by its third and this [third]
again by its own fourth less the thirty-fourth part [of the fourth]. That is
the approximate diagonal (saviśes.a).
√ 1 1 1
2 ≈ 1+ + −
3 3.4 3.4.34
577
=
408
= 1.4142156. (4)
The above approximation is accurate to 5 decimal places.
Baudhāyana-śulva-sūtra also gives an approximation for π: 8
.. a:tua.=;(rMa ma:Nq+lM ;a.. a:k +a:SRa:a:[Na:ya.a:Da ma:Dya.a:tpra.a:. a.a:ma:Bya.a:pa.a:ta:yea:t,a Á
ya:d:a.ta:a.Za:Sya:tea ta:~ya .sa:h:txa:ta.a:yea:na ma:Nq+lM :pa:a=;a.l+Kea:t,a Á
If it is desired to transform a square into a circle, [a cord of length] half
the diagonal of the square is stretched from the centre to the east; with
one-third [of the part lying outside] added to the remainder [of the half-
diagonal] the [required] circle is drawn.
If a is half-the side of the square, then the radius r of the circle is given by
a √
r≈ (2 + 2). (5)
3
This corresponds to π ≈ 3.0883.
7 Baudhāyanaśulvasūtram (1.61-2), in The Śulvasūtrās, Ed. by S. N. Sen and A. K. Bag, New Delhi
1983, p. 19.
8 Baudhāyanaśulvasūtram (1.58), ibid., p. 19.
6
3.2 Algorithm for square-roots in Āryabhat.ı̄ya
The Āryabhat.ı̄ya of Āryabhat.a (c. 499 CE) gives a general algorithm for comput-
ing the successive digits of the square root of a number. The procedure given in the
following verse is also elucidated by an example:9
7 5
Ba.a:gMa h:=e;d:va:ga.Ra:a.a:tyMa ;a.d
õ :gua:Nea:na va:gRa:mUa:le+na Á 5 6 2 5
va:ga.Ra:d
õ :geRa Zua.;d
Äâe l+b.DMa .~Ta.a:na.a:nta:=e mUa:l+m,a Á Á 4 9
Always divide the non-square (even) place by 14) 7 2 (5
twice the square-root [already found]. Having sub- 7 0
tracted the square [of the quotient] from the square
(odd) place, the quotient gives the [digit in the] 2 5
next place in the square-root. 2 5
0 0
3.3 Approximating the square-root of a non-square number
The method for obtaining approximate square-root (āsanna-mūla) of a non-square
number (amūlada-rāśi) is stated explicitly in Triśatikā of Śrı̄dhara (c. 750):10
å
.=:a:Zea.=;mUa:l+d:~ya.a:h:ta:~ya va:geRa:Na :ke +.na:a.. a:n}.a:h:ta.a Á
mUa:lM Zea:Sea:Na ;a.va:na.a ;a.va:Ba.jea:
ç Åu ;Na:va:gRa:mUa:le+na Á Á
Multiply the non-square number by some large square number, take the
square-root [of the product] neglecting the remainder, and divide by the
square-root of the multiplier.
Nārāyan.a Pan.d.ita (c. 1356) has noted that the solutions of varga-prakr.ti (the so
called Pell’s equation) can be used to compute successive approximations to the square-
root of a non-square number:11
mUa:lM g{a.a:hùÅ:aM ya:~ya .. a ta:dÒU;pa:[ea:pa.jea :pa:de ta.a Á
.$yea:M &+~va:pa:de:na .. a .sa:mua.;d
Äâ :=e;t,a mUa:l+ma.a:sa:a:m,a Á Á
[With the number] whose square-root is to be found as the prakr.ti and
unity as the ks.epa, [obtain the greater and smaller] roots. The greater root
divided by the lesser root is an approximate value of the square-root.
Nārāyan.a considers the example
10x2 + 1 = y 2 , (6)
9 Āryabhatı̄ya of Āryabhat a, Ed. by K. S. Shukla and K. V. Sarma, New Delhi 1976, Ganitapāda 4,
. . .
p. 36.
10 Triśatikā of Śrı̄dhara, Ed. by Sudhakara Dvivedi, Varanasi 1899, verse 46, p. 34.
11 Ganitakaumudı̄ of Nārāyana Pandita, Ed. by Padmakara Dvivedi, Part II, Benaras 1942, verse
. . ..
10.17, p. 244.
7
and gives the approximate values:
√ 19 721 27379
10 ≈ , , , (7)
6 228 8658
which are obtained by successive compositions (bhāvanā) of the basic solutions 6, 19:12
228 = (2)(6)(19), 721 = (10)(6)2 + (19)2 , and so on.
3.4 Approximate value of π in Āryabhat.ı̄ya
Āryabhat.a (c. 499) gives the following approximate value for π:13
åò
.. a:tua.=;a.Da:kM Za:ta:ma::gua:NMa d
õ .a:Sa:a.:~ta:Ta.a .sa:h:~:a.a:Na.a:m, a Á
õ :ya:a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya.a:sa:a.ea vxa.a:pa:a=;Na.a:hH Á Á
A:yua:ta:d
One hundred plus four multiplied by eight and added to sixty-two thou-
sand: This is the approximate measure of the circumference of a circle
whose diameter is twenty-thousand.
62832
Thus as per the above verse π ≈ 20000 = 3.1416.
3.5 Successive doubling of the sides of the circumscribing polygon
It appears that Indian mathematicians (at least in the Āryabhat.an tradition) employed
the method of successive doubling of the sides of a circumscribing polygon—starting
from the circumscribing square leading to an octagon, etc.—to find successive approx-
imations to the circumference of a circle. This method has been described in the later
Kerala texts Yuktibhās.ā (c. 1530) of Jyes..thadeva and Kriyākramakarı̄ commentary
(c. 1535) of Śaṅkara Vāriyar on Lı̄lāvatı̄, of Bhāskara II. The latter cites the verses
of Mādhava (c. 1340–1420) in this connection and notes at the end that:14
O;:vMa ya.a:va:d:Ba.a:M .sUa:[ma:ta.a:ma.a:pa.a:d:a.ya:tMua Za:k+.a:m,a Á
Thus, one can obtain [an approximation to the circumference of the circle]
to any desired level of accuracy.
We now outline this method as described in Yuktibhās.ā.15 In Figure 1, EOSA1 is the
first quadrant of the square circumscribing the given circle. EA1 is half the side of the
12 Bhāvanā or the rule of composition enunciated by Brahmagupta is the tranformation (X, Y )→(X 2 +
DY 2 , 2XY ) which tranforms a solution x = X, y = Y of the equation x2 − Dy 2 = 1, into an-
other solution√with larger values for x, y, which correspond to higher convergents in the continued fraction
expansion of D and thus give better approximations to it.
13 Āryabhatı̄ya, cited above, Ganitapāda 10, p. 45.
. .
14 Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskara II, Ed. with commentary Kriyākramakarı̄ of Śaṅkara Vāriyar by
K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1975, comm. on verse 199, p. 379.
15 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā of Jyesthadeva, Ed. and Tr. by K. V. Sarma, with Exp. Notes by K. Rama-
. . ..
subramanian, M. D. Srinivas and M. S. Sriram, 2 Vols, Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi 2008. Reprint
Springer 2009, Vol. I Section 6.2, pp. 46–49, 180–83, 366–69.
8
E A3 A2 A1
C2
B3
D2
C1
D1
B2
S
O
Figure 1: Finding the circumference of a square from cirumscribing polygons.
circumscribing square. Let OA1 meet the circle at C1 . Draw A2 C1 B2 parallel to ES.
EA2 is half the side of the circumscribing octagon.
Similarly, let OA2 meet the circle at C2 . Draw A3 C2 B3 parallel to EC1 . EA3 is now
half the side of a circumscribing regular polygon of 16 sides. And so on. Let half the
sides of the circumscribing square, octagon etc., be denoted
l1 = EA1 , l2 = EA2 , l3 = EA3 , . . . (8)
The corresponding karn.as (diagonals) are
k1 = OA1 , k2 = OA2 , k3 = OA3 , . . . (9)
And the ābhādhas (intercepts) are
a1 = D1 A1 , a2 = D2 A2 , a3 = D3 A3 , . . . (10)
Now √ r
l1 = r, k1 = 2r a1 = √ .
and (11)
2
Using the bhuja-kot.i-karn.a-nyāya (Pythagoras theorem) and trairāśika-nyāya (rule
of three for similar triangles), it can be shown that
l1
l2 = l1 − (k1 − r) (12)
a1
k22 = r2 + l22 (13)
[k22 − (r2 − l22 )]
and a2 = . (14)
2k2
In the same way ln+1 , kn+1 and an+1 are to be obtained in terms of ln , kn and an .
These can be shown equivalent to the recursion relation:16
16 θn
π
If we set r = 1 and ln = tan θn , then equation (15) gives ln+1 = tan 2 . Actually, θn = 2n+1
π π
and the above method is based on the fact that for large n, 2n tan 2n+2 ≈ 2n 2n+2 = π4 .
9
r p 2
ln+1 = [ (r + ln2 ) − r]. (15)
ln
4 Summation (and repeated summations) of powers of
natural numbers (saṅkalita)
4.1 Sum of squares and cubes of natural numbers in Āryabhat.ı̄ya
The ancient text Br.haddevatā (c. 5th century BCE) has the result
2 + 3 + . . . + 1000 = 500, 499. (16)
Āryabhat.a (c. 499 CE), in the Gan.itapāda of Āryabhat.ı̄ya, deals with a general
arithmetic progression in verses 19–20. He gives the sum of the squares and cubes of
natural numbers in verse 22:17
.sEa:k+.sa:ga:. C+pa:d.a:na.Ma kÒ +.ma.a:t,a ;aa:sMa:va:a.gRa:ta:~ya :Sa::eMaY:ZaH Á
ãÉa Á Á
va:gRa:a.. a:a.ta:Ga:naH .sa Ba:vea:t,a ;a.. a:a.ta:va:ga.eRa ;Ga:na:a.. a:a.ta:Ga:na:(
The product of the three quantities, the number of terms plus one, the
same increased by the number of terms, and the number of terms, when
divided by six, gives the sum of squares of natural numbers (varga-citi-
ghana). The square of the sum of natural numbers gives the sum of the
cubes of natural numbers (ghana-citi-ghana).
In other words,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + . . . + n2 = (17)
6
1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + . . . + n3 = [1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n]2
2
n(n + 1)
= . (18)
2
4.2 Repeated sum of natural numbers in Āryabhat.ı̄ya
Āryabhat.a also gives the repeated sum of the sum of the natural numbers (saṅkalita-
saṅkalita or vāra-saṅkalita):18
O;:k+ea.a.=:a:dù;aÅu :pa:a.. a:tea:gRa:. C;a:dù;aÅe :k+ea.a.=;aa:sMa:va:gRaH Á
ñ
:Sa.Âå ÅÅ
*.+. H .sa ;a.. a:a.ta:Ga:naH .sEa:k+.pa:d:Ga:na.ea ;a.va:mUa:l;ea va.a Á Á
Of the series (upaciti) 1, 2, . . . , n, take three terms in continuation of
which the first is the given number of terms (gaccha), and find their prod-
uct; that [product], or the number of terms plus one subtracted from its
own cube divided by six, gives the repeated sum (citi-ghana).
17 Āryabhatı̄ya, cited above, Gan
. . itapāda 22, p. 65.
18 Āryabhatı̄ya, cited above, Gan
. . itapāda 21, p. 64.
10
We have
n(n + 1)
.
1 + 2 + 3 + ...+ n = (19)
2
Āryabhat.a’s result expresses the sum of these triangular numbers in two forms:
(1 + 1) (2 + 1) (n + 1) [n(n + 1)(n + 2)]
1 +2 + ...+ n =
2 2 2 6
3
[(n + 1) − (n + 1)]
= . (20)
6
4.3 Nārāyan.a Pan.d.ita’s general formula for Vārasaṅkalita
In his Gan.ita-kaumudı̄, Nārāyan.a Pan.d.ita (c. 1356) gives the formula for the rth -order
repeated sum of the sequence of numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , n:19
O;:k+a:a.Da:k+.va.a.=;a.ma:ta.aH :pa:d.a:a.d. +pa.ea.a.=:a :pxa:Ta:k, .teMaY:Za.aH Á
ñÍ
O;:k+a:dù;aÅe :k+.. a:ya:h.=:a:~ta..
ÈÅ :a:ta.ea va.a.=;sa:*:+
ö Å a.l+ta:m,a Á Á
The pada (number of terms in the sequence) is the first term [of an arith-
metic progression] and 1 is the common difference. Take as numerators
[the terms in the AP] numbering one more than vāra (the number of times
the repeated summation is to be made). The denominators are [terms of
an AP of the same length] starting with one and with common difference
one. The resultant product is vāra-saṅkalita.
Let
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ...+ n = = Vn(1) . (21)
2
Then, Nārāyan.a’s result is
(r−1) (r−1)
Vn(r) = V1 + V2 + . . . + Vn(r−1) (22)
[n(n + 1) . . . (n + r)]
= . (23)
[1.2 . . . (r + 1)]
Nārāyan.a’s result can also be expressed in the form of a sum of polygonal numbers:
Xn
[m(m + 1) . . . (m + r − 1)] [n(n + 1) . . . (n + r)]
= . (24)
m=1
[1.2 . . . r] [1.2 . . . (r + 1)]
Pn Pn
This result can be used to evaluate the sums k=1 k 2 , k=1 k 3 , . . . by induction. It
can also be used to estimate the behaviour of these sums for large n.
4.4 Summation of geometric series
The geometric series 1 + 2 + 22 + . . . 2n is summed in Chapter VIII of Piṅgala’s
Chandah.-sūtra (c. 300 BCE). As we mentioned earlier, Piṅgala also gives an algo-
rithm for evaluating any positive integral power of a number (2 in this context) in
terms of an optimal number of squaring and multiplication operations.
19 Ganitakaumudı̄ of Nārāyan a Pandita, Ed. by Padmakara Dvivedi, Part I, Benaras 1936, verse
. . ..
3.19–20, p. 123.
11
Mahāvı̄rācārya (c. 850), in his Gan.ita-sāra-saṅgraha gives the sum of a geometric
series and also explains the Piṅgala algorithm for finding the required power of the
common ratio between the terms of the series:20
ç Åu ;Na:Da:nMa ta:d.a:dù;aUÅ :na:m,a Á
:pa:d:a.ma:ta:gua:Na:h:a.ta:gua:a.Na:ta:pra:Ba:vaH .~ya.a:
ñÍ
*:+
Å a.l+tMa ;a.va.ja.a:na.a:ya.a:t,a Á Á
O;:k+ea:na:gua:Na:a.va:Ba:M gua:Na:sa:ö
.sa:ma:d:l+a.va:Sa:ma:~va. +pa.ea gua:Na:gua:a.Na:ta.ea va:gRa:ta.a:a.q+ta.ea ga:. CH Á
È
îå Á a v.yea:k+ea.a.=;Ba.a:aja:taH
. +pa.ea:naH :pra:Ba:va*+.e .sa.a.=;m,a Á Á
The first term when multiplied by the product of the common ratio (gun.a)
taken as many times as the number of terms (pada), gives rise to the
gun.adhana. This gun.adhana, when diminished by the first term and
divided by the common ratio less one, is to be understood as the sum of
the geometrical series (gun.a-saṅkalita).
That is
a(rn − 1)
a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn−1 = . (25)
(r − 1)
Vı̄rasena (c. 816), in his commentary Dhavalā on the S.at.khan.d.āgama, has made use
of the sum of the following infinite geometric series in his evaluation of the volume of
the frustum of a right circular cone:21
2 n
1 1 1 4
1+ + + ... + + ... = . (26)
4 4 4 3
The proof of the above result is discussed in the Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya (c. 1502) of
Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄. As we shall see later (section 10.1), Nı̄lakan.t.ha makes use
of this series for deriving an approximate expression for a small arc in terms of the
corresponding chord in a circle.
5 Use of Second-order differences and interpolation in
computation of Rsines (Jyānayana)
Jyā, Kot.i and Śara
The jyā or bhujā-jyā of an arc of a circle is actually the half-chord (ardha-jyā or
jyārdha) of double the arc. In the Figure 2, if R is the radius of the circle, jyā (Rsine),
kot.i or kot.i-jyā (Rcosine) and śara (Rversine) of the cāpa (arc) EC are given by:
jyā (arc EC) = CD = R sin(6 COE) (27)
kot.i (arc EC) = OD = R cos(6 COE) (28)
śara (arc EC) = ED = Rvers(6 COE)
= R − R cos(6 COE). (29)
For computing standard Rsine-tables (pat.hita-jyā), the circumference of a circle is
20 Ganitasārasaṅgraha of Mahāvı̄rācārya, Ed. by Lakshmi Chanda Jain, Sholapur 1963, verses 2.93–
.
94, pp. 28–29.
21 See, for instance, T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarsidass,
Delhi 1979, Rep. 2007, pp. 203–05.
12
E
S
E
C D
Figure 2: Jyā, Kot.i and Śara.
divided into 21600′ and usually the Rsines are tabulated for every multiple of 225′ ,
62832
thus giving 24 tabulated Rsines in a quadrant. Using the value of π ≈ 20000 = 3.1416,
given by Āryabhat.a, the value of the radius then turns out to be 3437′ 44′′ 19′′′ . This
is accurate up to the seconds, but is usually approximated to 3438′. Using a more
accurate value of π, Mādhava (c. 1340–1420) gave the value of the radius correct to
the thirds as 3437′ 44′′ 48′′′ which is also known by the Kat.apayādi formula devo-
viśvasthalı̄-bhr.guh. .
5.1 Computation of Rsines
Once the value of the radius R is fixed (in units of minutes, seconds etc.) the 24 Rsines
can be computed (in the same units) using standard relations of jyotpatti (trigonome-
try). For instance, Varāhamihira has given the following Rsine values and relations
in his Pañcasiddhāntikā (c. 505):22
R
R sin(30◦ ) = (30a)
2
R
R sin(45◦ ) = √ (30b)
2
√
3
R sin(60◦ ) = R (30c)
2
◦
R sin(90 ) = R (30d)
R sin(A) = R cos(90 − A) (31)
R sin2 (A) + R cos2 (A) = R2 (32)
A 1 1
R sin = [R sin2 (A) + R vers2 (A)] 2
2 2
22 Pañcasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira, Ed. by T. S. Kuppanna Sastry and K. V. Sarma, Madras 1993,
verses 4.1–5, pp. 76–80.
13
12
R 1
= [R − R cos A] 2 . (33)
2
The above Rsine values (30) and relations (31)–(33) can be derived using the bhujā-
kot.i-karn.a-nyāya (Pythagoras theorem) and trairāśika (rule of three for similar tri-
angles), as is done for instance in the Vāsanā-bhās.ya of Pr.thūdakasvāmin (c. 860)
on Brāhmasphut.asiddhānta (c. 628) of Brahmagupta. Equations (30)–(33) can be
used to compute all 24 tabular Rsine values.
5.2 Āryabhat.a’s computation of Rsine-differences
The computation of tabular Rsine values was made much simpler by Āryabhat.a who
gave an ingenious method of computing the Rsine-differences, making use of the im-
portant property that the second-order differences of Rsines are proportional to the
Rsines themselves:23
:pra:Ta:ma.a:a.a:pa.$ya.a:Da.Ra:dù;aÅE . +nMa Ka:a.Nq+tM
// a ;a.d
õ :ta.a:ya.a:DRa:m,a Á
ta:tpra:Ta:ma.$ya.a:Da.a:ZEa:~tEa:~tEa. +na.a:a.na Zea:Sa.a:a.Na Á Á
The first Rsine divided by itself and then diminished by the quotient will
give the second Rsine-difference. The same first Rsine, diminished by the
quotients obtained by dividing each of the preceding Rsines by the first
Rsine, gives the remaining Rsine-differences.
Let B1 = R sin (225′ ), B2 = R sin (450′ ), ..., B24 = R sin (90◦ ), be the twenty-
four Rsines, and let ∆1 = B1 , ∆2 = B2 − B1 , ..., ∆k = Bk − Bk−1 , ... be the
Rsine-differences. Then, the above rule may be expressed as24
B1
∆2 = B1 − (34)
B1
(B1 + B2 + . . . + Bk )
∆k+1 = B1 − (k = 1, 2, . . . , 23). (35)
B1
This second relation is also sometimes expressed in the equivalent form
(∆1 + ∆2 + . . . + ∆k )
∆k+1 = ∆k − (k = 1, 2, . . . , 23). (36)
B1
From the above it follows that
−Bk
∆k+1 − ∆k = (k = 1, 2, . . . , 23). (37)
B1
Since Āryabhat.a also takes ∆1 = B1 = R sin(225′ ) ≈ 225′ , the above relations
reduce to
∆1 = 225′ (38)
−Bk
∆k+1 − ∆k = (k = 1, 2, . . . , 23). (39)
225′
23 Āryabhatı̄ya,cited above, Gan
. . itapāda 12, p. 51.
24 Āryabhata ′
. is using the approximation ∆2 − ∆1 ≈ 1 and the second terms in the RHS of (34)–(36)
and the RHS of (37) and (39) have an implicit factor of (∆2 − ∆1 ). See (45) below which is exact.
14
5.3 Derivation of the Āryabhat.a-relation for the second-order Rsine-
differences
Āryabhat.a’s relation for the second-order Rsine-differences is derived and made
more exact in the Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya (c. 1502) of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ and Yuk-
tibhās.ā (c. 1530) of Jyes.t.hadeva. We shall present a detailed account of the first and
second-order Rsine-differences as given in Yuktibhās.ā 25 later in Section 16. Here we
shall only summarize the argument.
In Figure 3, the arcs ECj and ECj+1 are successive multiples of 225′ . The Rsine and
Rcosine of the arcs ECj and ECj+1 are given by
Bj = Cj Pj , Bj+1 = Cj+1 Pj+1 (40)
and Kj = Cj Tj , Kj+1 = Cj+1 Tj+1 , (41)
respectively. Let Mj+1 and Mj be the mid-points of the arcs Cj Cj+1 , Cj−1 Cj
and the Rsine and Rcosine of the arcs EMj and EMj+1 be denoted respectively
by Bj− 12 , Bj+ 12 , Kj− 12 , Kj+ 12 .
Cj E
E S
M j+1
α Mj Qj
Cj
Pj
C j+1 M j+1 G
Q j+1
F C j+1 Pj+1
F
N
Tj+1 Uj+1 Tj Uj O
Figure 3: Derivation of Āryabhat.a relation.
Let the chord of the arc Cj Cj+1 , be denoted by α and let R be the radius. Then a
simple argument based on trairāśika (similar triangles) leads to the relations:26
α
Bj+1 − Bj = Kj+ 21 (42)
Rα
Kj− 12 − Kj+ 21 = Bj . (43)
R
25 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā,
. . cited above, Section 7.5.1, pp. 94–96, 221–24, 417–20.
26 Equations (42) and (43) are essentially the relations:
α h
R sin(x + h) − R sin x = R cos x +
R 2
h h α
R cos x − − R cos x + = R sin x,
2 2 R
15
Thus we get
∆j+1 − ∆j = (Bj+1 − Bj ) − (Bj − Bj−1 )
α 2
= − Bj . (44)
R
We can also express this relation in the form
−Bj (∆1 − ∆2 )
∆j+1 − ∆j = . (45)
B1
The above relations are exact. Āryabhat.a’s relation (39) corresponds to the approxi-
mations, B1 ≈ 225′ and ∆1 − ∆2 ≈ 1′ so that
α 2
(∆1 − ∆2 ) 1
= ≈ . (46)
R B1 225′
In Tantrasaṅgraha, Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ has given the finer approximation:27
!
α 2 (∆1 − ∆2 ) 1
= ≈ ′ . (47)
R B1 233 1 2
This is further refined by Śaṅkara Vāriyar in his commentary Laghu-vivr.ti in the
form:28
α 2
(∆1 − ∆2 ) 1
= ≈ . (48)
R B1 233′ 32′′
Since α = 2R sin 112′ 30′′ , we find that the above relation is correct up to seconds.
Commenting on Āryabhat.a’s method of computing Rsines, Delambre had remarked:29
The method is curious: it indicates a method of calculating the table of
sines by means of their second-differences... This differential process
has not up to now been employed except by Briggs, who himself did not
know that the constant factor was the square of the chord ∆A (= 3◦ 45′ )
or of the interval, and who could not obtain it except by comparing the
second differences obtained in a different manner. The Indians also have
probably done the same; they obtained the method of differences only
from a table calculated previously by a geometric process. Here then is a
method which the Indians possessed and which is found neither amongst
the Greeks, nor amongst the Arabs.
h
with α = 2R sin 2
. These lead to (44) in the form:
2
α
(R sin(x + h) − R sin x) − (R sin x − R sin(x − h)) = − R sin x.
R
27 Tantrasaṅgraha of Nı̄lakantha Somayājı̄, Ed. with Laghu-vivrti of Śaṅkara Vāriyar by
.. .
S. K. Pillai, Trivandrum 1958, verse 2.4, p. 17.
28 Ibid., comm. on verse 2.4.
29 Delambre, Historie de l’ Astronomie Ancienne, t 1, Paris 1817, pp. 457, 459f, cited from B. B. Datta
and A. N. Singh, ‘Hindu Trigonometry’, Ind. Jour. Hist. Sc. 18, 39–108, 1983, p. 77.
16
5.4 The Rsine-table of Āryabhat.a
In the Gı̄tikā-pāda of Āryabhat.ı̄ya, Āryabhat.a has given a table of Rsine-differences:30
ma:a.Ka Ba:a.Ka :P+a.Ka ;Da:a.Ka :Na:a.Ka Va:a.Ka
å å
.z+a.Ka h:~.Ja .~k+.a.k ;a.k+.Sga .~.Ga:a.k ;a.k+.Gva Á
;Gl+a.k ;a.k+.g{a h:k+.a ;Da:a.k ;a.k+.. a
ë ÅÉ
.~ga ZJa z
õÅÉ *
ì: a :P C k+.l;a:DRa.$ya.aH Á Á
225, 224, 222, 219, 215, 210, 205, 199, 191, 183, 174, 164, 154, 143, 131,
119, 106, 93, 79, 65, 51, 37, 22, and 7—these are the Rsine-differences
[at intervals of 225’ of arc] in terms of the minutes of arc.
The above values follow directly from Āryabhat.a’s relation (39) for the second or-
der Rsine-differences. To start with, ∆1 = B1 = R sin(225′ ) ≈ 225′ . Then we
B1
get, ∆2 = B1 − B 1
= 224′ and so on.
The Rsine-table of Āryabhat.a31 (see Table 1), obtained this way, is accurate up to
minutes. In this table, we also give the Rsine values given by Govindasvāmin (c. 825)
in his commentary on Mahābhāskarı̄ya of Bhāskara I, and by Mādhava (c. 1340–
1420) as recorded in the Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya (c. 1502) of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄.
Though Govindasvāmin gives the Rsine values up to the thirds, his values are accu-
rate only up to the seconds; those of Mādhava are accurate up to the thirds.
5.5 Brahmagupta’s second-order interpolation formula
The Rsine table of Āryabhat.a gives only the Rsine values for the twenty-four mul-
tiples of 225′ . The Rsines for arbitrary arc-lengths have to be found by interpolation
only. In his Khan.d.akhādyaka (c. 665), Brahmagupta gives a second-order interpo-
lation formula for the computation of Rsines for arbitrary arcs. In this work, which is
in the form of a manual (karan.a) for astronomical calculations, Brahmagupta uses a
simpler Rsine-table which gives Rsines only at intervals of 15◦ or 900′ :32
ga:ta:Ba.ea:gya:Ka:Nq+k+a:nta.=;d:l+a.va:k+.l+va:Da.a:t,a Za:tEa:nRa:va:a.Ba.=:a:ya.a Á
ta:dù;aÅu :a.ta:d:lM yua:ta.ea:nMa Ba.ea:gya.a:d
U :na.a:a.Da:kM Ba.ea:gya:m,a ÁÁ
Multiply the residual arc after division by 900′ by half the difference of
the tabular Rsine difference passed over (gata-khan.d.a) and to be passed
over (bhogya-khan.d.a) and divide by 900′. The result is to be added to or
subtracted from half the sum of the same tabular sine differences accord-
ing as this [half-sum] is less than or equal to the Rsine tabular difference
to be passed. What results is the true Rsine-difference to be passed over.
30 Āryabhatı̄ya,cited above, Gı̄tikāpāda 12, p. 29.
.
31 See,
for instance, A. K. Bag, Mathematics in Ancient and Medieval India, Varanasi 1979, pp. 247–48.
32 Khandakhādyaka of Brahmagupta, Ed. by P. C. Sengupta, Calcutta 1941, p. 151.
..
17
Table 1: Rsine-table of Āryabhat.a, Govindasvāmin and Mādhava.
Āryabhat.a (c. 499) Govindasvāmin (c. 825) Mādhava (c. 1375)
3◦ 45′ 225′ 224′ 50′′ 23′′′ 224′ 50′′ 22′′′
7◦ 30′ 449′ 448′ 42′′ 53′′′ 448′ 42′′ 58′′′
11◦ 15′ 671′ 670′ 40′′ 11′′′ 670′ 40′′ 16′′′
15◦ 00′ 890′ 889′ 45′′ 08′′′ 889′ 45′′ 15′′′
18◦ 45′ 1105′ 1105′ 01′′ 30′′′ 1105′ 01′′ 39′′′
22◦ 30′ 1315′ 1315′ 33′′ 56′′ 1315′ 34′′ 07′′′
26◦ 15′ 1520′ 1520′ 28′′ 22′′′ 1520′ 28′′ 35′′′
30◦ 00′ 1719′ 1718′ 52′′ 10′′′ 1718′ 52′′ 24′′′
33◦ 45′ 1910′ 1909′ 54′′ 19′′′ 1909′ 54′′ 35′′′
37◦ 30′ 2093′ 2092′ 45′′ 46′′′ 2092′ 46′′ 03′′′
41◦ 15′ 2267′ 2266′ 38′′ 44′′′ 2266′ 39′′ 50′′′
45◦ 00′ 2431′ 2430′ 50′′ 54′′′ 2430′ 51′′ 15′′′
48◦ 45′ 2585′ 2584′ 37′′ 43′′′ 2584′ 38′′ 06′′′
52◦ 30′ 2728′ 2727′ 20′′ 29′′′ 2727′ 20′′ 52′′′
56◦ 15′ 2859′ 2858′ 22′′ 31′′′ 2858′ 22′′ 55′′′
60◦ 00′ 2978′ 2977′ 10′′ 09′′′ 2977′ 10′′ 34′′′
63◦ 45′ 3084′ 3083′ 12′′ 51′′′ 3083′ 13′′ 17′′′
67◦ 30′ 3177′ 3176′ 03′′ 23′′′ 3176′ 03′′ 50′′′
71◦ 15′ 3256′ 3255′ 17′′ 54′′′ 3255′ 18′′ 22′′′
75◦ 00′ 3321′ 3320′ 36′′ 02′′′ 3320′ 36′′ 30′′′
78◦ 45′ 3372′ 3371′ 41′′ 01′′′ 3371′ 41′′ 29′′′
82◦ 30′ 3409′ 3408′ 19′′ 42′′′ 3408′ 20′′ 11′′′
86◦ 15′ 3431′ 3430′ 22′′ 42′′′ 3430′ 23′′ 11′′′
90◦ 00′ 3438′ 3437′ 44′′ 19′′′ 3437′ 44′′ 48′′′
Let h be the basic unit of arc in terms of which the Rsine-table is constructed,
which happens to be 225′ in the case of Āryabhat.ı̄ya, and 900′ in the case of
Khan.d.akhādyaka. Let the arc for which Rsine is to be found be given by
s = jh + ε for some j = 0, 1, . . . (49)
Now R sin(jh) = Bj are the tabulated Rsines. Then, a simple interpolation (trairāśika)
would yield
ε
R sin(jh + ǫ) = Bj + (Bj+1 − Bj )
h
ε
= R sin(jh) + ∆j+1 . (50)
h
Instead of the above simple interpolation, Brahmagupta prescribes
ε 1 ε (∆ ∼ ∆ )
j j+1
R sin(jh + ǫ) = Bj + (∆j + ∆j+1 ) ± . (51)
h 2 h 2
Here, the sign is chosen to be positive if ∆j < ∆j+1 , and negative if ∆j > ∆j+1 (as
in the case of Rsine). So Brahmagupta’s rule is actually the second-order interpola-
tion formula
ε 1 ε (∆ − ∆ )
j j+1
R sin(jh + ε) = R sin(jh) + (∆j + ∆j+1 ) −
h 2 h 2
18
ε (∆
+ ∆j ) ε 2 (∆j+1 − ∆j )
j+1
= R sin(jh) + +
h 2 h 2
ε εhε i (∆
j+1 − ∆j )
= R sin(jh) + ∆j+1 + −1 . (52)
h h h 2
6 Instantaneous velocity of a planet (tātkālika-gati)
6.1 True daily motion of a planet
In Indian Astronomy, the motion of a planet is computed by making use of two correc-
tions: the manda-sam . skāra which essentially corresponds to the equation of centre
and the śı̄ghra-sam
. skāra which corresponds to the conversion of the heliocentric lon-
gitudes to geocentric longitudes. The manda correction for planets is given in terms
of an epicycle of variable radius r, which varies in such a way that
r r0
= , (53)
K R
where K is the karn.a (hypotenuse) or the (variable) distance of the planet from the
centre of the concentric and r0 is the tabulated (or mean) radius of the epicycle in the
measure of the concentric circle of radius R.
r
Γ
P0
K
∆µ α
R
M
Figure 4: Manda correction.
In Figure 4, C is the centre of concentric on which the mean planet P0 is located. CU
is the direction of the ucca (aphelion or apogee as the case may be). P is the true
planet which lies on the epicycle of (variable) radius r centered at P0 , such that P0 P
is parallel to CU . If M is the mean longitude of a planet, α the longitude of the ucca,
then the correction (manda-phala) ∆µ is given by
r
R sin(∆µ) = R sin(M − α)
rK
0
= R sin(M − α). (54)
R
19
For small r, the left hand side is usually approximated by the arc itself. The manda-
correction is to be applied to the mean longitude M , to obtain the true or manda-
corrected longitude µ given by
r 1
0
µ=M− R sin(M − α). (55)
R R
If nm and nu are the mean daily motions of the planet and the ucca, then the true
longitude on the next day is given by
r 1
0
µ + n = (M + nm ) − R sin (M + nm − α − nu ). (56)
R R
The true daily motion is thus given by
r 1
0
n = nm − [R sin{(M − α) + (nm − nu )} − R sin (M − α)]. (57)
R R
The second term in the above is the correction to mean daily motion (gati-phala). An
expression for this was given by Bhāskara I (c. 629) in Mahābhāskarı̄ya, where he
makes use of the approximation:33
R sin{(M − α) + (nm − nu )} (nm − nu ) ×
≈ 1
− R sin(M − α) 225 Rsine-difference at (M − α).
(58)
In the above approximation, (nm − nu ) is multiplied by tabular Rsine-difference at
the 225′ arc-bit in which (the tip of the arc) (M − α) is located. Therefore, under this
approximation, as long as the anomaly (kendra), (M − α), is in the same multiple of
225′ , there will be no change in the gati-phala or the correction to the mean velocity.
This defect was noticed by Bhāskara also in his later work Laghubhāskarı̄ya:34
A:a.Ba:a. +pa:ta.a Bua: ãÉa.a:pa:Ba.a:ga:a.va:. a.a:a=;NaH Á
e +.(
ãÉa .ja.a:va.a:na.a:mUa:na:Ba.a:va.a:dù;a:sa:}Ba:va.a:t,
.=;vea:a=;nd.ea:( Å a ÁÁ
O;:va:ma.a:l;ea:. ya:ma.a:nea:yMa .ja.a:va.a:Bua:a.+.a.vRa:Za.a:ya:teRa Á
Whilst the Sun or the Moon moves in the [same] element of arc, there
is no change in the rate of motion (bhukti), because the Rsine-difference
does not increase or decrease; viewed thus, the rate of motion [as given
above] is defective.
The correct formula for the true daily motion of a planet, employing the Rcosine as
the ‘rate of change’ of Rsine, seems to have been first given by Muñjāla (c. 932) in
his short manual Laghumānasa 35 and also by Āryabhat.a II (c. 950) in his Mahā-
siddhānta:36
È
îå Á .a Bua:a.+.gRa.$ya.a:Ba:+a k+.l;a:a.d:P+l+m,a Á Á
k+ea:a.f:P+l:*+
The kot.iphala multiplied by the [mean] daily motion and divided by the
radius gives the minutes of the correction [to the rate of the motion].
33 Mahābhāskarı̄yaof Bhāskara I, Ed. by K. S. Shukla, Lucknow 1960, verse 4.14, p. 120.
34 Laghubhāskarı̄yaof Bhāskara I, Ed. by K. S. Shukla, Lucknow 1963, verses 2.14-5, p. 6.
35 Laghumānasa of Muñjāla, Ed. by K. S. Shukla, New Delhi 1990, verse 3.4, p. 125.
36 Mahāsiddhānta of Āryabhata II, Ed. by Sudhakara Dvivedi, Varanasi 1910, verse 3.15, p. 58.
.
20
This gives the true daily motion in the form
r 1
0
n = nm − (nm − nu ) R cos(M − α). (59)
R R
6.2 The notion of instantaneous velocity (tātkālikagati) according
to Bhāskarācārya II
Bhāskarācārya II (c. 1150) in his Siddhāntaśiroman.i clearly distinguishes the true
daily motion from the instantaneous rate of motion. And he gives the Rcosine cor-
rection to the mean rate of motion as the instantaneous rate of motion. He further
emphasizes the fact that the velocity is changing every instant and this is particularly
important in the case of Moon because of its rapid motion.37
å å
;a.d:na.a:nta.=;~.pa::Ka:ga.a:nta.=M .~ya.a:d, ga:a.taH .~.Pu+f.a ta:tsa:ma:ya.a:nta.=:a:le ÁÁ
È
îå Á .a mxa:du:k
k+ea:f.a:P+l:*+ e +.ndÒ;Bua:a.+.a.~:a.$ya.e
/ a.;d
Äâx :ta.a k+.a.kR +.mxa:ga.a:a.d:ke +.ndÒe Á
å
ta:ya.a yua:ta.ea:na.a g{a:h:ma:Dya:Bua:a.+.~ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k +a ma:nd:pa:a=;~.Pu+f.a .~ya.a:t,a Á Á
.sa:ma.a:pa:a.ta:Tya:nta:sa:ma.a:pa:. a.a:l+nMa ;a.va:Da.ea:~tua ta:tk+a:l;ja:yEa:va yua.$ya:tea Á
ú
.sua:d *.a.a:l+na:ma.a:dù;a:ya.a
U .=;sa.ãÁ Å ya:taH :pra:a.ta:[a:NMa .sa.a na .sa:ma.a ma:h:tya:taH Á Á
The true daily motion of a planet is the difference between the true planets
on successive days. And it is accurate (sphut.a) over that period. The
kot.iphala (Rcosine of anomaly) is multiplied by the rate of motion of the
manda-anomaly (mr.du-kendra-bhukti) and divided by the radius. The
result added or subtracted from the mean rate of motion of the planet,
depending on whether the anomaly is in Karkyādi or Mr.gādi, gives the
true instantaneous rate of motion (tātkālikı̄ manda-sphut.agati) of the
planet.
In the case of the Moon, the ending moment of a tithi38 which is about
to end or the beginning time of a tithi which is about to begin, are to be
computed with the instantaneous rate of motion at the given instant of
time. The beginning moment of a tithi which is far away can be calcu-
lated with the earlier [daily] rate of motion. This is because Moon’s rate
of motion is large and varies from moment to moment.
Here, Bhāskara explains the distinction between the true daily rate of motion and
the true instantaneous rate of motion. The former is the difference between the true
longitudes on successive days and it is accurate as the rate of motion, on the average,
for the entire period. The true instantaneous rate of motion is to be calculated from
the Rcosine of the anomaly (kot.iphala) for each relevant moment.
Thus if ωm and ωu are the rates of the motion of the mean planet and the ucca, then
ωm −ωu is the rate of motion of the anomaly, and the true instantaneous rate of motion
37 Siddhāntaśiroman i of Bhāskarācārya, Ed. by Muralidhara Chaturvedi, Varanasi 1981,
.
verses 2.36–8, p. 119.
38 Tithi is the time taken by the Moon to lead the Sun exactly by 12◦ in longitude.
21
of the planet at any instant is given by Bhāskara to be
r 1
0
ω = ωm + (ωm − ωu ) R cos(M − α), (60)
R R
where (M − α) is the anomaly of the planet at that instant.
Bhāskara explains the idea of the instantaneous velocity even more clearly in his
Vāsanā:39
A:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na:~å.Pu+f:g{a:h:ya.eaH A.Ea:d:a.ya:k+.ya.ea:a.dR:na.a:DRa.ja:ya.ea:va.Ra A:~ta:k+a:a.l+k+.ya.ea:va.Ra
å
ya:d:nta.=M k+.l;a:a.d:kM .sa.a .~.Pu+f.a ga:a.taH Á A:dù;a:ta:na.a:.
Å õÅ +~ta:nea nyUa:nea va:k
C Ò +a:ga:a.ta:¼eRa:ya.a Á
ta:tsa:ma:ya.a:nta.=:a:l I+a.ta Á ta:~ya k+a:l+~ya ma:DyeaY:na:ya.a ga:tya.a ãÉa.a:l+a.ya:tMua
g{a:h:(
yua.$ya:ta I+a.ta Á I+yMa ;a.k+.l .~TUa:l;a ga:a.taH Á A:Ta .sUa:[ma.a ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k +a
ñÍ
k+.Tya:tea Á tua:*:+ga:tyU
çÅÅ a:na.a .. a:ndÒ;ga:a.taH :ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.taH Á A:nyea:Sa.Ma g{a:h.a:Na.Ma g{a:h:ga:a.ta;=e;va
:ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.taH Á mxa:du:ke +.ndÒ;k+ea:a.f:P+lM kx +.tva.a .tea:na :ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.ta:gRua:Nya.a ;aa.$ya:ya.a
Ba.a.$ya.a l+b.Dea:na k+.k+.a.Ra:a.d:ke +.ndÒe g{a:h:ga:a.ta:yRua:+a k+a:ya.Ra Á mxa:ga.a:d.Ea tua .=;a.h:ta.a
å
k+a:ya.Ra Á O;:vMa ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k +a ma:nd:pa:a=;~.Pu+f.a .~ya.a:t,a Á ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k+.a.a Bua:+.a.a
.. a:ndÒ;~ya ;a.va:a.Za:M :pra:ya.ea.ja:na:m,a Á ta:d.a:h ‘.sa:ma.a:pa:a.ta:Tya:nta:sa:ma.a:pa:. a.a:l+na:m,a ’ I+a.ta Á
ãÉa:ndÒ;~ta:sma.a:t,a k+a:l;a:
ya:tk+a:a.l+k+.( ç Å ;ta.ea va.a ga:}ya.ea va.a ya:d.a:sa:a:a.~ta:tTya:nta:~ta:d.a
///
ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k+.a.a ga:tya.a ;a.ta:a.Ta:sa.a:Da:nMa k+.tua yua.$ya:tea Á ta:Ta.a .sa:ma.a:pa:. a.a:l+nMa .. a Á
ya:d.a tua dU.=;ta.=;a.~ta:Tya:nta.e
/// a dU.=;. a.a:l+nMa va.a .. a:ndÒ;~ya ta:d.a:dù;a:ya.a
Å .~TUa:l+ya.a k+.tua
ãÉa:ndÒ;ga:a.ta:mRa:h:tva.a:t,a :pra:a.ta:[a:NMa .sa:ma.a na Ba:va:a.ta
yua.$ya:tea Á .~TUa:l+k+a:l+tva.a:t,a Á ya:ta:(
-
A:ta:~ta:d:TRa:ma:yMa ;a.va:Zea:Sa.eaY ;a.Ba:a.h:taH Á
A:Ta ga:a.ta:P+l+va.a:sa:na.a Á A:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na:g{a:h:ya.ea.=;nta.=M ga:a.taH Á A:ta O;:va g{a:h:P+l -
ya.ea.=;nta.=M ga:a.ta:P+lM Ba:a.va:tua:ma:hR:a.ta Á A:Ta ta:tsa.a:Da:na:m,a Á A:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na:ke +.ndÒ;ya.ea -
å
.=;nta.=M :ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.taH Á Bua.ja.$ya.a:k+=;Nea ya:; õ :d:~:EòaH
匁 :ea:gya:Ka:NqM .tea:na .sa.a gua:Nya.a Za.=;a.d
(225) Ba.a.$ya.a Á ta.a ta.a:va:t,a ta.a:tk+a:a.l+k+.Ba.ea:gya:Ka:Nq+k+=;Na.a:ya.a:nua:pa.a:taH Á ya:a.d
åò
;aa.$ya.a:tua:ya:ya.a k+ea:a.f.$ya:ya.a:dù;aÅM Ba.ea:gya:Ka:NqM Za.=;a.d
õ :d:~:a:tu a:yMa l+Bya:tea ta:de::ya.a
åò
;a.k+.a.ma:tya.a k+ea:a.f.$ya.a:ya.aH Za.=;a.d
õ :d:~:a.a gua:Na:a.~:a.$ya.a
/ h.=H Á :P+lM ta.a:tk+a:a.l+kM
å å å
.~.Pu+f:Ba.ea:gya:Ka:NqM .tea:na :k õ :d:~:Eaò :Ba.Ra.$ya.a Á A.a Za.=;a.d
e +.ndÒ;ga:a.ta:gRua:Na:na.a:ya.a Za.=;a.d õ :d:~:aò -
;a.ma:ta:ya.ea:gRua:Na:k+.Ba.a.ja:k+.ya.ea:~tua:ya:tva.a:a.a:Zea kx +.tea :ke +.ndÒ;ga:teaH / -
k+ea:a.f.$ya.a:gua:Na:a.~:a
.$ya.a:h.=H .~ya.a:t,a Á :P+l+ma:dù;a:ta:na.( Å õ;a:~ta:na:k e +.ndÒ;d.ea.$yRa:ya.ea.=;nta.=M Ba:va:a.ta Á ta:tP+l-
k+=;Na.a:Ta .~va:pa:a=;a.Da:na.a gua:NyMa Ba.Ma:ZEaH (360) Ba.a.$ya:m,a Á :pUa:va ;a.k+.l gua:Na:k H
k+ea:a.f.$ya.a .sa.a ya.a:va:t,a :pa:a=;a.Da:na.a gua:Nya:tea Ba.Ma:ZEaH ;a.hò :ya:tea ta.a:va:tk+ea:a.f:P+lM .ja.a:ya:ta
È
I+tyua:pa:pa:Ma ‘
k+ea:f.a:P+l:*+ îå Á .a mxa:du:k ’
e +.ndÒ;Bua:a. :a=;tya.a:a.d Á O;:va:ma:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na:g{a:h -
:P+l+ya.ea.=;nta.=M ta:
ç Å ;teaH :P+lM k+.k+.a.Ra:a.d:ke +.ndÒe g{a:h:NRa:P+l+~ya.a:pa:. a.a:ya:ma.a:na:tva.a:t,a
tua:l;a:d.Ea ;Da:na:P+l+~ya.a:pa:. a.a:ya:ma.a:na:tva.a:t,a ;Da:na:m,a Á ma:k+=:a:d.Ea tua ;Da:na:P+l+~ya.a:pa:. a.a:ya -
ma.a:na:tva.a:t,a mea:Sa.a:d.a:vxa:Na:P+l+~ya.ea:pa:. a .a:ya:ma.a:na:tva.a:dx:Na:m,a I+tyua:pa:pa:a:m,a Á
The true daily velocity is the difference in minutes etc., between the true
planets of today and tomorrow, either at the time of sunrise, or mid-day
39 Siddhāntaśiroman i, cited above, Vāsanā on 2.36–38, p. 119–20.
.
22
or sunset. If tomorrow’s longitude is smaller than that of today, then we
should understand the motion to be retrograde. It is said “over that pe-
riod”. This only means that, during that intervening period, the planet
is to move with this rate [on the average]. This is only a rough or ap-
proximate rate of motion. Now we shall discuss the instantaneous rate
of motion... In this way, the manda-corrected true instantaneous rate of
motion (tātkālikı̄ manda-parisphut.agati) is calculated. In the case of
Moon, this instantaneous rate of motion is especially useful...Because of
its largeness, the rate of motion of Moon is not the same every instant.
Hence, in the case of Moon, the special [instantaneous] rate of motion is
stated.
Then, the justification for the correction to the rate of motion (gati-
phala-vāsanā)...The rate of motion of the anomaly is the difference in the
anomalies of today and tomorrow. That should be multiplied by the [cur-
rent] Rsine-difference used in the computation of Rsines and divided by
225. Now, the following rule of three to obtain the instantaneous Rsine-
difference: If the first Rsine-difference 225 results when the Rcosine is
equal to the radius, then how much is it for the given Rcosine. In this way,
the Rcosine is to be multiplied by 225 and divided by the radius. The re-
sult is the instantaneous Rsine-difference and that should be multiplied
by the rate of motion in the anomaly and divided by 225...
Thus, Bhāskara is here conceiving also of an instantaneous Rsine-difference, though
his derivation of the instantaneous velocity is somewhat obscure. These ideas are more
clearly set forth in the Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya (c. 1502) of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ and
other works of the Kerala School.
6.3 The śīghra correction to the velocity and the condition for ret-
rograde motion
Bhāskara then goes on to derive the correct expression for the true rate of motion as
corrected by the śı̄ghra-correction. In the language of modern astronomy, the śı̄ghra-
correction converts the heliocentric longitude of the planets to the geocentric longi-
tudes. Here also, the Indian astronomers employ an epicycle, but with a fixed radius,
unlike in the case of the manda-correction.
If µ is the manda-corrected (manda-sphut.a) longitude of the planet, ζ is the longitude
of the śı̄ghrocca, and rs , the radius of the śı̄ghra-epicycle, then the correction (śı̄ghra-
phala) ∆σ is given by
r
s
R sin(∆σ) = R sin (µ − ζ), (61)
K
where (µ − ζ) is the śı̄ghrakendra and K is the hypotenuse (śı̄ghrakarn.a) given by
K 2 = R2 + rs2 − 2Rrs cos (µ − ζ). (62)
The calculation of the śı̄ghra-correction to the velocity is indeed much more difficult
as the denominator in (61), which is the hypotenuse which depends on the anomaly,
also varies with time in a complex way. This has been noted by Bhāskara who was
23
able to obtain the correct form of the śı̄ghra-correction to the velocity (śı̄ghra-gati-
phala) in an ingenious way.40
ñÍ ú È ë Å
:P+l;Ma:Za:Ka.a:*:;a:nta.=;
ö Å a.Za:a*+:n îå Á .a dÒ:a:*:
ê ÁÁ a.a*+ ë Áe +.ndÒ;Bua:a. H (rua:a.ta:&+a.d
õ :Za.ea:Dya.a Á
å
.~va:Za.a:Gra:Bua:e H .~.Pu+f:Kea:f:Bua:a. H Zea:SMa .. a va:kÒ +a ;a.va:pa.=:a:ta:Zua.;d
Äâ .Ea ÁÁ
The Rsine of ninety degrees, less the degrees of śı̄ghra-correction for the
longitude (śı̄ghra-phala), should be multiplied by the rate of motion of
the śı̄ghra-anomaly (drāk-kendra-bhukti) and divided by the hypotenuse
(śı̄ghra-karn.a). This, subtracted from the rate of motion of the śı̄ghrocca,
gives the true velocity of the planet. If this is negative, the planet’s motion
is retrograde.
If ω is the rate of motion of the manda-corrected planet and ωs is the rate of motion
of the śı̄ghrocca, then the rate of motion of the śı̄ghra-anomaly is (ω − ωs ), and the
true velocity of the planet ωt is given by
(ωs − ω)R cos(∆σ)
ωt = ωs − . (63)
K
The details of the ingenious argument given by Bhāskara for deriving the correct form
(63) of the śı̄ghra-correction to the velocity has been outlined by D. Arkasomayaji in
his translation of Sı̄ddhāntaśiroman.i.41
Since Bhāskara’s derivation is somewhat long-winded, here we shall present a mod-
ern derivation of the result just to demonstrate that the expression given by Bhāskara
is indeed exact.
In Figure 5a, S, E and P represent the positions of the Sun, Earth and an exterior
planet respectively. Let v and vs be the linear velocities of the planet and the Earth
with respect to the Sun. P P ′ and EE ′ are lines perpendicular to the line EP joining
the Earth to the planet. Let R, r represent the radii of the orbits of the planet and the
Earth (assumed to be cicular) around the Sun respectively and K, the distance of the
planet from the Earth. For an exterior planet, the śı̄ghra-correction ∆σ is given by the
angle S P̂ E.
If vt be the linear velocity of the planet as seen from the Earth, then the angular
velocity is given by
dθ vt
ωt = = . (64)
dt K
The magnitude of vt in terms of v and vs (for the situation depicted in the figure) is
vt = v cos ∆σ + vs cos θ. (65)
Also from the triangle SEP , the distance of the planet from the Earth—known as
karn.a, and denoted K in the figure—may be expressed as
K = R cos ∆σ + r cos θ,
K − R cos ∆σ
or cos θ = . (66)
r
40 Siddhāntaśiroman i,
. cited above, verse 2.39, p. 121.
41 D. Arkasomayaji, Siddhāntaśiroman. i of Bhāskarācārya, Tirupati 1980, pp. 157–161.
24
v
P’
∆σ
R
∆σ
K
r θ
vs
E θ
E’
Figure 5a: Velocity of a planet as seen from the Earth.
Using (66) in (65) we have
vs
vt = v cos ∆σ + (K − R cos ∆σ)
r
vs K R
= + cos ∆σ v − vs
r r
R
vt vs cos ∆σ v − vsr
or = + . (67)
K r K
Making use of (64) and the fact that v = Rω and vs = rωs , the above equation
reduces to
(ωs − ω)R cos ∆σ
ωt = ωs − ,
K
which is same as the expression given by Bhāskara (63).
Bhāskara in his Vāsanā:42 justifies as to why in the śı̄ghra process a different proce-
dure for finding the rate of motion of the planet has to be employed than the one used
in the manda process:
A.a.ea:pa:pa:aaH Á A:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na:Za.a:Gra:P+l+ya.ea.=;nta.=M ga:teaH Za.a:Gra:P+lM .~ya.a:t,a Á ta:a
ya:Ta.a ma.a:ndM ga:a.ta:P+lM g{a:h:P+l+va:d.a:na.a:tMa ta:Ta.a ya:dù;a.a:n
Å a.a:ya:tea kx +.teaY:a.pa k+.Na.Ra:nua:pa.a:tea
.sa.a:nta.=;mea:va .~ya.a:t,a Á ya:Ta.a ;Da.a:vxa:a;d
Äâ :de Á na:a.h :ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.ta.ja:mea:va :P+l+ya.ea.=;nta.=M .~ya.a:t,a
;a.k+.ntva:nya:d:a.pa A:dù;a:ta:na:Bu
Å a.ja:P+l;(õ;a:~ta:na:Bua.ja:P+l;a:nta:=e ;aa.$ya.a:gua:NeaY:dù;a:ta:na
Å -
k+.NRa:&+tea ya.a:dx:ZMa :P+lM na ta.a:dx:ZMa (õ;a:~ta:na:k+.NRa:&+tea Á .~va:pa.a:nta:=e Y:a.pa k+.NeRa
42 Ibid., Vāsanā on 2.39.
25
ë+.nta.=M .~ya.a:a.d:tyea:ta:d.a:na:ya:nMa ;a.h:tva.a:nya:t,a ma:h.a:ma:a.ta:ma:a.;
Ba.a.$ya:~ya ba:hu:tva.a:d, ba: 匁 H
k+.a.pa:ta:m,
//// a Á ta:dù;a:Ta.a
Å ...
Here is the justification. The śı̄ghra-correction to the rate of motion is
the difference between the śı̄ghra-phalas of today and tomorrow. If that
is derived in the same way as the manda-correction to the rate of mo-
tion, the result will be incorrect even if it were to be divided by the hy-
potenuse (śı̄ghra-karn.a)... The difference is not just due to the change
in the anomaly [which is the argument of the Rsine] but also otherwise...
The result of dividing by today’s hypotenuse is different from that of di-
viding by that of tomorrow. Even if the hypotenuses turn out to differ by
small amount, since the quantities they divide are large and thus a large
difference could result. Hence, this way of approach [which was adopted
in the case of manda-correction to the rate of the motion] has been for-
saken and another has been devised by the great intellects. That is as
follows...
6.4 The equation of centre is extremum when the velocity correc-
tion vanishes
Later, in the Golādhyāya of Siddhāntaśiroman.i, Bhāskara considers the situation
when the correction to the velocity (gati-phala) vanishes:43
k+.[ya.a:ma:Dya:ga:a.ta:yRa:g{ea:Ka.a:pra:a.ta:vxa.a:sMa:pa.a:tea Á
å
ma:DyEa:va ga:a.taH .~.pa:.a :pa.=M :P+lM ta.a Kea:f:~ya Á Á
Where the [North-South] line perpendicular to the [East-West] line of
apsides through the centre of the concentric meets the eccentric, there the
mean velocity itself is true and the equation of centre is extremum.
In his Vāsanā, Bhāskara explains this relation between vanishing of the velocity
correction and the extrema of the correction to the planetary longitude:44
k+.[ya.a:vxa.a:ma:Dyea ya.a ;a.ta:yRa:g{ea:Ka.a ta:~ya.aH :pra:a.ta:vxa.a:~ya .. a yaH .sMa:pa.a:ta:~ta.a ma:DyEa:va
å
ga:a.taH .~.pa:.a Á ga:a.ta:P+l;a:Ba.a:va.a:t,a Á ;a.kM +.. a ta.a g{a:h:~ya :pa.=;mMa :P+lM .~ya.a:t,a Á ya.a
g{a:h:~ya :pa.=;mMa :P+lM ta.Ea:va ga:a.ta:P+l;a:Ba.a:vea:na Ba:a.va:ta:v.ya:m,a Á ya:ta.eaY:dù;a:ta:na.(
Å õ;a:~ta:na -
g{a:h:ya.ea.=;nta.=M ga:a.taH Á :P+l+ya.ea.=;nta.=M ga:a.ta:P+l+m,a Á g{a:h,.~ya ga:tea:va.Ra :P+l;a:Ba.a:va:~Ta.a-
å
na:mea:va ;Da:na:NRa:sa:a.nDaH
// Á ya:t,a :pua:na:lR++ea:M ‘ma:DyEa:va ga:a.taH .~.pa:.a vxa.a:d
õ :ya:ya.ea:ga:gea
’
dù;aÅu :. a:=e I+a.ta ta:d:sa:t,a Á na ;a.h vxa.a:d
õ :ya:ya.ea:gea g{a:h:~ya :pa.=;mMa :P+l+m,a Á
The mean rate of motion itself is exact at the points where the line per-
pendicular [to the line of apsides], at the middle of the concentric circle,
meets the eccentric circle. Because, there is no correction to the rate of
motion [at those points]. Also, because there the equation of centre [or
43 Siddhāntaśiroman i,
. cited above, Golādhyāya 4.39, p. 393.
44 Ibid., Vāsanā on Golādhyāya 4.39.
26
correction to the planetary longitudes] is extreme. Wherever the equa-
tion of centre is maximum, there the correction to the velocity should be
absent. Because, the rate of motion is the difference between the plan-
etary longitudes of today and tomorrow. The correction to the velocity
is the difference between the equations of centre. The place where the
correction to the velocity vanishes, there is a change over from positive to
the negative. And, what has been stated by Lalla, “the mean rate of mo-
tion is itself true when the planet is on the intersection of the two circles
[concentric and eccentric]”, that is incorrect. The planet does not have
maximum equation of centre at the confluence of the two circles.
C’
N S
C
Figure 5b: Equation of centre is extremum where the correction to velocity vanishes.
Bhāskara explains that when the anomaly is ninety degrees, or the mean planet is at
N along the line CN perpendicular to the line of apsides CE (see Figure 5b), the
equation of centre is maximum. It is precisely then that the correction to the velocity
vanishes, as it changes sign from positive to negative. It is incorrect to state (as Lalla
did in his Śis.yadhı̄vr.ddhida-tantra) that the correction to the velocity is zero at the
point where the concentric and eccentric meet.
7 Surface area and volume of a sphere
In Āryabhat.ı̄ya (Golapāda 7), the volume of a sphere has been incorrectly estimated
as the product of the area of a great circle by its square-root. Śrı̄dhara (c. 750) seems
to have given the correct expression for the volume of a sphere (Triśatikā 56), though
his estimate of π is fairly off the mark. Bhāskarācārya (c. 1150) has given the correct
relation between the diameter, the surface area and the volume of a sphere in his
Lı̄lāvatı̄:45
45 Lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 5), verse 203, p. 79–80.
27
vxa.a:[ea.ea :pa:a=;a.Da:gua:a.Na:ta:v.ya.a:sa:pa.a:dH :P+lM ya:t,a
[ua:NNMa :vea:dE. +.pa:a= :pa:a=;taH k+.ndu:k+.~yea:va .ja.a:l+m,a Á
È
ga.ea:l+~yEa:vMa ta:d:a.pa .. a :P+lM :pxa::jMa v.ya.a:sa:a.na*+
îåMÁ
ñ
:Sa:aÂå ÅÅ
*.+.BR a:M Ba:va:a.ta ;a.na:ya:tMa ga.ea:l+ga:BeRa ;Ga:na.a:K.ya:m,a Á Á
In a circle, the circumference multiplied by one-fourth the diameter is the
area, which, multiplied by four, is its surface area going around it like
a net around a ball. This [surface area] multiplied by the diameter and
divided by six is the volume of the sphere.
The surface area and volume of a sphere have been discussed in greater detail in the
Siddhāntaśiroman.i (Golādhyāya 2.53-61), where Bhāskara has also presented the
upapatti or justification for the results in his commentary Vāsanā. As regards the
surface area of the sphere, Bhāskara argues as follows:46
A:Ta ba.a:l;a:va:ba.ea:Da.a:Ta ga.ea:l+~ya.ea:pa:a= d:ZRa:yea:t,a Á BUa:ga.ea:lM mxa:Nma:yMa d.a. +.ma:yMa va.a
kx +.tva.a tMa .. a:kÒ +.k+.l;a:pa:a=;a.DMa (21600) :pra:k+.pya ta:~ya ma:~ta:ke ;a.ba:ndu M kx +.tva.a
åò ñÍ
ta:sma.a:a.d
â õâ :nd.ea:ga.eRa:l+Sa:NNa:va:a.ta:Ba.a:gea:na Za.=;a.d É +;a
õ :d:~:a:sa:*
Ë ùe :na
Á
(225) ;Da:nUa. +pea:NEa:va vxa.a:=e -
Ka.a:mua:tpa.a:d:yea:t,a Á :pua:na:~ta:sma.a:de:va ;a.ba:nd.eaH .tea:nEa:va ;a.d
õ :gua:Na:sUa.ea:Na.a:nya.Ma ;aa:gua:Nea:na.a:nya.a-
mea:vMa .. a:tua:a.va:Za:a.ta:gua:NMa ya.a:va:a:tua:a.va:Za:a.ta:vRxa.a.a:a.na Ba:va:a.nta
// Á O;:Sa.Ma vxa.a.a:na.Ma Za.=;nea.a:ba.a:h:vaH
(225) õx .a:pra:ma.a:Na.a:a.na Á
I+tya.a:d.a:a.na .$ya.a:Da.Ra:a.na v.ya.a:sa.a:Da.Ra:a.na .~yuaH Á .tea:Bya.eaY:nua:pa.a:ta.a:d
ta.a ta.a:va:d:ntya:vxa.a:~ya ma.a:nMa .. a:kÒ +.k+.l;aH (21600) Á ta:~ya v.ya.a:sa.a:Da ;aa.$ya.a
3438 Á .$ya.a:Da.Ra:a.na .. a:kÒ +.k+.l;a:gua:Na.a:a.na ;aa.$ya.a:Ba:+a:a.na vxa.a:ma.a:na.a:a.na .ja.a:ya:ntea Á
d õR :ya.ea:vRxa.a:ya.ea:mRa:Dya O;;k
õ :ya.ea:d E +.kM va:l+ya.a:k+a.=M [ea.a:m,a Á ta.a:a.na .. a:tua:a.va:Za:a.taH Á ba:hu.$ya.a -
åò
:pa:[ea ba:hU:a.na .~yuaH Á ta.a ma:h:d:Da.ea:vxa.Ma BUa:a.ma:mua:pa:a=;ta:nMa l+Gua:mua:KMa Za.=;a.d
õ :d:~:a: a.ma:tMa
l+}bMa :pra:k+.pya l+}ba:gua:NMa ku +.mua:Ka:ya.ea:ga.a:DRa:a.ma:tyea:vMa :pxa:Ta:k, :pxa:Ta:k, :P+l;a:a.na Á
.tea:Sa.Ma :P+l;a:na.Ma ya.ea:ga.ea ga.ea:l;a:DRa:pxa:;P+l+m,a Á ta:a.
ë ;gua:NMa .sa:k+.l+ga.ea:l+pxa:;P+l+m,a Á
õù;a.a:sa:pa:
ta:d Å a=;a.Da:Ga.a:ta:tua:ya:mea:va .~ya.a:t,a Á
In order to make the point clear to a beginner, the teacher should demon-
strate it on the surface of a sphere. Make a model of the earth in clay or
wood and let its circumference be 21, 600 minutes. From the point at the
top of the sphere at an arc-distance of 1/96th of the circumference, i.e.,
225′ , draw a circle. Similarly draw circles with twice, thrice,... twenty-
four times 225′ [as the arc-distances] so that there will be twenty-four
circles. These circles will have as there radii Rsines starting from 225′ .
The measure [circumference] of the circle will be in proportion to these
radii. Here, the last circle has a circumference 21, 600′ and its radius
is 3, 438′. The Rsines multiplied by 21, 600 and divided by the radius
[3, 438] will give the measure of the circles. Between any two circles,
there is an annular region and there are twenty-four of them. If more
[than 24] Rsines are used, then there will be as many regions. In each
figure [if it is cut and spread across as a trapezium] the larger lower circle
may be taken as the base and the smaller upper circle as the face and 225′
46 Siddhāntaśiroman i, cited above, Vāsanā on Golādhyāya 2.57, p. 362.
.
28
as the altitude and the area calculated by the usual rule: [Area is] altitude
multiplied by half the sum of the base and face. The sum of all these areas
is the area of half the sphere. Twice that will be the surface area of the
entire sphere. That will always be equal to the product of the diameter
and the circumference.
Here Bhāskara is taking the circumference to be C = 21600′, and the corresponding
radius is approximated as R ≈ 3438′ . As shown in Figure 6, circles are drawn parallel
to the equator of the sphere, each separated in latitudes by 225′. This divides the
northern hemisphere into 24 strips, each of which can be cut and spread across as a
trapezium. If we denote the 24 tabulated Rsines by B1 , B2 ,... B24 , then the area Aj
of j-th trapezium will be
C (Bj + Bj+1 )
Aj = 225.
R 2
Therefore, the surface area S of the sphere is estimated to be
C B24
S=2 B1 + B2 + ...B23 + (225). (68)
R 2
E F
C D
225
A B
225
Figure 6: Surface area of a sphere.
Now, Bhāskara states that the right hand side of the above equation reduces to 2CR.
This can be checked by using Bhāskara’s Rsine-table. Bhāskara himself has done the
summation of the Rsines in his Vāsanā on the succeeding verses,47 where he gives
another method of derivation of the area of the sphere, by cutting the surface of the
sphere into lunes. In that context, he computes the sum
B24 R
B1 + B2 .... + B23 + = B1 + B2 .... + B23 + B24 −
2 2
≈ 54233 − 1719 = 52514. (69)
47 Siddhāntaśiroman i, cited above, Vāsanā on Golādhyāya 2.58–61, p. 364.
.
29
Thus, according to Bhāskara’s Rsine table
B24
B1 + B2 + .... + B23 + (225) = 52514 × (225)
2
= 11815650
≈ (3437.39)2. (70)
Taking this as R2 = (3438)2 , we obtain the surface area of the sphere to be 48
C
S=2 R2 = 2CR. (71)
R
Of course, the grossness of the result (70) is due to the fact that the quadrant of the
circumference was divided into only 24 bits. Bhāskara also mentions that we may
consider dividing the circumference into many more arc-bits, instead of the usual 24
divisions which are made for computing Rsine-tables. This is the approach taken in
Yuktibhās.ā, where the circumference of the circle is divided into a large number, n,
of equal arc-bits. If ∆ is the Rsine of each arc-bit, the surface area is estimated to be
C
S=2 (B1 + B2 + ....Bn )(∆). (72)
R
Then it is shown that in the limit of large n,
(B1 + B2 + ....Bn )(∆) ≈ R2 , (73)
which leads to the result 2CR for the surface area.49
As regards the volume of a sphere, Bhāskara’s justification is much simpler:50
ga.ea:l+pxa:;P+l+~ya v.ya.a:sa:gua:a.Na:ta:~ya :Sa:qM+Za.ea ;Ga:na:P+lM .~ya.a:t,a Á A.a.ea:pa:pa:aaH Á
ñÍ
:pxa:;P+l+sa:*
É +;a.a:
Ë ù a.na . +pa:ba.a:hU:a.na v.ya.a:sa.a:DRa:tua:ya:vea:Da.a:a.na .sUa:. a.a:Ka.a:ta.a:a.na ga.ea:l+pxa:e
Á
:pra:k+.pya.a:a.na Á .sUa:. ya:g{a.a:Na.Ma ga.ea:l+ga:BeRa .sMa:pa.a:taH Á O;:vMa .sUa:. a.a:P+l;a:na.Ma ya.ea:ga.ea ;Ga:na -
:P+l+a.ma:tyua:pa:pa:a:m,a Á ya:t,a :pua:naH [ea.a:P+l+mUa:le+na [ea.a:P+lM gua:a.Na:tMa ;Ga:na:P+lM
.~ya.a:a.d:a.ta ta:t,a :pra.a:yaH .. a:tua:veRa:d.a:. a.a:yRaH :pa.=;ma:ta:mua:pa:nya:~ta:va.a:n,a Á
The surface area of a sphere multiplied by its diameter and divided by
six is its volume. Here is the justification. As many pyramids as there
are units in the surface area with bases of unit side and altitude equal to
the semi-diameter should be imagined on the surface of the sphere. The
apices of the pyramids meet at the centre of the sphere. Then the volume
of the sphere is the sum of the volumes of the pyramids and thus our result
is justified. The view that the volume is the product of the area times its
own root, is perhaps an alien view (paramata) that has been presented by
Caturavedācārya [Pr.thūdakasvāmin].
48 As has been remarked by one of the reviewers, it is indeed intriguing the Bhāskara chose to sum the
tabular Rsines numerically, instead of making use of the relation between Rsines and Rcosine-differences
which was well known since the time of Āryabhat.a. In fact, the proof given in Yuktibhās.ā (cited below
in fn. 49) makes use of the relation between the Rsines and the second order Rsine-diffferences to estimate
this sum.
49 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 7.18, pp. 140–42, 261–63, 465–67. In modern terminology,
. . Rπ
this amounts to the evaluation of the integral 2 R sin θRdθ = R2 .
0
50 Siddhāntaśiroman i, cited above, Vāsanā on Golādhyāya 2.61, p. 364.
.
30
We may note that it is the Āryabhat.ı̄ya rule which is referred to as paramata in
the above passage. Bhāskara’s derivation of the volume of a sphere is similar to
that of the area of a circle by approximating it as the sum of the areas of a large
numbers of triangles with their vertices at the centre, which is actually the proof given
in Yuktibhās.ā. In the case of the volume of a sphere, Yuktibhās.ā, however, gives the
more “standard” derivation, where the sphere is divided into a large number of slices
and the volume is found as the sum of the volumes of the slices—which ultimately
involves estimating the sum of squares of natural numbers (varga-saṅkalita), 12 +
22 + 32 + ... + n2 , for large n.51
51 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 7.19, pp. 142–45, 263–66, 468–70.
. .
31
PART II : W ORK OF THE K ERALA S CHOOL
Mādhava to Śaṅkara Vāriyar (c. 1350–1550 CE)
8 Kerala School of Astronomy
The Kerala School of Astronomy in the medieval period, pioneered by Mādhava
(c. 1340–1420) of Saṅgamagrāma, extended well into the 19th century as exempli-
fied in the work of Śaṅkaravarman (c. 1830), Rājā of Kad.attanad.u. Only a couple
of astronomical works of Mādhava (Ven.vāroha and Sphut.acandrāpti) seem to be
extant now. Most of his celebrated mathematical discoveries—such as the infinite se-
ries for π and the sine and cosine functions—are available only in the form of citations
in later works.
Mādhava’s disciple Parameśvara (c. 1380–1460) of Vat.asseri, is reputed to have
carried out detailed observations for over 50 years. A large number of original works
and commentaries written by him have been published. However, his most important
work on mathematics, the commentary Vivaran.a on Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskara II, is yet
to be published.
Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ (c. 1444–1550) of Kun.d.agrāma, disciple of Parameśvara’s
son Dāmodara (c. 1410–1520), is the most celebrated member of Kerala School
after Mādhava. Nı̄lakan.t.ha has cited several important results of Mādhava in
his various works, the most prominent of them being Tantrasaṅgraha (c. 1500)
and Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya. In the latter work, while commenting on Gan.itapāda of
Āryabhat.ı̄ya, Nı̄lakan.t.ha has also dealt extensively with many important mathemat-
ical issues.
However, the most detailed exposition of the work of the Kerala School, starting from
Mādhava, and including the seminal contributions of Parameśvara, Dāmodara and
Nı̄lakan.t.ha, is to be found in the famous Malayalam work Yuktibhās.ā (c. 1530) of
Jyes.t.hadeva (c. 1500–1610). Jyes.t.hadeva was also a disciple of Dāmodara but
junior to Nı̄lakan.t.ha. The direct lineage from Mādhava continued at least till Acyuta
Piśārat.i (c. 1550–1621), a disciple of Jyes.t.hadeva, who wrote many important works
and a couple of commentaries in Malayalam also.
At the very beginning of Yuktibhās.ā, Jyes.t.hadeva states that he intends to present
the rationale of the mathematical and astronomical results and procedures which are
to be found in Tantrasaṅgraha of Nı̄lakan.t.ha. Yuktibhās.ā, comprising 15 chapters,
is naturally divided into two parts, Mathematics and Astronomy. Topics in astronomy
proper, so to say, are taken up for consideration only from the eighth chapter onwards,
starting with a discussion on mean and true planets.
The first seven chapters of Yuktibhās.ā are in fact in the nature of an independent trea-
tise on mathematics and deal with various topics which are of relevance to astronomy.
It is here that one finds detailed demonstrations of the results of Mādhava such as
the infinite series for π, the arc-tangent, sine and the cosine functions, the estima-
tion of correction terms and their use in the generation of faster convergent series.
Demonstrations are also provided for the classical results of Āryabhat.a (c. 499) on
kut..tākāra (linear indeterminate equations), of Brahmagupta (c. 628) on the diagonals
32
and the area of a cyclic quadrilateral, and of Bhāskara II (c. 1150) on the surface area
and volume of a sphere. Many of these rationales have also been presented mostly in
the form of Sanskrit verses by Śaṅkara Vāriyar (c. 1500–1560) of Tr. .ikkut.aveli in
his commentaries Kriyākramakarı̄ (c. 1535) on Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskara II and Yukti-
dı̄pikā on Tantrasaṅgraha of Nı̄lakan.t.ha. In fact, Śaṅkara Vāriyar ends his com-
menatary on the first chapter of Tantrasaṅgraha with the acknowledgement:52
I+tyea:Sa.a :pa.=;kÒ +ea:q;a:va.a:sa:a.d
õ .ja:va.=;sa:ma.a:a=;ta.ea ya.eaY:TRaH Á
ñÍ
.sa tua ta.n:a:sa:*:
ç "Å +h:~ya :pra:Ta:meaY:Dya.a:yea ma:ya.a k+.a.Ta:taH Á Á
Whatever has been the meaning as expounded by the noble dvija of
Parakrod.a [Jyes.t.hadeva] the same has now been stated by me for the
first chapter of Tantrasaṅgraha.
In the following sections we shall present an overview of the contribution of the Ker-
ala School to the development of calculus (during the period 1350–1500), following
essentially the exposition given in Yuktibhās.ā. In order to indicate some of the con-
cepts and methods developed by the Kerala astronomers, we first take up the issue
of irrationality of π and the summation of infinite geometric series as discussed by
Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ in his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya. We then cosider the derivation
of binomial series expansion and the estimation of the sum of integral powers of in-
tegers, 1k + 2k + . . . + nk for large n, as presented in Yuktibhās.ā. These results
constitute the basis for the derivation of the infinite series for π4 due to Mādhava. We
shall outline this as also the very interesting work of Mādhava on the estimation of
the end-correction terms and the transformation of the π-series to achieve faster con-
vergence. Finally we shall summarize the derivation of the infinite series for Rsine
and Rcosine due to Mādhava.
In the final section, we shall deal with another topic which has a bearing on calculus,
but is not dealt with in Yuktibhās.ā, namely the evaluation of the instantaneous velocity
of a planet. Here, we shall present the result of Dāmodara, as cited by Nı̄lakan.t.ha,
on the instantaneous velocity of a planet which involves the derivative of the arc-sine
function. There are indeed many works and commentaries by later astronomers of the
Kerala School, whose mathematical contributions are yet to be studied in detail. We
shall here cite only one result due to Acyuta Pis.ārat.i (c. 1550–1621), a disciple of
Jyes.t.hadeva, on the instantaneous velocity of a planet, which involves the evaluation
of the derivative of the ratio of two functions.
9 Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of irrationality of π
In the context of discussing the procedure for finding the approximate square root of a
non-square number, by multiplying it by a large square number (the method given in
Triśatikā of Śrı̄dhara referred to earlier in Section 3.3), Nı̄lakan.t.ha observes in his
Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās. ya:53
52 Tantrasaṅgraha of Nı̄lakantha Somayājı̄, Ed. with Yukti-dı̄pikā of Śaṅkara Vāriyar by
..
K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1977, p. 77. The same acknowledgement appears at the end of the subsequent
chapters also.
53 Āryabhatı̄ya of Āryabhata, Ed. with Āryabhatı̄ya-bhāsya of Nı̄lakantha Somayājı̄ by K. Sām-
. . . . ..
baśiva Śāstrı̄, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series 101, Trivandrum 1930, comm. on Gan. itapāda 4, p. 14.
33
O;:vMa kx +.ta.eaY:pya.a:sa:a:mea:va mUa:lM .~ya.a:t,a Á na :pua:naH k+=;Na.a:mUa:l+~ya ta.va:taH
:pa:a=;. Ce+dH k+.tua Za:k+.a I+tya:a.Ba:pra.a:yaH Á ta:ta.ea ya.a:va:d:pea:[a:m,a AM:Za.a:na.Ma .sUa:[ma:tva.a:ya
ma:h:ta.a va:geRa:Na h:na:na:mua:+.m,a Á
Even if we were to proceed this way, the square root obtained will only
be approximate. The idea [that is being conveyed] is, that it is actually
not possible to exactly de-limit (paricchedah.) the square root of a non-
square number. Precisely for this reason, multiplication by a large square
was stated (recommended) in order to get as much accuracy as desired.
Regarding the choice of the large number that must be made, it is mentioned that
one may choose any number—as large a number as possible—that gives the desired
accuracy.54
ta.a ya.a:va:ta.a ma:h:ta.a gua:Na:nea bua.;d
Äâ .a:va:lM+Ba.a:vaH .~ya.a:t,a ta.a:va:ta.a h:nya.a:t,a Á ma:h.va:~ya
ë Å
A.a:pea:a.[a:k+.tva.a:t,a ë
*:+.
Á a.. a:d:a.pa na :pa:a=;sa:ma.a:a.a:a=;a.ta Ba.a:vaH Á
You can multiply by whichever large number you want upto your satisfac-
. bhāvah.). Since largeness is a relative notion, it may
tion (buddhāvalam
be understood that the process is an unending one.
In this context, Nı̄lakan.t.ha cites the verse given by Āryabhat.a specifying the ratio
of the circumference to the diameter of a circle (value of π), particularly drawing our
attention to the fact that Āryabhat.a refers to this value as “approximate”.55
va:[ya:a.ta .. a – ‘A:yua:ta:dõ:ya:a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya A.a:sa:a.ea vxa.a:pa:a=;Na.a:hH ’ I+a.ta Á ta.a
å
v.ya.a:sea:na :pa:a=;a.Da:¼a.a:nea A:nua:ma.a:na:pa.=;}.pa.=:a .~ya.a:t,a Á ta:tk+.mRa:Nya:a.pa mUa:l;a:k+=;Na:~ya
A:nta:Ba.Ra:va.a:de:va ta:~ya A.a:sa:a:tva:m,a Á ta:tsa:va ta:d:va:sa:=e O;:va :pra:a.ta:pa.a:d:a.ya:Sya.a:maH Á
As will be stated [by the author himself] – ‘this is [only] an approxi-
mate measure of the circumferene of the circle whose diameter is twenty-
thousand.’ In finding the circumference from the diameter, a series of
inferences are involved. The approximate nature of this also stems from
the fact that it involves finding square roots. All this will be explained
later at the appropriate context.
Addressing the issue—later in his commentary, as promised earlier—while discussing
the value of π Nı̄lakan.t.ha observes:56
ñÍ
É +;a.a:sa:}ba:nDaH
:pa:a=;a.Da:v.ya.a:sa:ya.eaH .sa:*
Ë ù
Á
:pra:d:a.ZRa:taH Á ... ,
A.a:sa:aH A.a:sa:a:ta:yEa:va A:yua:ta -
ñÍ ñÍ ñÍ
dõ :ya:sa:* ËÉ +;a:
ù a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya I+yMa :pa:a=;a.Da:sa:* É +;a.a
Ë ù o++a Á k É +;a.a:m,
u +.taH :pua:naH va.a:~ta:va.Ma .sa:*
Ë ù a
Á Á Á
o+tsxa.$ya A.a:sa:Ea:va I+h.ea:+a ? o+. ya:tea Á ta:~ya.a va:u+.ma:Za:k+.a:tva.a:t,a Á ku +.taH ?
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid., comm. on Gan
. itapāda 10, p. 41.
34
The relation between the circumference and the diameter has been pre-
sented. . . . Approximate: This value (62,832) has been stated as only an
aproximation to the circumference of a circle having a diameter of 20,000.
“Why then has an approximate value been mentioned here instead of the
actual value?” It is explained [as follows]. Because it (the exact value)
cannot be expressed. Why?
Explaining as to why the exact value cannot be presented, Nı̄lakan.t.ha continues:57
yea:na ma.a:nea:na ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:saH ;a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .~ya.a:t,a , .tea:nEa:va ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH :pa:a=;a.DaH
:pua:naH .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va .~ya.a:t,a Á yea:na .. a ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH :pa:a=;a.DaH ;a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .tea:nEa:va
ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:sa.eaY:a.pa .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va ; I+a.ta O;:k
e +.nEa:va ma.a:nea:na ma.a:ya:ma.a:na:ya.eaH
ë Å
o+Ba:ya.eaH ëÁ a.pa
*:+a: na ;a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa .~ya.a:t,a Á ma:h.a:nta:m,a A:Dva.a:nMa ga:tva.a:a.pa
ë Å
A:pa.a:va:ya:va:tva:m,a O;:va l+Bya:m,a Á ;a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa tua ëÁ a.pa
*:+a: na l+Bya:m,a I+a.ta
Ba.a:vaH Á
Given a certain unit of measurement (māna) in terms of which the di-
ameter (vyāsa) specified [is just an integer and] has no [fractional] part
(niravayava), the same measure when employed to specify the circum-
ference (paridhi) will certainly have a [fractional] part (sāvayava) [and
cannot be just an integer]. Again if in terms of certain [other] measure
the circumference has no [fractional] part, then employing the same mea-
sure the diameter will certainly have a [fractional] part [and cannot be an
integer]. Thus when both [the diameter and the circumference] are mea-
sured by the same unit, they cannot both be specified [as integers] without
[fractional] parts. Even if you go a long way (i.e., keep on reducing the
measure of the unit employed), the fractional part [in specifying one of
them] will only become very small. A situation in which there will be no
[fractional] part (i.e, both the diameter and circumference can be speci-
fied in terms of integers) is impossible, and this is what is the import [of
the expression āsanna].
Evidently, what Nı̄lakan.t.ha is trying to explain here is the incommensurability of
the circumference and the diameter of a circle. Particularly, the last line of the above
quote—where Nı̄lakan.t.ha clearly mentions that, however small you may choose your
unit of measurement to be, the two quantities will never become commensurate—is
noteworthy.
10 Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s discussion of the sum of an infinite ge-
ometric series
In his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya, while deriving an interesting approximation for the arc
of a circle in terms of the jyā (Rsine) and the śara (Rversine), Nı̄lakan.t.ha presents
57 Ibid., pp. 41–42.
35
a detailed demonstration of how to sum an infinite geometric series. The specific
geometric series that arises in this context is:
2 n
1 1 1 1
+ + ...+ + ... = .
4 4 4 3
We shall now present an outline of Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s argument that gives an idea of how
the notion of limit was understood in the Indian mathematical tradition.
10.1 Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s approximate formula for the arc in terms of jyā
and śara
B
E
F
A D C
Figure 7: Arc-length in terms of jyā and śara.
In Figure 7, AB is the arc whose length (assumed to be small) is to be determined
in terms of the chord lengths AD and BD. In the Indian mathematical literature,
the arc AB, the semi-chord AD and the segment BD are referred to as the cāpa,
jyārdha and śara respectively. As can be easily seen from the figure, this terminology
arises from the fact that these geometrical objects look like a bow, a string and an
arrow respectively. Denoting them by c, j, and s, the expression for the arc given by
Nı̄lakan.t.ha may be written as:
s
1
c≈ 1+ s2 + j 2 . (74)
3
Nı̄lakan.t.ha’s proof of the above equation has been discussed in detail by Sarasvati
Amma.58 It may also be mentioned that the above approximation actually does not
form a part of the text Āryabhat.ı̄ya; but nevertheless it is introduced by Nı̄lakan.t.ha
while commenting upon a verse in Āryabhat.ı̄ya that gives the arc in terms of the
chords in a circle.59 The verse that succinctly presents the above equation goes as
58 T. A. Sarasvati Amma, cited above (fn. 21), pp. 179–182.
59 vxa.ea Za.=;sMa:va:gRaH A:DRa.$ya.a:va:gRaH .sa Ka:lu ;Da:nua:Sa.eaH Á
(Āryabhat.ı̄ya, Gan
. itapāda, verse 17).
36
follows:60
.sa.yMa:Za.a:a.d:Sua:va:ga.Ra:t,a .$ya.a:va:ga.Ra:Q.a.a:t,a :pa:dM ;Da:nuaH :pra.a:yaH Á
The arc is nearly (prāyah.) equal to the square root of the sum of the
square of the śara added to one-thirds of it, and the square of the jyā.
The proof of (74) given by Nı̄lakan.t.ha involves:
1. Repeated halving of the arc-bit, cāpa c to get c1 . . . ci . . . .
2. Finding the corresponding semi-chords, jyā (ji ) and the Rversines, śara (si ).
3. Estimating the difference between the cāpa and jyā at each step.
If δi denotes the difference between the cāpa and jyā at the ith step, that is,
δi = ci − ji ,
then it is seen that this difference decreases as the size of the cāpa decreases. Having
made this observation, Nı̄lakan.t.ha proceeds with the argument that
• Generating successive values of the ji -s and si -s is an ‘unending’ process (na
kvacidapi paryavasyati) as one can keep on dividing the cāpa into half ad
infinitum (ānantyāt vibhāgasya).
• It would therefore be appropriate to proceed upto a stage where the difference
δi becomes negligible (śūnyaprāya) and make an ‘intelligent approximation’,
to obtain the value of the difference between c and j approximately.
The original passage in Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya which presents the above argument reads
as follows:61
ta.a .$ya.a:. a.a:pa:ya.ea.=;nta.=;~ya :pua:naH :pua:naH nyUa:na:tvMa .. a.a:pa:pa:a=;ma.a:Na.a:pa:tva:kÒ +.mea:Nea:a.ta
å å ë Å
ta.a:d:DRa:. a.a:pa.a:na.a:m,a A:DRa.$ya.a:pa.=;}.pa.=:a Za.=;pa.=;}.pa.=:a .. a A.a:na.a:ya:ma.a:na.a na *:+.
ëÁ a.. a:d:a.pa
:pa:yRa:va:~ya:a.ta A.a:na:ntya.a:d
, ;a.va:Ba.a:ga:~ya Á
ú
ta:taH ;a.k+.ya:nta:a*.a:t, ãÉa A:pa.a:ya:~tva:m,a A.a:pa.a:dù;aÅ
ãÁ a :pra:de:ZMa ga:tva.a .. a.a:pa:~ya .ja.a:va.a:ya.a:(
.. a.a:pa.$ya.a:nta.=M .. a ZUa:nya:pra.a:yMa l+b.Dva.a :pua:na.=;a.pa k+.pya:ma.a:na:ma:nta.=;m,a A:tya:pa:ma:a.pa
k+Ea:Za:l;a:t,a ¼ea:ya:m,a Á
60 Āryabhatı̄ya-bhāsya on Āryabhatı̄ya, cited above (fn. 50), comm. on Ganitapāda 12 and 17,
. . . .
p. 63 and p. 110. That the verse cited is from another work of his, namely Golasāra, has been alluded to
by Nı̄lakan.t.ha in both the instances of citation.
61 Ibid., comm. on Ganitapāda 17, pp. 104–05.
.
37
10.2 Nīlakan.t.ha’s summation of the infinite geometric series
The question that Nı̄lakan.t.ha poses as he commences his detailed discussion on the
sum of geometric series is very important and arises quite naturally whenever one
encounters the sum of an infinite series:62
k+.TMa :pua:naH ta.a:va:de:va va:DRa:tea ta.a:va:d
õ :DRa:tea .. a ?
How do you know that [the sum of the series] increases only upto that
[limiting value] and that it certainly increases upto that [limiting value]?
Proceeding to answer the above question, Nı̄lakan.t.ha first states the general result
" 3 #
2
1 1 1 a
a + + + ... = .
r r r r−1
Here, the left hand side is an infinite geometric series with the successive terms be-
ing obtained by dividing by a common divisor, r, known as cheda, whose value is
assumed to be greater than 1. He further notes that this result is best demonstrated by
considering a particular case, say r = 4. In his own words:63
å
o+. ya:tea Á O;:vMa yaH tua:ya:. Ce+d:pa.=;Ba.a:ga:pa.=;}.pa.=:a:ya.aH A:na:nta.a:ya.aH A:a.pa .sMa:ya.ea:gaH
å
ta:~ya A:na:nta.a:na.a:ma:a.pa k+.pya:ma.a:na:~ya ya.ea:ga:~ya A.a:dù;a.a:va:ya:
Å a.va:naH :pa.=;}.pa.=:Ma:Za:. Ce -
å
d.a:t,a O;:k+ea:na:. Ce+d.Ma:Za:sa.a:}yMa .sa:vRa.a .sa:ma.a:na:mea:va Á ta:dù;a:Ta.a
Å – .. a:tua.=M;Za:pa.=;}.pa.=:a:ya.a:mea:va
ta.a:va:t,a :pra:Ta:mMa :pra:a.ta:pa.a:dù;a:te
Å a Á
It is being explained. Thus, in an infinite (ananta) geometrical series
(tulyaccheda-parabhāga-paramparā) the sum of all the infinite number
of terms considered will always be equal to the value obtained by dividing
by a factor which is one less than the common factor of the series. That
this is so will be demonstrated by first considering the series obtained
with one-fourth (caturam . śa-paramparā).
What is intended to be demonstrated is
" 3 #
2
1 1 1 a
a + + + ... = . (75)
4 4 4 3
Besides the multiplying factor a, it is noted that, one-fourth and one-third are the only
terms appearing in the above equation. Nı̄lakan.t.ha first defines these numbers in
terms of one-twelfth of the multiplier a referred to by the word rāśi. For the sake of
simplicity we take the rāśi to be unity.
1 1 1 1
3× = ; 4× = .
12 4 12 3
62 Ibid., p. 106.
63 Ibid., pp. 106–07.
38
Having defined them, Nı̄lakan.t.ha first obtains the sequence of results,
1 1 1
= + ,
3 4 (4.3)
1 1 1
= + ,
(4.3) (4.4) (4.4.3)
1 1 1
= + ,
(4.4.3) (4.4.4) (4.4.4.3)
and so on, which leads to the general result,
" 2 n # n
1 1 1 1 1 1
− + + ...+ = . (76)
3 4 4 4 4 3
Nı̄lakan.t.ha then goes on to present the following crucial argument to derive the sum
of the infinite geometric series: As we sum more terms, the difference between 13 and
sum of powers of 41 (as given by the right hand side of the above equation), becomes
extremely small, but never zero. Only when we take all the terms of the infinite series
together do we obtain the equality
2 n
1 1 1 1
+ + ...+ + ... = . (77)
4 4 4 3
A brief extract from the text presenting the above argument is given below:64
yea .=:a:Zea:d
õ .Ra:d:Za.Ma:Za.aH .tea:Sa.Ma ;aa:kM ;a.h .. a:tua.=M;ZaH Á .. a:tua:SkM .. a yMa:ZaH Á ta:a:tua::yea
å
yMa:Za.a:tma:ke Ba.a:ga.a:yMa .. a:tua.=M;Zea:na.a:pUa:NRa:m,a Á yaH :pua:naH ta:~ya .. a:tua:Ta.eRaY:}.ZaH ta:~ya.a:a.pa
:pa.a:d.a:yMa .. a:tua.=M;Za:~ya .. a:tua.=M;Zea:na.a:pUa:NRa:m,a Á d
õ .a:d:Za.Ma:Za.a:na.Ma a:ya.a:Na.Ma ...
ñÍ
ta:~ya :pua:naH :pua:na.=;a.ta:sUa:[ma:tva.a:de:va na :ke +.va:lM yMa:Za:tvea:na A:*:
çÅ Å ;a:k+a.=H , ;a.na. +pya -
ma.a:Na:~ya va.a ;a.kÒ +.ya:ma.a:Na:~ya va.a A.a:na:ntya.a:t,a Á A.a:na:ntya.a:de:va ;a.Za::tva.a:de:va
å
k+.mRa:Na:~ta:~ya A:pa:a=;pUa:a.tRa:Ba.Ra:a.ta Á O;:vMa .sa:vRa:d.a:a.pa .sa.a:va:Zea:Sa.a:Na.Ma k+.mRa:Na.Ma :pa.=;}.pa.=:a:ya.Ma
ïîéå
k+a:t=+: x +.Sya.a.a .sa:a.a:a.h:ta.a:ya.Ma :pa:a=;pUa:a.tRaH
yeRa:na.a:k ãÉa.a:ya:tea .. a:tua:gRua:Na.ea.a:=e
.~ya.a:de:vea:a.ta ;a.na:(
gua:Na.ea.a.=:a:K.yea ga:a.Na:teaY:a.pa Á
Three times one-twelfth of a rāśi is one-fourth (caturam . śa) [of that rāśi].
Four times that is one-third (tryam . śa). [Considering] four times that
[one-twelfth of the rāśi] which is one-third, three by fourth of that falls
short by one-fourth [of one-third of the rāśi]. Three-fourths of that [i.e.,
1
of 4.3 of the rāśi] which is one-fourth of that (tryam
. śa), again falls short
[of the same] by one-fourth of one-fourth [of one-third of the rāśi] . . .
Since the result to be demonstrated or the process to be carried out is never
ending (ānantyāt) and the difference though very small (atisūks.matvāt)
[still exists and the sum of the series] cannot be simply taken to be one-
third. It seems that the process is incomplete since always something
remains because of its never ending nature. In fact, since in all the prob-
lems involving [infinite] series, by bringing in all the terms and placing
them together, the process would [in principle] become complete, here, in
the mathematics involving repeated multiplication of one-fourth, a simi-
lar conclusion may be drawn.
64 Ibid., p. 107.
39
11 Derivation of binomial series expansion
Yuktibhās.ā presents a very interesting derivation of the binomial series for (1 + x)−1
by making iterative substitutions in an algebric identity. The method given in the text
may be summarized as follows.
Consider the product a cb , where some quantity a is multiplied by the multiplier c,
and divided by the divisor b. Here, a is called gun.ya, c the gun.aka and b the hāra,
which are all assumed to be positive. Now the above product can be rewritten as:
c (b − c)
a =a−a . (78)
b b
In the expression a (b−c)
b in (78) above, if we want to replace the division by b (the
divisor) by division by c (the multiplier), then we have to make a subtractive correction
(called śodhya-phala) which amounts to the following equation.
(b − c) (b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a =a − a × . (79)
b c c b
Now, in the second term (inside parenthesis) in (79)—which is what we referred to as
śodhya-phala, which literally means a quantity to be subtracted—if we again replace
the division by the divisor b by the multiplier c, then we have to employ the relation
(79) once again to get another subtractive term
c (b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a = a− a −a ×
b c c b
(b − c) (b − c) (b − c) c
= a− a −a × ×
c c c b
(b − c) (b − c)2 (b − c)2 (b − c)
= a− a − a − a × (80)
c c2 c2 b
2
Here, the quantity a (b−c)
c2 is called dvitı̄ya-phala or simply dvitı̄ya and the one sub-
tracted from that is dvitı̄ya-śodhya-phala. If we carry out the same set of operations,
the mth śodhya-phala subtracted from the mth term will be of the form
m m
(b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a −a × .
c c b
Since the successive śodhya-phalas are subtracted from their immediately preceding
term, we will end up with a series in which all the odd terms (leaving out the gun.ya,
a) are negative and the even ones positive. Thus, after taking m śodhya-phalas we get
2 m
c (b − c) (b − c) (b − c)
a = a−a +a − . . . + (−1)m a
b c c c
m
(b − c) (b − c)
+(−1)m+1 a . (81)
c b
40
Regarding the question of termination of the process, both the texts Yuktibhās.ā and
Kriyākramakarı̄ clearly mention that logically there is no end to the process of gen-
erating śodhya-phalas. We may thus write our result as:65
2 m−1
c (b − c) (b − c) m−1 (b − c)
a = a−a +a − . . . + (−1) a
b c c c
m
(b − c)
+(−1)m a + .... (82)
c
It is also noted that the process may be terminated after having obtained the desired
accuracy by neglecting the subsequent phalās as their magnitudes become smaller and
smaller. In fact, Kriyākramakarı̄ explicitly mentions the condition under which the
succeeding phalās will become smaller and smaller:66
x +.teaY:a.pa ë Å
O;:vMa mua:huH :P+l;a:na:ya:nea k yua:a.+.taH ëÁ a.pa
*:+a: na .sa:ma.a:a.aH Á ta:Ta.a:a.pa
ya.a:va:d:pea:[Ma .sUa:[ma:ta.a:ma.a:pa.a:dù;aÅ :pa.a:(É
ãa.a:tya.a:nyu a:pea:[ya :P+l;a:na:ya:nMa .sa:ma.a:pa:na.a:ya:m,a Á
I+h.ea.a.=:ea.a.=;P+l;a:na.Ma nyUa:na:tvMa tua gua:Na:h.a.=:a:nta:=e gua:Na:k+a.=:a:yUa:na O;:va .~ya.a:t,a Á
Thus, even if we keep finding the phalās repeatedly, logically there is
no end to the process. Even then, having carried on the process to the
desired accuracy (yāvadapeks. am . sūks.matāmāpādya), one should ter-
minate computing the phalās by [simply] neglecting the terms that may
be obtained further (pāścātyānyupeks.ya). Here, the succeeding phalas
will become smaller and smaller only when the difference between the
gun.aka and hāra is smaller than gun.aka, [that is (b ∼ c) < c].
12 Estimation of sums of 1k + 2k + . . . nk for
large n
As mentioned in section 4.1, Āryabhat.a has given the explicit formula for the sum-
mation of squares and cubes of integers. The word employed in the Indian mathemat-
ical literature for summation is saṅkalita. The formulae given by Āryabhat.a for the
saṅkalitas are as follows:
n(n + 1)
Sn(1) = 1 + 2 + ··· + n =
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Sn(2) 2 2 2
= 1 + 2 + ···+ n =
6
2
n(n + 1)
Sn(3) 3 3 3
= 1 + 2 + ···+ n = . (83)
2
(b−c)1
may be noted that if we set c = x, then bc = (1+x)
65 It . Hence, the series (82) is none other than
the well known binomial series
a
= a − ax + ax2 − . . . + (−1)m axm + . . . ,
1+x
which is convergent for −1 < x < 1.
66 Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, p. 385.
41
From these, it is easy to estimate these sums when n is large. Yuktibhās.ā gives a
general method of estimating the sama-ghāta-saṅkalita 67
Sn(k) = 1k + 2k + · · · + nk , (84)
when n is large. Actually the text presents a general method of estimation, which does
not make use of the actual value of the sum. In fact, the same argument is repeated
even for k = 1, 2, 3, although the result of summation is well known in these cases.
12.1 The sum of natural numbers (Mūla-saṅkalita)
Yuktibhās.ā takes up the discussion on saṅkalitas in the context of evaluating the
circumference of a circle which is conceived to be inscribed in a square. It is half the
side of this square that is being referred to by the word bhujā in both the citations as
well as explanations offered below. Half of the side of the square (equal to the radius)
is divided
r
r
into n equal bits, known as bhujā-khan.d.as. It is these bhujā-khan.d.as
n , 2 n · · · whose powers are summed.
To start with, Yuktibhās.ā discusses just the basic summation of bhujā-khan.d.as called
Mūla-saṅkalita. We now cite the following from the translation of Yuktibhās.ā:68
Now is described the methods of making the summations (referred to in
the earlier sections). At first, the simple arithmetical progression (kevala-
saṅkalita) is described. This is followed by the summation of the prod-
ucts of equal numbers (squares). . . .
Here, in this mūla-saṅkalita (basic arithmetical progression), the final
bhujā is equal to the radius. The term before that will be one segment
(khan.d.a) less. The next one will be two segments less. Here, if all the
terms (bhujās) had been equal to the radius, the result of the summation
would be obtained by multiplying the radius by the number of bhujās.
However, here, only one bhujā is equal to the radius. And, from that
bhujā, those associated with the smaller hypotenuses are less by one seg-
ment each, in order. Now, suppose the radius to be of the same number
of units as the number of segments to which it has been divided, in order
to facilitate remembering (their number). Then, the number associated
with the penultimate bhujā will be less by one (from the number of units
in the radius); the number of the next one, will be less by two from the
number of units in the radius. This reduction (in the number of segments)
will increase by one (at each step). The last reduction will practically be
equal to the measure of the radius, for it will be less only by one segment.
In other words, when the reductions are all added, the sum thereof will
practically (prāyen.a) be equal to the summation of the series from 1 to
the number of units in the radius; it will be less only by one radius length.
Hence, the summation will be equal to the product of the number of units
in the radius with the number of segments plus one, and divided by 2.
67 The compound sama-ghāta in this context means product of a number with itself same number of
times.
68 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 6.4, pp. 61–67, 192–97, 382–88.
. .
42
The summation of all the bhujās of the different hypotenuses is called
bhujā-saṅkalita.
Now, the smaller the segments, the more accurate (sūks.ma) will be the
result. Hence, do the summation also by taking each segment as small as
an atom (an.u). Here, if it (namely, the bhujā or the radius) is divided into
parārdha (a very large number) parts, to the bhujā obtained by multiply-
ing by parārdha add one part in parārdha and multiply by the radius and
divide by 2, and then divide by parārdha. For, the result will practically
be the square of the radius divided by two. . . .
The first summation, the bhujā-saṅkalita, may be written in the reverse order from
the final bhujā to the first bhujā as
nr (n − 1)r r
Sn(1) = + + .... + . (85)
n n n
Now, conceive of the bhujā-khan.d.a nr as being infinitesimal (an.u) and at the same
time as of unit-measure (rūpa), so that the radius will be the measure of n, the pada,
or the number of terms. Then
Sn(1) = n + (n − 1) + .... + 1. (86)
If each of the terms were of the measure of radius (n) then the sum would be nothing
but n2 , the square of the radius. But only the first term is of the measure of radius, the
next is deficient by one segment (khan.d.a), the next by two segments and so on till the
last term which is deficient by an amount equal to radius-minus-one segment. In other
words,
Sn(1) = n + [n − 1] + [n − 2].... + [n − (n − 2)] + [n − (n − 1)]
= n.n − [1 + 2 + ... + (n − 1)]. (87)
When n is very large, the quantity to be subtracted from n2 is practically (prāyen.a)
(1)
the same as Sn , thus leading to the estimate
Sn(1) ≈ n2 − Sn(1) , (88)
or, equivalently
n2
. Sn(1) ≈ (89)
2
It is stated that the result is more accurate, when the size of the segments are small (or
equivalently, the value of n is large).69
If instead of making the approximation as in (88), we proceed with (87) as it is, we
(1) (1)
get Sn = n2 − (Sn − n), which leads to the well-known exact value of the sum of
the first n natural numbers
n(n + 1)
Sn(1) = , (90)
2
With the convention that the nr is of unit-measure, the above estimate (89) is stated in
the form that the bhujā-saṅkalita is half the square of the radius.
69 Śaṅkara Vāriyar also emphasizes the same idea, in his discussion of the estimation of saṅkalita-s
in his commentary Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄ (cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, p. 382.):
Ka:Nq+~ya.a:pa:tvea .sa:tyea:va l+b.Da:~ya .sUa:[ma:ta.a .. a .~ya.a:t,a Á
.d
Only when the segment is small (khan . asyālpatve) the result obtained would be accurate.
43
12.2 Summation of squares (Varga-saṅkalita)
We now cite the following from the translation of Yuktibhās.ā:70
Now is explained the summation of squares (varga-saṅkalita). Obvi-
ously, the squares of the bhujās, which are summed up above, are the
bhujās each multiplied by itself. Here, if the bhujās which are all mul-
tipliers, had all been equal to the radius, their sum, (saṅkalita derived
above), multiplied by the radius would have been the summation of their
squares. Here, however, only one multiplier happens to be equal to the
radius, and that is the last one. The one before that will have the number
of segments one less than in the radius. (Hence) if that, (i.e., the second
one), is multiplied by the radius, it would mean that one multiplied by
the penultimate bhujā would have been the increase in the summation of
the squares. Then (the segment) next below is the third. That will be less
than the radius by two segments. If that is multiplied by the radius, it will
mean that, the summation of the squares will increase by the product of
the bhujā by two (segments). In this manner, the summation in which
the multiplication is done by the radius (instead of the bhujās) would be
larger than the summation of squares by terms which involve the succes-
sively smaller bhujās multiplied by successively higher numbers. If (all
these additions) are duly subtracted from the summation where the radius
is used as the multiplier, the summation of squares (varga-saṅkalita) will
result.
Now, the bhujā next to the east-west line is less than the radius by one
(segment). So if all the excesses are summed up and added, it would
be the summation of the basic summation (mūla-saṅkalita-saṅkalita).
Because, the sums of the summations is verily the ‘summation of sum-
mations’ (saṅkalita-saṅkalita). There, the last sum has (the summation
of) all the bhujās. The penultimate sum is next lower summation to the
last. This penultimate sum is the summation of all the bhujās except the
last bhujā. Next to it is the third sum which is the sum of all the bhujās
except the last two. Thus, each sum of the bhujās commencing from any
bhujā which is taken to be the last one in the series, will be less by one
bhujā from the sum (of the bhujās) before that.
Thus, the longest bhujā is included only in one sum. But the bhujā next
lower than the last (bhujā) is included both in the last sum and also in the
next lower sum. The bhujās below that are included in the three, four etc.
sums below it. Hence, it would result that the successively smaller bhujās
commencing from the one next to the last, which have been multiplied
by numbers commencing from 1 and added together, would be summa-
tion of summations (saṅkalita-saṅkalita). Now, it has been stated earlier
that the summation (saṅkalita) of (the segments constituting) a bhujā
which has been very minutely divided, will be equal to half the square of
the last bhujā. Hence, it follows that, in order to obtain the summation
(saṅkalita) of the bhujās ending in any particular bhujā, we will have to
square each of the bhujās and halve it. Thus, the summation of summa-
tions (saṅkalita-saṅkalita) would be half the summation of the squares
70 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 6.4, pp. 61–67, 192–97, 382–88.
. .
44
of all the bhujās. In other words, half the summation of the squares is the
summation of the basic summation. So, when the summation is multi-
plied by the radius, it would be one and a half times the summation of the
squares. This fact can be expressed by stating that this contains half more
of the summation of squares. Therefore, when the square of the radius
divided by two is multiplied by the radius and one-third of it subtracted
from it, the remainder will be one-third of the whole. Thus it follows
that one-third of the cube of the radius will be the summation of squares
(varga-saṅkalita).
With the same convention that nr is the measure of the unit, the bhujā-varga-saṅkalita
(the sum of the squares of the bhujās) will be
Sn(2) = n2 + (n − 1)2 + .... + 12 . (91)
In above expression, each bhujā is multiplied by itself. If instead, we consider that
each bhujā is multiplied by the radius (n in our units), then that would give raise to
the sum
n [n + (n − 1) + ... + 1] = n Sn(1) . (92)
This sum is exceeds the bhujā-varga-saṅkalita by the amount
nSn(1) − Sn(2) = 1.(n − 1) + 2.(n − 2) + 3.(n − 3) + . . . + (n − 1).1.
This may be written as
nSn(1) − Sn(2) = (n − 1) + (n − 2) + (n − 3) + . . . +1
+(n − 2) + (n − 3) + . . . +1
+(n − 3) + . . . +1
+... . (93)
Thus,
(1) (1) (1)
nSn(1) − Sn(2) = Sn−1 + Sn−2 + Sn−3 + . . . . (94)
The right hand side of (94) is called the saṅkalita-saṅkalita (or saṅkalitaikya), the
(1)
repeated sum of the sums Si (here taken in the order i = n − 1, n − 2, . . . 1). These
are defined also by Śaṅkara Vāriyar in Kriyākramakarı̄ as follows:71
ñÍ ñÍ ñÍ ñÍ
ö Å a.l+ta.a:na.Ma ya.ea:ga.ea ;a.h .sa:*:+
ta:Ta.a ;a.h .sa:*:+ ö Å a.l+ta:mua:. ya:tea Á ta.a A:ntya:sa:*:
ö Å a.l+ta:sa:*:+ ö Å -
ñÍ
;a.l+tMa .sa:va.Ra:sa.Ma Bua.ja.a:na.Ma ya.ea:gaH Á o+pa.a:ntya:sa:*:+
ö Å a.l+tMa tua A:ntya:Bua.ja.a:v.ya:a.ta:a=;+a:na.a -
ñÍ
*:+
Å a.l+tMa :pua:na:~ta:d:va:a.Da:k+a:na.a:mea:va Bua.ja.a:na.Ma
;a.ma:ta:=e;Sa.Ma ya.ea:gaH Á o+pa.a:ntya.a:t,a :pUa:vRa:~ya .sa:ö
ñÍ ñÍ
ö Å a.l+ta.a:a.na .~va.ea.a.=:a:t,a .sa:*:+
ya.ea:gaH Á O;:vMa :pUa:vRa:sa:*:+ ö Å a.l+ta.a:t,a O;;kE +.k -
e +.na Bua.jea:na ;a.va.=;a.h
ta.a:a.na Ba:va:a.nta
// Á
The sum of the summations is called as saṅkalita-saṅkalita. Of them
the last saṅkalita is the sum all the bhujā-s. The penultimate saṅkalita
is the sum of all the bhujā-s other than the last one. The saṅkalita of
the one preceding the penultimate is the sum of the bhujā-s ending with
that. Thus, all the preceding saṅkalita-s will fall short by a bhujā from
the succeeding saṅkalita.
71 Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, pp. 382–83.
45
(1) n2
For large n, we have already estimated in (89) that Sn ≈ 2 . Thus, for large n
(n − 1)2 (n − 2)2 (n − 3)2
nSn(1) − Sn(2) ≈ + + + .... (95)
2 2 2
(1)
Thus, the right hand side of (94) (the saṅkalita-saṅkalita or the excess of nSn over
(2)
(2) Sn
Sn ) is essentially 2 for large n, so that we obtain
(2)
Sn
nSn(1) − Sn(2) ≈ . (96)
2
(1)
Again, using the earlier estimate (89) for Sn , we obtain the result
n3
Sn(2) ≈ . (97)
3
Thus bhujā-varga-saṅkalita is one-third the cube of the radius.
12.3 Sama-ghāta-saṅkalita
We now cite the following from the translation of Yuktibhās.ā:72
Now, the square of the square (of a number) is multiplied by itself, it is
called sama-pañca-ghāta (number multiplied by itself five times). The
successive higher order summations are called sama-pañcādi-ghāta-
saṅkalita (and will be the summations of powers of five and above).
Among them if the summation (saṅkalita) of powers of some order is
multiplied by the radius, then the product is the summation of summations
(saṅkalita-saṅkalita) of the (powers of the) multiplicand (of the given or-
der), together with the summation of powers (sama-ghāta-saṅkalita) of
the next order. Hence, to derive the summation of the successive higher
powers: Multiply each summation by the radius. Divide it by the next
higher number and subtract the result from the summation got before.
The result will be the required summation to the higher order.
Thus, divide by two the square of the radius. If it is the cube of the
radius, divide by three. If it is the radius raised to the power of four,
divide by four. If it is (the radius) raised to the power of five, divide by
five. In this manner, for powers rising one by one, divide by numbers
increasing one by one. The results will be, in order, the summations of
powers of numbers (sama-ghāta-saṅkalita). Here, the basic summation
is obtained from the square, the summation of squares from the cube, the
summation of cubes from the square of the square. In this manner, if
the numbers are multiplied by themselves a certain number of times (i.e.,
raised to a certain degree) and divided by the same number, that will be
the summation of the order one below that. Thus (has been stated) the
method of deriving the summations of (natural) numbers, (their) squares
etc.
72 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 6.4, pp. 61–67, 192–97, 382–88.
. .
46
In the case of a general samaghāta-saṅkalita, (summation of equal powers) given by
Sn(k) = nk + (n − 1)k + . . . + 1k , (98)
the procedure followed to estimate its behavior for large n is essentially the same as
(k−1)
that followed in the case of vargasaṅkalita. We first compute the excess of nSn
(k)
over Sn to be a saṅkalita-saṅkalita or repeated sum of the lower order saṅkalitas
(k−1)
Sr
(k−1) (k−1) (k−1)
nSn(k−1) − Sn(k) = Sn−1 + Sn−2 + Sn−3 + . . . . (99)
(k−1)
If the lower order saṅkalita Sn has already been estimated to be, say,
nk
Sn(k−1) ≈ , (100)
k
then, the above relation (99) leads to73
(n − 1)k (n − 2)k (n − 3)k
nSn(k−1) − Sn(k) ≈ + + + ...
k k k
1
≈ Sn(k) . (101)
k
Rewriting the above equation we have74
1
Sn(k) ≈ nSn(k−1) − Sn(k) . (102)
k
Using (100), we obtain the estimate
nk+1
Sn(k) ≈ . (103)
(k + 1)
12.4 Repeated summations (Saṅkalita-saṅkalita)
After having estimated the sum of powers of natural numbers samaghāta-saṅkalita
Yuktibhās.ā goes on to derive an estimate for the repeated summation (saṅkalita-
saṅkalita or saṅkalitaikya or vārasaṅkalita) of the natural number 1, 2, · · · , n.75
73 As one of the reviewers has pointed out, this argument leading to (101) is indeed similar to the deriva-
tion of the following relation, which is based on the interchange of order in iterated integrals:
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z y Z 1
yk
(1 − x)xk−1 dx = xk−1 dy dx = y xk−1 dx dy = dy.
0 0 x 0 0 0
k
74 As Śaṅkara Vāriyar states in his Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄ (cited above (fn. 14), p. 383):
ñÍ ñÍ ñÍ
A:ta o;a.=:ea.a.=;sa:*:+
ö Å a.l+ta.a:na:ya:na.a:ya ta.a:tsa:*:+
ö Å a.l+ta:~ya v.ya.a:sa.a:DRa:gua:Na:na:m,a O;;kE +.k+a:a.Da:k+.sa:*
Ë ù
Á
-
É +;a.a:a
.~va.Ma:Za:Za.ea:Da:nMa . a k+a:yRa:m,a I+a.ta ;a.~Ta:ta:m,
//// a Á
Therefore it is established that, for obtaining the sum of the next order, the previous sum, has
to be multiplied by the radius and the present sum, divided by one more than the previous
[order], has to be diminished [from that product].
75 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 6.4, pp. 61–67, 192–97, 382–88.
. .
47
Now, are explained the first, second and further summations: The first
summation (ādya-saṅkalita) is the basic summation (mūla-saṅkalita)
itself. It has already been stated (that this is) half the product of the
square of the number of terms (pada-vargārdha). The second (dvitı̄ya-
saṅkalita) is the summation of the basic summation (mūla-saṅkalitaikya).
It has been stated earlier that it is equal to half the summation of squares.
And that will be one-sixth of the cube of the number of terms.
Now, the third summation: For this, take the second summation as the
last term (antya); subtract one from the number of terms, and calculate
the summation of summations as before. Treat this as the penultimate.
Then subtract two from the number of terms and calculate the summation
of summations. That will be the next lower term. In order to calculate
the summation of summations of numbers in the descending order, the
sums of one-sixths of the cubes of numbers in descending order would
have to be calculated. That will be the summation of one-sixth of the
cubes. And that will be one-sixth of the summation of cubes. As has
been enunciated earlier, the summation of cubes is one-fourth the square
of the square. Hence, one-sixth of one-fourth the square of the square will
be the summation of one-sixth of the cubes. Hence, one-twenty-fourth of
the square of the square will be the summation of one-sixth of the cubes.
Then, the fourth summation will be, according to the above principle, the
summation of one-twenty-fourths of the square of squares. This will also
be equal to one-twenty-fourth of one-fifth of the fifth power. Hence, when
the number of terms has been multiplied by itself a certain number of
times, (i.e., raised to a certain degree), and divided by the product of one,
two, three etc. up to that index number, the result will be the summation
up to that index number amongst the first, second etc. summations (ādya-
dvitı̄yādi-saṅkalita).
(1)
The first summation (ādya-saṅkalita) Vn is just the mūla-saṅkalita or the basic
summation of natural numbers, which has already been estimated in (89)
Vn(1) = Sn(1) = n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + . . . + 1
n2
≈ . (104)
2
The second summation (dvitı̄ya-saṅkalita or saṅkalita-saṅkalita or saṅkalitaikya)
is given by
(1) (1)
Vn(2) = Vn(1) + Vn−1 + Vn−2 + . . .
(1) (1)
= Sn(1) + Sn−1 + Sn−2 + . . . . (105)
As was done earlier, this second summation can be estimated using the estimate for
(1)
Sn
n2 (n − 1)2 (n − 2)2
Vn(2) ≈ + + + ... . (106)
2 2 2
Therefore
1
Vn(2) ≈ Sn(2) . (107)
2
48
(2)
Using the earlier estimate (97) for Sn , we get an estimate for the dvitı̄ya-saṅkalita
n3
Vn(2) ≈ . (108)
6
Now the next repeated summation can be found in the same way
(2) (2)
Vn(3) = Vn(2) + Vn−1 + Vn−2 + . . .
n3 (n − 1)3 (n − 2)3
≈ + + + ...
6 6 6
1
≈ Sn(3)
6
n4
≈ . (109)
24
(k)
It is noted that proceeding this way we can estimate repeated summation Vn of order
k, for large n, to be76
(k−1) (k−1)
Vn(k) = Vn(k−1) + Vn−1 + Vn−2 + ...
k+1
n
≈ . (110)
1.2.3. . . . (k + 1)
13 Derivation of the Mādhava series for π
The following accurate value of π (correct to 11 decimal places), given by Mādhava,
has been cited by Nı̄lakan.t.ha in his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya and by Śaṅkara Vāriyar
in his Kriyākramakarı̄.77
;a.va:bua:Da:nea.a:ga.ja.a:a.h:hu:ta.a:Za:na:aa:gua:Na:vea:d:Ba:va.a.=;Na:ba.a:h:vaH Á
na:va:a.na:Ka:vRa:a.ma:tea vxa:a.ta:a.va:~ta:=e :pa:a=;a.Da:ma.a:na:a.ma:dM .ja:ga:du:bRua:Da.aH Á Á
The π value given above is:
2827433388233
π≈ = 3.141592653592... (111)
9 × 1011
The 13 digit number appearing in the numerator has been specified using bhūta-
saṅkhya system, whereas the denominator is specified by word numerals.78
76 These are again estimates for large n. As mentioned in Section 4, exact expressions for the first two
(1) (2)
summations, Vn and Vn , are given in Āryabhat.ı̄ya, Gan . itapāda 21; and the exact expression for
(k)
the k-th order repeated summation Vn has been given (under the name vāra-saṅkalita), by Nārāyan.a
(k)
Pan.d.ita (c. 1350) in his Gan . itakaumudı̄, 3.19. This exact expression for Vn is also noted in section
7.5.3 of Yuktibhās.ā.
77 Āryabhatı̄ya-bhāsya on Āryabhatı̄ya, cited above (fn. 53), comm. on Ganitapāda 10, p. 42;
. . . .
Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, p. 377.
78 In the bhūta-saṅkhyā system, vibudha =33, netra =2, gaja =8, ahi =8, hutāśana =3, triguna =3,
.
11
veda =4, bha =27, vāran . a =8, bāhu =2. In word numerals, nikharva represents 10 . Hence, nava-
nikharva =9 × 1011 .
49
13.1 Infinite series for π
The infinite series for π attributed to Mādhava is cited by Śaṅkara Vāriyar in his
commentaries Kriyākramakarı̄ and Yukti-dı̄pikā. Mādhava’s verse quoted runs as
follows:79
v.ya.a:sea va.a:a=;a.Da:a.na:h:tea . +pa:&+tea v.ya.a:sa:sa.a:ga.=:a:a.Ba:h:tea Á
ñÍ
É +;a.a:Ba:+.m
;aa:Za.=:a:a.d:a.va:Sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù xa:NMa .~vMa :pxa:Ta:k, kÒ +.ma.a:t,a ku +.ya.Ra:t,a Á Á
Á
The diameter multiplied by four and divided by unity [is found and saved].
Again the products of the diameter and four are divided by the odd num-
bers like three, five, etc., and the results are subtracted and added in order
[to the earlier result saved].
The series given by the verse may be represented as
1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 × Vyāsa × 1 − + − + . . . . . . . (112)
3 5 7
The words paridhi and vyāsa80 in the above equation refer to the circumference and
diameter respectively. Hence the equation may be rewritten as
π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + ... . (113)
4 3 5 7
We shall now present the derivation of the above result as outlined in Yuktibhās.ā
of Jyes.t.hadeva and Kriyākramakarı̄ of Śaṅkara Vāriyar. For this purpose, let us
consider the quadrant OP0 Pn S of the square circumscribing the given circle (see
Figure 8). Divide the side P0 Pn into n equal parts (n very large). P0 Pi ’s are the
bhujās and OPi ’s are the karn.as denoted by ki . The points of intersection of these
karn.as and the circle are marked as Ai s.
The bhujās P0 Pi , the karn.as ki and the east-west line OP0 form right-angled triangles
whose hypotenuses are given by
2
ir
ki2 = r2 + , (114)
n
where r is the radius of the circle.
The feet of perpendiculars from the points Ai−1 and Pi−1 along the ith karn.a are
denoted by Bi and Ci . The triangles OPi−1 Ci and OAi−1 Bi are similar. Hence,
Ai−1 Bi Pi−1 Ci
= . (115)
OAi−1 OPi−1
Similarly triangles Pi−1 Ci Pi and P0 OPi are similar. Hence,
Pi−1 Ci OP0
= . (116)
Pi−1 Pi OPi
79 op.cit., p. 379.
80 Nı̄lakantha, in his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya, presents the etymological derivation of the word vyāsa as
..
‘the one which splits the circle into two halves’: v.ya.a:sea:na ;a.h vxa.Ma v.ya:~ya:tea Á (Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya, cited
above (fn. 53), comm. on Gan . itapāda 11, p. 43).
50
E
O S
Blown up version
of this quadrant
P0 Pi−1 Pi p
n
Ci
Ai−1
Ai
Bi
k i−1
ki
O S
Figure 8: Geometrical construction used in the proof of the infinite series for π.
From these two relations we have,
OAi−1 .OP0 .Pi−1 Pi
Ai−1 Bi =
OPi−1 .OPi
OAi−1 OP0
= Pi−1 Pi × ×
OPi−1 OPi
r r r
= × ×
n ki−1 ki
r
r2
= . (117)
n ki−1 ki
It is then noted that when n is large, the Rsines Ai−1 Bi can be taken as the arc-bits
themselves.
:pa:a=;a.Da:Ka:Nq+~ya.a:DRa.$ya.a → :pa:a=;DyMa:Za
i.e., dAi .
Ai−1 Bi → Ai−1
Thus, 81 th of the circumference of the circle can be written as sum of the contributions
given by (117). That is
C r r2 r2 r2
r2
≈ + + + ···+ . (118)
8 n k0 k1 k1 k2 k2 k3 kn−1 kn
51
Though this is the expression that actually needs to be evaluated, the text mentions
that there may not be much difference in approximating it by either of the following
expressions:
r r2 r2 r2 2
C r
= + + + ···+ (119)
8 lef t n k02 k12 k22 2
kn−1
or r r2
C r2 r2 r2
= + + + ···+ . (120)
8 right n k12 k22 k32 kn2
It can be easily seen that
C C C
< < . (121)
8 right 8 8 lef t
In other words, though the actual value of the circumference lies inbetween the values
given by (120) and (119) what is being said is that there will not be much difference
if we divide by the square of either of the karn.a-s rather than by the product of two
successive ones. Actually, the difference between (120) and (119) is given by
r r2 r2 r
1
2 − 2
= 1 − (since k02 , kn2 = r2 , 2r2 )
n k0 kn n 2
r 1
= (122)
n 2
Evidently this difference approaches zero as n becomes very large, as noted in both
the texts Yuktibhās.ā and Kriyākramakarı̄.
The terms in (120) are evaluated using the śodhya-phala technique (binomial series,
discussed earlier in Section 11) and each one of them may be re-written in the form81
2
r r2 r r ki2 − r2 r ki2 − r2
= − + − ... (123)
n ki2 n n r2 n r2
Using (114) and (123) in (120), we obtain:
X n
C r r2
=
8 i=1
n ki2
n
!
X r r2
= (124)
n ir 2
i=1 r2 + n
! !2
n
X ir 2 ir 2
= r − r +
r n
− . . . n
(125)
i=1
n n n r2 r2
r
= [1 + 1 + . . . + 1]
n " #
r 1 r 2 2r 2 nr 2
− + + ...+
n r2 n n n
ir 2
81 Itmay be noted that this series is convergent since ki2 = r 2 + n
and 0 ≤ (ki2 − r 2 ) < r 2
for i < n.
52
" #
r 1 r 4 2r 4 nr 4
+ + + ...+
n r4 n n n
" #
r 1 r 6 2r
6 nr 6
− + + ...+
n r6 n n n
+... . (126)
Each of the terms in (126) is a sum of results (phala-yoga) which we need to estimate
when n is very large, and we have a series of them (phala-paramparā) which are
alternatively positive and negative. Clearly the first term is just the sum of the bhujā-
khan.d.as.
The bhujās themselves are given by the integral multiples of bhujā-khan.d.a, namely,
r 2r nr
n , n , . . . n . In the series expression for the circumference given above, we thus have
the saṅkalitas or summations of even powers of the bhujās, such as the bhujā-varga-
2 2 2 4 4
saṅkalita, nr + 2r n +....+ nr
n , bhujā-varga-varga-saṅkalita, nr + 2rn +
nr 4
..... + n , and so on.
If we take out the powers of bhujā-khan.d.a nr , the summations involved are that of
even powers of the natural numbers, namely edādyekottara-varga-saṅkalita, 12 +
22 + ... + n2 , edādyekottara-varga-varga-saṅkalita, 14 + 24 + ... + n4 , and so on.
Now, recalling the estimates that were obtained earlier for these saṅkalita-s, when n
is large,
X n
nk+1
ik ≈ , (127)
i=1
k+1
we arrive at the result82
C 1 1 1
= r 1 − + − + ··· , (128)
8 3 5 7
which is same as (112).
. skāra)
14 Derivation of end-correction terms (Antya-sam
It is well known that the series given by (112) for π4 is an extremely slowly converging
series. It is so slow that even for obtaining the value of π correct to 2 decimal places
one has to find the sum of hundreds of terms and for getting it correct to 4-5 decimal
places we need to consider millions of terms. Mādhava seems to have found an
ingenious way to circumvent this problem. The technique employed by Mādhava is
known as antya-sam . skāra. The nomenclature stems from the fact that a correction
(sam . skara) is applied towards the end (anta) of the series, when it is terminated after
considering only a certain number of terms from the beginning.
82 In modern terminology, the above derivation amounts to the evaluation of the following integral
! Z
X n 1
C r r2 dx
8
= lim
n→∞ n
ir 2
=r
1 + x2
.
i=1
r2 + n 0
53
14.1 The criterion for antya-sam
. skāra to yield accurate result
The discussion on antya-sam
. skāra in both Yuktibhās.ā and Kriyākramakarı̄ com-
mences with the question:
How is it that one obtains the value of the circumference more accurately
by doing antya-sam . skara, instead of repeatedly dividing by odd num-
bers? 83
The argument adduced in favor of terminating the series at any desired term, still
ensuring the accuracy, is as follows. Let the series for π4 be written as
π 1 1 1 p−3 1 p−1 1
= 1 − + − . . . + (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 , (129)
4 3 5 7 p−2 ap−2
1
where ap−2 is the correction term applied after odd denominator p − 2. On the other
l
hand, if the correction term ap , is applied after the odd denominator p, then
π 1 1 1 p−3 1 p−1 1 p+1 1
= 1 − + − . . . + (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 . (130)
4 3 5 7 p−2 p ap
If the correction terms indeed lead to the exact result, then both the series (129) and
(130) should yield the same result. That is,
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − or + = , (131)
ap−2 p ap ap−2 ap p
. skāra) to lead
is the criterion that must be satisfied for the end-correction (antya-sam
to the exact result.
14.2 Successive approximations to get more accurate correction-
terms
The criterion given by (131) is trivially satisfied when we choose ap−2 = ap = 2p.
However, this value 2p cannot be assigned to both the correction-divisors84 ap−2 and
ap because both the corrections should follow the same rule. That is,
ap−2 = 2p, ⇒ ap = 2(p + 2)
or, ap = 2p, ⇒ ap−2 = 2(p − 2).
We can, however, have both ap−2 and ap close to 2p by taking ap−2 = 2p − 2 and
ap = 2p + 2, as there will always persist this much difference between p − 2 and p
when they are doubled. Hence, the first (order) estimate of the correction divisor is
given as, “double the even number above the last odd-number divisor p”,
ap = 2(p + 1). (132)
ñÍ
83 k+.TMa :pua:na.=:a mua:h:a.vRa:Sa:ma:sa:*
u É +;a.a:h.=;Ne
Ë ù a:na l+Bya:~ya :pa:a=;DeaH A.a:sa:a:tva:m,a A:ntya:sMa:~k+a:=e;Na A.a:pa.a:dùÅ;a:tea Á
Á
o+. ya:tea Á . . . (Kriyākramakarı̄ on Lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, p. 386.)
84 By the term correction-divisor (sam . skāra-hāraka) is meant the divisor of the correction term.
54
But, it can be seen right away that, with this value of the correction divisor, the condi-
tion for accuracy (131), stated above, is not exactly satisfied. Therefore a measure of
inaccuracy (sthaulya) E(p) is introduced
1 1 1
E(p) = + − . (133)
ap−2 ap p
Now, since the error cannot be eliminated, the objective is to find the correction
denominators ap such that the inaccuracy E(p) is minimised. When we set ap =
2(p + 1), the inaccuracy will be
1 1 1
E(p) = + −
(2p − 2) (2p + 2) p
1
= . (134)
(p3 − p)
This estimate of the inaccuracy, Ep being positive, shows that the correction has been
over done and hence there has to be a reduction in the correction. This means that
the correction-divisor has to be increased. If we take ap = 2p + 3, thereby leading to
ap−2 = 2p − 1, we have
1 1 1
E(p) = + −
(2p − 1) (2p + 3) p
(−2p + 3)
= . (135)
(4p3 + 4p2 − 3p)
Now, the inaccuracy happens to be negative. But, more importantly, it has a term
proportional to p in the numerator. Hence, for large p, E(p) given by (135) varies
inversely as p2 , while for the divisor given by (132), E(p) as given by (134) varied
inversely as p3 .85
From (134) and (135) it is obvious that, if we want to reduce the inaccuracy and
thereby obtain a better correction, then a number less than 1 has to be added to the
correction-divisor (132) given above. If we try adding rūpa (unity) divided by the
1
correction divisor itself, i.e., if we set ap = 2p + 2 + (2p+2) , the contributions from
1
the correction-divisors get multiplied essentially by 2p . Hence, to get rid of the
higher order contributions, we need an extra factor of 4, which will be achieved if we
take the correction divisor to be
4 (2p + 2)2 + 4
ap = (2p + 2) + = . (136)
(2p + 2) (2p + 2)
Then, correspondingly, we have
4 (2p − 2)2 + 4
ap−2 = (2p − 2) + = . (137)
(2p − 2) (2p − 2)
We can then calculate the inaccuracy to be
1 1 1
E(p) =
+ −
4 4 p
(2p − 2) + (2p + 2) +
2p − 2 2p + 2
85 It may be noted that among all possible correction divisors of the type a = 2p + m, where m is an
p
integer, the choice of m = 2 is optimal, as in all other cases there will arise a term proportional to p in the
numerator of the inaccuracy E(p).
55
(4p3 ) (16p4 + 64)
= 4
−
(4p + 16) 4p(4p4 + 16)
−4
= 5
. (138)
(p + 4p)
Clearly, the sthaulya with this (second order) correction divisor has improved consid-
erably, in that it is now proportional to the inverse fifth power of the odd number.86
At this stage, we may display the result obtained for the circumference with the cor-
rection term as follows. If only the first order correction (132) is employed, we have
1 (p−1) 1 (p+1) 1
C = 4d 1 − + . . . + (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 . (139)
3 p (2p + 2)
If the second order correction (136) is taken into account, we have
1 (p−1) 1 (p+1) 1
C = 4d
1 − 3 + . . . + (−1)
2 + (−1) 2
p 4
(2p + 2) +
(2p + 2)
(p + 1)
1 (p−1) 1 (p+1)
2
= 4d 1 − + . . . + (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 . (140)
3 p (p + 1)2 + 1
The verse due to Mādhava that we cited earlier as defining the infinite series for π4 is,
in fact, the first of a group of four verses that present the series along with the above
end-correction.87
v.ya.a:sea va.a:a=;a.Da:a.na:h:tea . +pa:&+tea v.ya.a:sa:sa.a:ga.=:a:a.Ba:h:tea Á
ñÍ
É +;a.a:Ba:+.m
;aa:Za.=:a:a.d:a.va:Sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù xa:NMa .~vMa :pxa:Ta:k, kÒ +.ma.a:t,a ku +.ya.Ra:t,a Á Á1 Á Á
Á
ñÍ
É +;a:ya.aY.a
ya:tsa:*
Ë ù h.=;Nea kx +.tea ;a.na:vxa.a.a &+a.ta:~tua .ja.a:a.ma:ta:ya.a Á
Á
ñÍ
É +;a.a
ta:~ya.a +.DvRa:ga:ta.a:ya.a .sa:ma:sa:*
Ë ù ta:;lM gua:Na.eaY:ntea .~ya.a:t,a Á Á2 Á Á
Á
ta:d
õ :ga.eRa . +pa:yua:ta.ea h.a.=:ea v.ya.a:sa.a:a.b.Da:Ga.a:ta:taH
/ :pra.a:gva:t,a Á
ta.a:Bya.a:ma.a:Ma .~va:mxa:Nea kx +.tea ;Da:nea [ea:pa O;:va k+=;Na.a:yaH Á Á3 Á Á
l+b.DaH :pa:a=;a.DaH .sUa:[ma.ea ba:hu:kx +.tva.ea h.=;Na:ta.eaY:a.ta:sUa:[maH .~ya.a:t,a Á Á4 Á Á
The diameter multiplied by four and divided by unity. Again the products
of the diameter and four are divided by the odd numbers like three, five,
etc., and the results are subtracted and added in order.
Take half of the succeeding even number as the multipler at whichever
[odd] number the division process is stopped, because of boredom. The
86 It m
may be noted that if we take any other correction-divisor ap = 2p + 2 + (2p+2)
, where m is an
integer, we will end up having a contribution proportional to p2
in the numerator of the inaccuracy E(p),
unless m = 4. Thus the above form (136) is the optimal second order choice for the correction-divisor.
87 Kriyākramakarı̄ on lı̄lāvatı̄, cited above (fn. 14), comm. on verse 199, p. 379.
56
square of that [even number] added to unity is the divisor. Their ratio has
to be multiplied by the product of the diameter and four as earlier.
The result obtained has to be added if the earlier term [in the series] has
been subtracted and subtracted if the earlier term has been added. The
resulting circumference is very accurate; in fact more accurate than the
one which may be obtained by continuing the division process [with large
number of terms in the series].
Continuing this process further, Yuktibhās.ā presents the next order correction-term
which is said to be even more accurate:88
ñÍ
A:ntea .sa:ma:sa:* ËÉ +;a.a:d:l+va:gR
ù aH .sEa:k+ea gua:NaH .sa O;:va :pua:naH ÁÁ
Á
ñÍ
yua:ga:gua:a.Na:ta.ea . +pa:yua:taH .sa:ma:sa:* Ë É +;a.a:d:l+h:ta.e
ù a Ba:vea:d, h.a.=H Á
Á
At the end, [i.e., after terminating the series at some point, apply the
correction term with] the multiplier being square of half of the [next]
even number plus 1, and the divisor being four times the same multiplier
with 1 added and multiplied by half the even number.
In other words,89
2
p+1
+1
1 2
=
ap p+1
[(p + 1)2 + 4 + 1]
2
1
= . (141)
4
(2p + 2) +
16
2p + 2 +
2p + 2
88 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, p. 82; Also cited in Yukti-dı̄pikā on Tantrasaṅgraha, cited
. .
above (fn. 49), comm. on verse 2.1, p. 103.
89 The inaccuracy or sthaulya associated with this correction can be calculated to be
2304
E(p) = .
(64p7 + 448p5 + 1792p3 − 2304p)
The inaccuracy now is proportional to the inverse seventh power of the odd-number. Again it can be shown
that the number 16 in (141) is optimally chosen, in that any other choice would introduce a term proportional
to p2 in the numerator of E(p), given above.
In fact, it has been noted by C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari that D. T. Whiteside has shown
(personal communication of D. T. Whiteside cited in C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari, ‘On an untapped
source of medieval Kerala mathematics’, Arch. for Hist. Sc. 35(2), 89–102, 1978), that the end correction-
term can be exactly represented by the following continued fraction
1 1
= .
ap 22
(2p + 2) +
42
(2p + 2) +
62
(2p + 2) +
(2p + 2) + . . .
57
π
Hence, a much better approximation for 4 is:90
2
p+1
+1
π 1 1 1 1 2
= 1 − + − + ···+ − . (142)
4 3 5 7 p p+1
[(p + 1)2 + 4 + 1]
2
15 Transforming the Mādhava series for better con-
vergence
After the estimation of end-correction terms, Yuktibhās.ā goes on to outline a method
of transforming the Mādhava series (by making use of the above end-correction
terms) to obtain new series that have much better convergence properties. We now
reproduce the following from the English translation of Yuktibhās.ā:91
Therefore, the circumference (of a circle) can be derived in taking into
consideration what has been stated above. A method for that is stated in
the verse
ú È
îå ÁR :mUa:l+yua:ta.aH ta.a:a.BaH Á
*.a.a:h:ta:ya.ea ya.a . +pa.a:dù;a:yu
.sa:ma:pa.ãÁ Å a.ja.Ma .. a:tua*+
, :pxa:Ta:ga.a:h:tea:Sua ;a.va:Sa:ma:yua:teaH Á
:Sa.ea:q+Za:gua:a.Na:ta.a:t,a v.ya.a:sa.a:d
(I)
.sa:ma:P+l+yua:a.ta:ma:pa:h.a:ya .~ya.a:a.d::v.ya.a:sa:sMa:Ba:vaH :pa:a=;a.DaH ÁÁ
The fifth powers of the odd numbers (1, 3, 5 etc.) are increased
by 4 times themselves. The diameter is multiplied by 16 and it
is successively divided by the (series of) numbers obtained (as
above). The odd (first, third etc.) quotients obtained are added
and are subtracted from the sum of the even (the second, fourth
etc.) quotients. The result is the circumference corresponding
to the given diameter.
Herein above is stated a method for deriving the circumference. If the cor-
rection term is applied to an approximate circumference and the amount
of inaccuracy (sthaulya) is found, and if it is additive, then the result is
higher. Then it will become more accurate when the correction term ob-
tained from the next higher odd number is subtracted. Since it happens
that (an approximate circumference) becomes more and more accurate
by making corrections in succeeding terms, if the corrections are applied
right from the beginning itself, then the circumference will come out ac-
curate. This is the rationale for this (above-stated result).
When it is presumed that the correction-divisor is just double the odd
number, the following is a method to obtain the (accurate) circumfer-
ence by a correction for the corresponding inaccuracy (sthaulyām . śa-
parihāra), which is given by the verse:
90 It may be noted that this correction term leads to a value of π, which is accurate up to 11 decimal
places, when we merely evaluate terms up to n = 50 in the series (142). Incidentally the value of π, given
in the rule vibudhanetra..., attributed to Mādhava that was cited in the beginning of Section 13, is also
accurate up to 11 decimal places.
91 Ganita-yukti-bhāsā, cited above, Section 6.9, pp. 80–82, 205–07, 402–04.
. .
58
v.ya.a:sa.a:d, va.a:a=;a.Da:a.na:h:ta.a:t,a :pxa:Ta:ga.a:Ma ya.a:dù;a:yu
Å a:a.gva:mU
a:l+Ga:nEaH Á
È
îå Á
;aa*+:v.ya.a:se a .~va:mxa:NMa kÒ +.ma:ZaH k (II)
x +.tva.a :pa:a=;a.Da.=:a:nea:yaH Á Á
The diameter is multiplied by 4 and is divided, successively,
by the cubes of the odd numbers beginning from 3, which
are diminished by these numbers themselves. The diameter is
now multiplied by three, and the quotients obtained above, are
added to or subtracted from, alternatively. The circumference
is to be obtained thus.
If, however, it is taken that half the result (of dividing) by the last even
number is taken as the correction, there is a method to derive the circum-
ference by that way also, as given by the verse
È
õù;a.a:
d Å a.d:yua.ja.Ma va.a kx +.ta:ya.eaH v.yea:k+a h.a.=:a:d, ;a.d îå Á a.va:Sk+.}Bea Á
õ :a.na*+:
;Da:na:m,a +Na:ma:nteaY:ntya.ea:DvRa:ga:ta.Ea.ja:k (III)
x +.a.ta:a.d
õR :sa:a.h:ta.a h.=;~ya.a:DRa:m,a Á Á
The squares of even numbers commencing from 2, diminished
by one, are the divisors for four times the diameter. (Make
the several divisions). The quotients got by (the division) are
alternately added to or subtracted from twice the diameter. In
the end, divide four times the diameter by twice the result of
squaring the odd number following the last even number to
which is added 2.
The method of sthaulya-parihāra, outlined above, essentially involves incorporating
the correction terms into the series from the beginning itself. Let us recall that inac-
curacy or sthaulya at each stage is given by
1 1 1
E(p) = + − . (143)
ap−2 ap p
The series for the circumference (112) can be expressed in terms of these sthaulyas
as follows:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C = 4d 1 − + + − − + − − ...
a1 a1 a3 3 a3 a5 5
1
= 4d 1 − + E(3) − E(5) + E(7) − . . . . (144)
a1
Now, by choosing different correction-divisors ap in (144), we get several transformed
series which have better convergence properties. If we consider the correction-divisor
(136), then using the expression (138) for the sthaulyas, we get
1 1 1 1
C = 4d 1 − − 16d − + − ...
5 (35 + 4.3) (55 + 4.5) (75 + 4.7)
1 1 1
= 16d − + − ... . (145)
(15 + 4.1) (35 + 4.3) (55 + 4.5)
The above series is given in the verse samapañcāhatayoh. . . .(I). Note that each term
in the above series involves the fifth power of the odd number in the denominator, un-
like the original series which only involved the first power of the odd number. Clearly,
this transformed series gives more accurate results with fewer terms.
59
If we had used only the lowest order correction (132) and the associated sthaulya
(134), instead of the correction employed above, then the transformed series is the
one given in the verse vyāsād vāridhinihatāt. . .(II)
3 1 1 1
C = 4d + 3 − 3 + 3 − ... . (146)
4 (3 − 3) (5 − 5) (7 − 7)
Note that the denominators in the above transformed series are proportional to the
third power of the odd number.
Even if we take non-optimal correction-divisors, we often end-up obtaining interesting
series. For instance, if we take a non-optimal correction-divisor, say of the form ap =
2p, then the sthaulya is given by
1 1 1
E(p) = + −
(2p − 4) 2p p
1
= 2
(p − 2p)
1
= . (147)
(p − 1)2 − 1
Then, the transformed series will be the one given in the verse dvyādiyujām
. vā
kr.tayo. . .(III)92
1 1 1 1
C = 4d + 2 − 2 + 2 + ... . (148)
2 (2 − 1) (4 − 1) (6 − 1)
16 Derivation of the Mādhava series for Rsine and Rver-
sine
16.1 First and second order differences of Rsines
We shall now outline the derivation of Mādhava series for Rsine (bhujā-jyā) and
Rversine (śara), as given in Yuktibhās.ā.93 Yuktibhās.ā begins with a discussion of
the first and second order Rsine-differences and derives an exact form of the result
of Āryabhat.a that the second-order Rsine-differences are proportional to the Rsines
themselves. We had briefly indicated this proof in Section 5.3.
Here we are interested in obtaining the Mādhava series for the jyā and śara of an arc
of length s indicated by EC in Figure 9. This arc is divided into n equal arc bits,
where n is large. If the arc length s = Rθ, then the j-th pin.d.a-jyā, Bj is given by94
js jθ
Bj = jyā = R sin . (149)
n n
92 The verse III in fact presents the series (148) along with an end correction-term of the form
4d
(−1)p 2(p+1) 2 +2 .
93 Yuktibhāsā, cited earlier, Vol. I Section 16.5, pp. 94–103, 221–233, 417–427.
.
94 Figure 9 is essentialy the same as Figure 3 considered in section 5 except that the pindajyās B are
.. j
s
Rsines assotiated with multiples of the arc-bit n into which the arc EC = s is divided. In Figure 3, the
Bj ’s are the tabular Rsines associated with multiplies of 225 .′
60
The corresponding kot.i-jyā Kj , and the śara Sj , are given by
js jθ
Kj = kot.i = R cos , (150)
n n
js jθ
Sj = śara = R 1 − cos . (151)
n n
Now, Cj Cj+1 represents the (j + 1)-th arc bit. Then, for the arc ECj = js
n , its pin
. d.a-
jyā is Bj = Cj Pj , and the corresponding kot.i-jyā and śara are Kj = Cj Tj , Sj =
EPj . Similarly we have
Bj+1 = Cj+1 Pj+1 , Kj+1 = Cj+1 Tj+1 and Sj+1 = EPj+1 . (152)
Cj E
E S
M j+1
α Mj Qj
Cj
Pj
C j+1 M j+1 G
Q j+1
F C j+1 Pj+1
F
N
Tj+1 Uj+1 Tj Uj O
Figure 9: Computation of Jyā and Śara by Saṅkalitas.
Let Mj+1 be the mid-point of the arc-bit Cj Cj+1 and similarly Mj the mid-point of
the previous (j-th) arc-bit. We shall denote the pin.d.a-jyā of the arc EMj+1 as Bj+ 12
and clearly
Bj+ 12 = Mj+1 Qj+1 .
The corresponding kot.i-jyā and śara are
Kj+ 12 = Mj+1 Uj+1 and Sj+ 21 = EQj+1 .
Similarly,
Bj− 12 = Mj Qj , Kj− 21 = Mj Uj and Sj− 12 = EQj . (153)
s
Let α be the chord corresponding to the equal arc-bits n as indicated in Figure 9. That
is, Cj Cj+1 = Mj Mj+1 = α.
61
Let F be the intersection of Cj Tj and Cj+1 Pj+1 , and G of Mj Uj and Mj+1 Qj+1 .
The triangles Cj+1 F Cj and OQj+1 Mj+1 are similar, as their sides are mutually per-
pendicular. Thus we have
Cj+1 Cj Cj+1 F F Cj
= = . (154)
OMj+1 OQj+1 Qj+1 Mj+1
Hence we obtain
α
Bj+1 − Bj = Kj+ 21 , (155)
R α
Kj − Kj+1 = Sj+1 − Sj = Bj+ 12 . (156)
R
Similarly, the triangles Mj+1 GMj and OPj Cj are similar and we get
Mj+1 Mj Mj+1 G GMj
= = . (157)
OCj OPj Pj Cj
Thus we obtain
α
Bj+ 21 − Bj− 21 = Kj , (158)
R α
Kj− 12 − Kj+ 21 = Sj+ 21 − Sj− 12 = Bj . (159)
R
We define the Rsine-differences (khan.d.a-jyā) ∆j by
∆j = Bj − Bj−1 , (160)
with the convention that ∆1 = B1 . From (155), we have
α
∆j = Kj− 12 . (161)
R
From (159) and (161), we also get the second order Rsine-differences (the differences
of the Rsine-differences called khan.d.a-jyāntara):
∆j − ∆j+1 = (Bj − Bj−1 ) − (Bj+1 − Bj )
α
= Kj− 21 − Kj+ 12
Rα
= Sj+ 21 − Sj− 12
R
α 2
= Bj . (162)
R
Now, if the sum of the second-order Rsine-differences, is subtracted from the first
Rsine-difference, then we get any desired Rsine-difference. That is
∆1 − [(∆1 − ∆2 ) + (∆2 − ∆3 ) + . . . + (∆j−1 − ∆j )] = ∆j . (163)
From (162) and (163) we conclude that
α 2
∆1 − (B1 + B2 + . . . + Bj−1 ) = ∆j . (164)
R
62
16.2 Rsines and Rversines from Jyā-saṅkalita
We can sum up the Rversine-differences (159), to obtain the śara, Rversine, at the
midpoint of the last arc-bit as follows:
Sn− 21 − S 21 = Sn− 12 − Sn− 23 + . . . . . . S 32 − S 21
α
= (Bn−1 + Bn−2 + . . . + B1 ) . (165)
R
Using (162), the right hand side of (165) can also be expressed as a summation of
the second order differences. From (164) and (165) it follows that the Rversine at the
midpoint of the last arc-bit is also given by
α
Sn− 21 − S 12 = (∆1 − ∆n ). (166)
R
Now, since the first Rsine-difference ∆1 = B1 , any desired Rsine can be obtained
by adding the Rsine-differences; these Rsine-differences have been obtained in (164).
Now, by making use of (164), the last pin.d.a-jyā can be expressed as follows:
Bn = ∆n + ∆n−1 + . . . + ∆1
α 2
= n∆1 − [(B1 + B2 . . . + Bn−1 ) + (B1 + B2 . . . + Bn−2 ) + . . . + B1 ]
R
α 2
= nB1 − [Bn−1 + 2Bn−2 + . . . + (n − 1)B1 ] . (167)
R
The results (158) – (167), obtained so far, involve no approximations. It is now shown
how better and better approximations to the Rsine and Rversine can be obtained by
taking n to be very large or, equivalently, the arc-bit ns to be very small. Then, we can
approximate the full-chord and the Rsine of the arc-bit by the length of the arc-bit ns
itself. Also, as a first approximation, we can approximate the pin.d.a-jyās Bj in the
equations (164), (165) or (167) by the corresponding arcs themselves. That is
js
Bj ≈ . (168)
n
The result for the Rsine obtained this way is again used to obtain a better approxima-
tion for the pin.d.a-jyās Bj which is again substituted back into the equations (165) and
(167) and thus by a process of iteration successive better approximations are obtained
for the Rsine and Rversine. Now, once we take Bj ≈ js n , we will be led to estimate
the sums and repeated sums of natural numbers (ekādyekottara-saṅkalita), when the
number of terms is very large.
16.3 Derivation of Mādhava series by iterative corrections to Jyā
and Śara
As we noted earlier, these relations given by (165) and (167) are exact. But now we
shall show how better and better approximations to the Rsine and Rversine of any
desired arc can be obtained by taking n to be very large or, equivalently, taking the
arc-bit ns to be very small. Then both the full-chord α, and the first Rsine B1 (the
63
Rsine of the arc-bit), can be approximated by the arc-bit ns itself, and the Rversine
Sn− 21 can be taken as Sn and the Rversine S 21 may be treated as negligible. Thus the
above relations (165), (167) become95
s
S = Sn ≈ (Bn−1 + Bn−2 + . . . + B1 ), (169)
nR
s 2
B = Bn ≈ s − [(B1 + B2 + . . . + Bn−1 )
nR
+ (B1 + B2 . . . + Bn−2 ) + . . . + B1 ], (170)
where B and S are the Rsine and Rversine of the desired arc of length s and the results
will be more accurate, larger the value of n.
Now, as a first approximation, we take each pin.d.a-jyā Bj in (169) and (170) to be
equal to the corresponding arc itself, that is
js
Bj ≈ . (171)
n
Then we obtain for the Rversine
s h s s i
S ≈ (n − 1) + (n − 2) + ...
nR n n
1 s 2
= [(n − 1) + (n − 2) + . . .]. (172)
R n
For large n, we can use the estimate (89) for the sum of integers. Hence (172) reduces
to 2
1 s
S≈ . (173)
R 2
Equation (173) is the first śara-sam. skāra, correction to the Rversine. We now sub-
stitute our first approximation (171) to the pin.d.a-jyās Bj in (170), which gives the
Rsine of the desired are as a second order repeated sum of the pin.d.a-jyās Bj . We
then obtain
2
1 s 3
B ≈ s− [(1 + 2 + . . . + (n − 1)) + (1 + 2 + . . .(n − 2)) + . . .]. (174)
R n
The second term in (174) is a dvitı̄ya-saṅkalita, the second order repeated sum, and
using the estimate (108), we obtain
2 3
1 s
B ≈s− . (175)
R 1.2.3
Thus we see that the first correction obtained in (175) to the Rsine-arc-difference
(jyā-cāpāntara-sam. skāra), is equal to the earlier correction to the Rversine (śara-
sam. skāra) given in (173) multiplied by the arc and divided by the radius and 3.
95 As has been pointed out by one of the reveiwers, in the following derivation instead of using the relation
(170), which involves repeated summation of pin . d.ajyās, one could use the much simpler relation
s
B = Bn ≈ s − (Sn−1 + Sn−2 + . . . + S1 ),
nR
which essentially follows from (165) and (170). Then we can iterate between the above equation and (169)
which involve considering only sums of powers of integers. Yuktibhās.ā, however, employes successive
iteration between (169) and (170), which involves consideration of repeated sums of integers.
64
It is noted that the results (173) and (175) are only approximate (prāyika), since,
instead of the saṅkalita of the pin.d.a-jyās in (169) and (170), we have only carried
out saṅkalita of the arc-bits. Now that (175) gives a correction to the difference
btween the Rsine and the arc (jyā-cāpāntara-sam . skāra), we can use that to correct
the values of the pin.d.a-jyās and thus obtain the next corrections to the Rversine and
Rsine.
Following (175), the pin.d.a-jyās may now be taken as
2 " js 3 #
js 1 n
Bj ≈ − . (176)
n R 1.2.3
If we introduce (176) in (169), we obtain
1 s 2
S ≈ [(n − 1) + (n − 2) + . . .]
R n
s 1 2 s 3 1
− [(n − 1)3 + (n − 2)3 + . . .]. (177)
nR R n 1.2.3
The first term in (177) was already evaluated while deriving (173). The second term
in (177) can either be estimated as a summation of cubes (ghana-saṅkalita), or as
a tr.tı̄ya-saṅkalita, third order (repeated) summation, because each individual term
there has been obtained by doing a second-order (repeated) summation. Hence, recol-
lecting our earlier estimate (110) for these saṅkalitas, we get
2 3
1 s 1 s4
S≈ − . (178)
R 1.2 R 1.2.3.4
Equation (178) gives a correction (śara-sam . skāra) to the earlier value (173) of the
Rversine, which is nothing but the earlier correction to the Rsine-arc difference (jyā-
cāpāntara-sam
. skāra) given in (175) multiplied by the arc and divided by the radius
and 4.
Again, if we use the corrected pin.d.a-jyās (176) in the expression (170) for the Rsine,
we obtain
2
1 s 3
B ≈ s− [(1 + 2 + .. + (n − 1)) + (1 + 2 + .. + (n − 2)) + ..]
R n
4
1 s 5
+
R n
1 3
× (1 + 23 + ... + (n − 1)3 ) + (13 + 23 + ... + (n − 2)3 ) + ..
1.2.3
2 3 4
1 s 1 s5
≈ s− + . (179)
R 1.2.3 R 1.2.3.4.5
The above process can be repeated to obtain successive higher order corrections for the
Rversine and Rsine: By first finding a correction (jyā-cāpāntara-sam . skāra) for the
difference between the Rsine and the arc, using this correction to correct the pin.d.a-
jyās Bj , and using them in equations (169) and (170) get the next correction (śara-
sam. skāra) for the Rversines, and the next correction (jyā-cāpāntara-sam. skāra) for
65
the Rsine-arc-difference itself, which is then employed to get further corrections iter-
atively. In this way we are led to the Mādhava series for jyā and śara given by
2
4
1 1 s3s5
B = R sin(s) = s− +
R R (1.2.3)
(1.2.3.4.5)
6
1 s7
− + ...,
R (1.2.3.4.5.7)
2 3 5
1 s 1 s4 1 s6
S = R vers(s) = − + − . . .(180)
.
R 2 R (1.2.3.4) R (1.2.3.4.6)
That is,
θ3 θ5 θ7
sin θ = θ− + − + ... ,
(1.2.3) (1.2.3.4.5) (1.2.3.4.5.6.7)
θ2 θ4 θ6
vers θ = − + − ... . (181)
(1.2) (1.2.3.4) (1.2..4.5.6)
17 Instantaneous velocity and derivatives
As we saw in Section 6.1, the mandaphala or the equation of centre for a planet ∆µ
is given by r
0
R sin(∆µ) = R sin(M − α), (182)
R
where r0 is the mean epicycle radius, M is the mean longitude of the planet and α
the longitude of the apogee. Further as we noted earlier, Muñjāla, Āryabhat.a II and
Bhāskara II used the approximation
R sin(∆µ) ≈ ∆µ, (183)
in (182) and obtained the following expression as correction to the instantaneous ve-
locity of the planet:
d r d
0
(∆µ) = R cos(M − α) (M − α). (184)
dt R dt
Actually the instantaneous velocity of the planet has to be evaluated from the more
accurate relation h r i
0
∆µ = R sin−1 R sin(M − α) . (185)
R
The correct expression for the instantaneous velocity which involves the derivative of
arc-sine function has been given by Nı̄lakan.t.ha in his Tantrasaṅgraha.96
x +.a.ta:pa:de:na .sMa:h:=e;t,a Á
.. a:ndÒ;ba.a:hu:P+l+va:gRa:Za.ea:a.Da:ta:aa.$ya:k+a:k
ta.a k+ea:a.f:P+l+a.l+a.a:k+a:h:ta.Ma :ke +.ndÒ;Bua:a.+.a=;h ya:a l+Bya:tea Á Á
96 Tantrasaṅgraha, cited above (fn. 52), verses 2.53–54, pp.169–170. Elsewhere, Nı̄lakantha has
..
ascribed these verses to his teacher Dāmodara (Jyotirmı̄mām
. sā, Ed. by K. V. Sarma, VVRI, Hoshiarpur
1977, p. 40).
66
õ :Za.ea:Dya mxa:ga.a:a.d:k
ta:a.d e ga:teaH ;a.[a:pya:ta.a:a.ma:h tua k+.k
R +.f.a:a.d:ke Á
å
ta:;
ÂåÅ ;vea:t~.Pu+f:ta.=:a ga:a.ta:a.vRa:Da.eaH A:~ya ta:tsa:ma:ya.ja.a .=;vea.=;a.pa Á Á
Let the product of the kot.iphala [r0 cos(M − α)] in minutes and the
daily motion of the manda-kendra d(M−α) dt be divided by the square
q of the square of the bāhuphala
root subtracted from the square of trijyā
2 2 2
R − r0 sin (M − α) . The result thus obtained has to be sub-
tracted form the daily motion of the Moon if the manda-kendra lies
within six signs beginning from Mr.ga and added if it lies within six signs
beginning from Karkat.aka. The result gives a more accurate value of the
Moon’s angular velocity. In fact, the procedure for finding the instanta-
neous velocity of the Sun is same as this.
If (M −α) be the manda-kendra, then the content of the above verse can be expressed
as
d(M − α)
d h −1 r0 i r0 cos(M − α)
dt
sin sin(M − α) = q . (186)
dt R 2
R2 − r2 sin (M − α) 0
The instantaneous velocity of the planet is given by
d(M − α)
d d r0 cos(M − α)
µ = (M − α) − q dt . (187)
dt dt 2 2 2
R − r0 sin (M − α)
Here, the first term in the RHS represents the mean velocity of the planet and the
second term the rate of change in the mandaphala given by (186).
In his Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās. ya, Nı̄lakan.t.ha explains how his result is more correct than
the traditional result of Muñjāla and Bhāskarācārya:97
A:taH :P+l+sa.a:}yMa ku +.taH ? . . . :pua:na.=;a.pa ya.ea ;a.va:Zea:SaH ta.a k+ea:a.f.$ya.a:gua:a.Na:ta:~ya
;aa.$ya:ya.a h.=;Na:mua:+.m,a , I+h k+ea:a.f:P+l+gua:a.Na:ta:~ya :ke +.ndÒ;Ba.ea:ga:~ya d.eaH P+l -
k+ea:fa.a h.=;Na:mua:+.m,a I+a.ta Á .tea:na ta:tP+lM .. a.a:pa.a:kx +.tMa Bua.ja.a:P+l+ga:a.taH .~ya.a:t,a Á
k+.Ta:m,a ?
.. a.a:pa:ga:a.ta:sa:}ba:a.nDa.$ya.a:ga:tya.a:na:ya:ne
// a ya:t,a :Ea.=:a:a.Za:k+.mua:M , .$ya.a:ga:tya.a .. a.a:pa:ga:tya.a -
na:ya:nea ta:a.d
õ :pa.=:a:tMa k+.mRa k+a:yRa:m,a Á ta.a :pUa:va.eRa:e k+.mRa:a.Na :Ea.=:a:a.Za:k+.d
õ :yea:na ya.a
d.eaH P+l+ga:a.taH A.a:na.a:ta.a ta.Ma v.ya.a:sa.a:DeRa:na h:tva.a d.eaH P+l+k+ea:fa.a &+tva.a ta:a.a:pa-
ga:a.ta:lR+Bya.a Á ta.ea:dM :Ea.=:a:a.Za:k+.m,a ...
Hence, how can the results be equal? . . . Again the distinction being:
there it was prescribed that the multiplier kot.i-jyā was to be divided by
trijyā, [but] here it has been prescribed that the product of kot.iphala
97 Āryabhatı̄ya of Āryabhata, Ed. with Āryabhat.ı̄ya-bhās.ya of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ by
. .
K. Sāmbaśiva Śāstrı̄, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series 110, Trivandrum 1931, comm. on Kālakriyāpāda
22–25, pp. 62–63.
67
and the rate of change of kendra be divided by kot.i of the doh.phala
(doh.phalakot.yā).98 . . .
17.1 Acyuta’s expression for instantaneous velocity involving the
derivative of ratio of two functions
In the third chapter of his Sphut.anirn.ayatantra, Acyuta Pis.ārat.i (c. 1550–1621),
a disciple of Jyes.t.hadeva, discusses various results for the instantaneous velocity
of a planet depending on the form of equation of centre (manda-sam . skāra). He first
presents the formula involving the derivative of arc-sine function given by Nı̄lakan.t.ha
(in the name of (manda)-sphut.agati) as follows:99
k+ea:a.f:P+l;a:h:ta:k
e +.ndÒ;ga:tea:yRa:d
, d.eaH P+l+k+ea:a.f:k+.ya.a:a:ma:nea:na Á
å
h.a:na:yua:ta.a:mxa:ga:k+.kR +.f:k+a:dù;a.eÅ a:mRa:Dya:ga:a.ta:BRa:va:a.ta .~.Pu+f:Bua:a. H Á Á
Acyuta also gives the formula for the instantaneous velocity of a planet if one were to
follow a different model proposed by Munjāla for the equation of centre, according
to which mandaphala is given by
r0
sin(M − α)
∆µ = Rr , (188)
0
1− cos(M − α)
R
instead of (182), where ∆µ is small. If one were to use this formula for mandaphala
for finding the true longitude of the planet, then it may be noted that the instantaneous
velocity will involve the derivative of the ratio of two functions both varying with
time. Taking note of this, Acyuta observes:100
ïîéå
x +.t=+:
k a:~ya ma.a:nd:pa:a=;Dea:a.nRa.ja:k+.NRa:tua:ya.Ea vxa:a;d
Äâ :[a:ya.a:a.va:a.ta ma:tea k+.a.Ta:taH kÒ +.ma.eaY:ya:m,a Á
A:DRa:~ya ma.a:nd:pa:a=;DeaH [a:ya:vxa:a;d
Äâ :pa:[ea , yua:M ;a.kÒ +.ya.a:ma:Ta :pra:a.ta:pa.a:d:ya.a:maH Á Á
The procedure that was prescribed earlier is with reference to the School
that conceives of the increase and decrease in the circumference of the
manda-vr.tta in accordance with the karn.a. With reference to the School
that conceives of increase and decrease only to the half [of it], now we
prescribe the appropriate procedure to be adopted.
Acyuta then proceeds to give the correct expression for the instantaneous velocity of
a planet in Munjāla’s model:101
kx +.ta:k+ea:a.f:P+lM ;aa.ja.a:va:ya.a ;a.va:&+tMa d.eaH P+l+va:gRa:ta:~tua ya:t,a Á
mxa:ga:k+.kR +.f:k+a:a.d:ke Y:mua:na.a yua:ta:h.a:nMa :P+l+ma.a:k+ea:a.f.ja:m,a Á Á
98 The terms doh.phala and kot.iphala refer to rR0 sin(M − α) and rR0 cos(M − α) respectively. Hence,
p
the term doh.phalakot. i refers to 1 − ( rR0 sin(M − α))2 .
99 Sphutanirnayatantra of Acyuta Pisārati, Ed. by K. V. Sarma, VVRI, Hoshiarpur 1974, p. 19.
. . . .
100 Ibid., p. 20.
101 Ibid., p. 21.
68
È
îå Á a.;d x +.ta:k+ea:f.a:P+l+ya.a ;aa.ja.a:va:ya.a Á
;a.d:na:ke +.ndÒ;ga:a.ta*+:mu Äâ :=e;t,a k
:P+l+pUa:vRa:P+lE+k+.ta.ea d:lM ;a.d:na:Bua:e+=;a.pa .sMa:~kx +.a.ta:BRa:vea:t,a Á Á
Having applied the kot.iphala to trijyā [positively or negatively depend-
ing upon the mandakendra], let the square of the doh.phala be divided by
that. This may be added to or subtracted from the kot.iphala depending
on if it is Mr.gādi or Karkyādi. The product of this [result thus obtained]
and the daily motion of the manda-kendra divided by the kot.iphala and
applied to trijyā will be the correction to the daily motion.
Thus according to Acyuta, the correction to the mean velocity of a planet to obtain its
instantaneous velocity is given by
r0 2
r sin(M − α)
cos(M − α) + Rr0
0
R 1− cos(M − α) d(M − α)
R , (189)
r0 dt
1− cos(M − α)
R
which is nothing but the derivative of the expression given in (188).
Acknowledgement:
We are thankful to Prof. D. Mumford and Prof. C. S. Seshadri for organizing the sem-
inar on History of Mathematics at Chennai Mathematical Institute during January-
February 2008, which gave us an opportunity to put together some of the material on
development of calculus in India. We are grateful to our collaborator Prof. M. S. Sri-
ram and also to Prof. R. Sridharan and Prof. Raja Sridharan for their valuable sugge-
tions and continued encouragement. We would like to specially thank the reviewers
of the paper for their valuable comments and suggestions.
69
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Gan.itakaumudı̄, Chapters 13–14, PhD Dissertation, Brown University 1993.
Tr. by Parmanand Singh, Gan.itabhāratı̄ 1998–2002.
14. Tantrasaṅgraha (c. 1500) of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄: Ed. with Laghuvivr.ti
of Śaṅkara Vāriyar by Surnad Kunjan Pillai, Trivandrum 1958. Ed. with
Yuktidı̄pikā of Śaṅkara Vāriyar by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1977.
15. Āryabhat.ı̄yabhās. ya (c. 1502) of Nı̄lakan.t.ha Somayājı̄ on Āryabhat.ı̄ya of
Āryabhat.a: Vols. 1 and 2 on Gan.ita and Kālakriyāpāda, Ed. by
K. Sāmbaśiva Śastrı̄, Trivandrum 1930, 1931; Vol. 3 on Golapāda. Ed. by
Surnad Kunjan Pillai, Trivandrum 1957.
16. Gan.ita-yukti-bhās.ā (c. 1530) of Jyes.t.hadeva (in Malayalam): Gan.itādhyāya,
Ed., with Notes in Malayalam, by Ramavarma Thampuran and A. R. Akhiles-
warayyar, Trichur 1948. Ed. with Tr. by K. V. Sarma with Explanatory Notes
by K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas and M. S. Sriram, 2 Vols, Hindustan
Book Agency, Delhi 2008, Rep. Springer 2009.
17. Kriyākramakarı̄ (c. 1535) of Śaṅkara Vāriyar on Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskarācārya II:
Ed. by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1975.
18. Yuktidı̄pikā (c. 1535) of Śaṅkara Vāriyar on Tantrasaṅgraha of Nı̄lakan.t.ha
Somayājı̄: Ed. by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1977.
19. Buddhivilāsinı̄ (c. 1545) of Gan.eśa Daivajña on Lı̄lāvatı̄ of Bhāskarācārya II:
Ed. by V. G. Apte, 2 Vols, Pune 1937.
20. Bı̄janavāṅkura (c. 1600) of Kr.s.n.a Daivajña on Bı̄jagan.ita of Bhāskarācār-
ya II: Ed. by V. G. Apte, Pune 1930. Ed. by T. V. Radha Krishna Sastry, Tanjore
1958.
21. Sphut.anirn.ayatantra (c. 1600) of Acyuta Piśārat.i: Ed. with Acyuta’s com-
mentary by K. V. Sarma, Hoshiarpur 1974.
Some Overviews of Indian Mathematics
1. B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh, History of Hindu Mathematics, 2 parts, Lahore
1935, 1938. Rep. Bharatiya Kala Prakasan, Delhi 2004.
2. C. N. Srinivasa Iyengar, History of Indian Mathematics, Calcutta 1967.
3. A. K. Bag, Mathematics in Ancient and Medieval India, Varanasi 1979.
4. T. A. Sarasvati Amma, Geometry in Ancient and Medieval India, Delhi 1979.
Rep. 2007.
5. G. G. Joseph, The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathe-
matics, Peguin 1990, 2nd Ed., Princeton 2000.
6. S. Parameswaran, The Golden Age of Indian Mathematics, Swadeshi Science
Movement, Kochi 1998.
71
7. G. Emch, M. D. Srinivas and R. Sridharan Eds., Contributions to the History of
Mathematics in India, Hindustan Book Agency, Delhi 2005.
8. C. K. Raju, Cultural Foundations of Mathematics: The Nature of Mathemat-
ical proof and the Transmission of the Calculus from India to Europe in the
16th c.CE, Pearson Education, Delhi 2007.
9. Kim Plofker, ‘Mathematics in India’, in V. J. Katz Ed., The Mathematics of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India and Islam: A Source Book, Princeton 2007,
pp. 385–513.
10. Kim Plofker, History of Mathematics in India: From 500 BCE to 1800 CE,
Princeton 2008.
Some Articles
1. C. M. Whish, ‘On the Hindu quadrature of the circle, and the infinite series of
the proportion of the circumference to the diameter exhibited in the four Shas-
tras, the Tantrasangraham, Yucti Bhasa, Carana Paddhati and Sadratnamala’,
Tran. Roy. As. Soc. (G.B.) 3, 509–523, 1834.
2. Bapudeva Sastri, ‘Bhaskara’s knowledge of the differential calculus’, Jour. As.
Soc. Bengal 27, 213–216, 1858.
3. William Spotiswoode, ‘Note on the supposed discovery of the principle of the
differential calculus by an Indian astronomer’, Jour. Royal As. Soc. 17, 221–
222, 1860.
4. P. C. Sen Gupta, ‘Infinitesimal calculus in Indian mathematics’, Jour. Dep.
Letters. Calcutta Univ., 22, 1–17, 1931.
5. K. Mukunda Marar, ‘Proof of Gregory’s series’, Teacher’s Magazine 15, 28–34,
1940.
6. K. Mukunda Marar and C. T. Rajgopal, ‘On the Hindu quadrature of the circle’,
J.B.B.R.A.S. 20, 65–82, 1944.
7. K. Mukunda Marar and C. T. Rajagopal, ‘Gregory’s series in the mathematical
literature of Kerala’, Math. Student 13, 92–98, 1945.
8. A. Venkataraman, ‘Some interesting proofs from Yuktibhās.ā’, Math. Student
16, 1–7, 1948.
9. C. T. Rajagopal, ‘A neglected chapter of Hindu mathematics’, Scr. Math. 15,
201–209, 1949.
10. C. T. Rajagopal and A. Venkataraman, ‘The sine and cosine power series in
Hindu mathematics’, J.R.A.S.B. 15, 1–13, 1949.
11. C. T. Rajagopal and T. V. V. Aiyar, ‘On the Hindu proof of Gregory’s series’,
Scr. Math. 17, 65–74, 1951.
12. C. T. Rajagopal and T. V. V. Aiyar, ‘A Hindu approximation to Pi’, Scr. Math.
18. 25–30, 1952.
72
13. R. C. Gupta, ‘Second order interpolation in Indian mathematics up to the fif-
teenth century’, Ind. Jour. Hist. Sc., 4, 86–98, 1969.
14. R. C. Gupta, ‘An Indian form of third order Taylor series approximation of the
sine’, Hist. Mathematica, 1, 687–89, 1974.
15. C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari, ‘On an untapped source of medieval
Keralese mathematics’, Arch. for Hist. of Ex. Sc. 18, 89–101, 1978.
16. B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh (Rev. by K. S. Shukla), ‘Use of calculus in Hindu
mathematics’, Ind. Jour. Hist. Sc., 19, 95–104, 1984.
17. B. B. Datta and A. N. Singh (Rev. by K. S. Shukla), ‘Use of series in India’,
Ind. Jour. Hist. Sc., 28, 103–129, 1984.
18. D. Pingree, ‘Power series in medieval Indian trigonometry’, in P. Gaeffke and
D. A. Utz Eds., Science and Technology in India, Vol. II, University of Pennsyl-
vania, Philadelphia 1985, pp. 25–30.
19. C. T. Rajagopal and M. S. Rangachari, ‘On medieval Kerala mathematics’,
Arch. for Hist. Sc., 35(2), 91–99, 1986.
20. T. Hayashi, T. Kusuba and M. Yano, ‘Indian values of π derived from Āryabhat.a’s
value’, Historia Scientiarum, 37, 1–16, 1989.
21. T. Hayashi, T. Kusuba and M. Yano, ‘The correction of the Mādhava series for
the circumference of a circle’, Centauras, 33, 149–174, 1990.
22. Ranjan Roy, ‘The discovery of the series formula for π by Leibniz’, Gregory
and Nı̄lakan.t.ha, Math. Mag. 63, 291–306, 1990.
23. D. Gold and D. Pingree, ‘A hitherto unknown Sanskrit work concerning
Mādhava’s derivation of the power series for the sine and the cosine’, Hist.
Scientiarum, 42, 49–65, 1991.
24. K. Balagangadharan, ‘Mathematical analysis in medieval Kerala’, in Science in
the West and India: Some Historical Aspects, Ed. by B. V. Subbrayappa and
N. Mukunda, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi 1995, pp. 290–312.
25. V. J. Katz, ‘Ideas of calculus in Islam and India’, Math. Mag. 68, 163–174,
1995.
26. T. Hayashi, ‘Calculations of the surface of a sphere in India’, Science and En-
gineering Review of Dohshisha University, 37.4, 194–238, 1997.
27. C. K. Raju, ‘Computers, mathematics education, and the alternative epistemol-
ogy of the calculus in the Yuktibhās.ā’, Phil. East and West, 51, 325–362,
2001.
28. D. F. Almeida, J. K. John and A. Zadorozhnyy, ‘Keralese mathematics: Its pos-
sible transmission to Europe and the consequential educational implications’, J.
Nat. Geo. 20, 77–104, 2001.
29. J. Bronkhorst, ‘Pān.ini and Euclid’, Jour. Ind. Phil. 29, 43–80, 2001.
30. D. Bressoud, ‘Was calculus invented in India?’, College Math. J. 33, 2–13,
2002.
73
31. Kim Plofker, ‘Relations between approximations to the sine in Kerala mathe-
matics’, in G G Emch et al., Eds. Contibutions to the History of Indian mathe-
matics, Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi 2005, pp. 135–152.
32. P. P. Divakaran, ‘The first textbook of calculus: Yuktibhās.ā’, Jour. Ind. Phil. 35,
417–443, 2007.
33. D. Mumford, ‘Why I am a Platonist’, EMS Newsletter, Issue 70, Dec. 2008,
pp. 27–30.
34. D. F. Almeida and G. G. Joseph, ‘Kerala mathematics and its possible trans-
mission to Europe’, in P. Ernest, B. Greer and B. Sriraman, Critical issues in
Mathematics Education, University of Montana, 2009, pp. 171–188.
Some Overviews of History of Calculus
1. C. B. Boyer, The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development,
Dover, New York 1949.
2. M. E. Baron, The Origins of the Infinitesimal Calculus, Pergamon, Oxford 1969.
3. C. H. Edwards, The Historical Development of the Calculus, Springer, New
York 1979.
4. V. J. Katz, A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 2nd Ed., Addison Wes-
ley, Reading Mass. 1998.
74
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