1)RIVERS

 Erosion – this is the wearing away of the land and transporting the worn materials away
This may be vertical or horizontal erosion in a rift valley

 Deposition – this is laying down eroded materials

 Weathering – this is breaking down rock by exposure to weather conditions such as extreme heating
or cooling, rainwater containing acid or biological activity. The rock is not transported
away
 Parts of a river

 Source – the beginning of a river

 Meander – a series of large sweeping bends in a river
 Levee – a bank built along a river to prevent flooding
 Confluence – a point where two rivers meet
 Tributary – a small river joining the main one
 Ox bow lake – a lake that is formed through deposition
 Channel – a wide waterway between two landmasses that lie close to each other
 Estuary – where a river widens out in a funnel shape before it reaches the sea
 Delta – where a river splits into several parts before it meets the sea
 Mouth – the end of a river

River processes

a) Upper course
 This is the part closest to the source of the river
 The river is usually high and mountainous
 The river flows faster
b) Middle course
 It is usually wider and deeper than the upper course
 The water flows slowly

c) Lower course
 This is the final section of a river which flows into another body

2) COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
 Weathering
 There are 3 types of weathering

a) Mechanical weathering
 This is caused by changes in temperature
 In freeze – thaw weathering, water gets into cracks in a rock and freezes
 As it freezes, it expands and repeated freezing and melting eventually causes the rock to split

b) Biological weathering
 Caused by the action of plants on rocks
 As their roots develop, they can force the cracks to widen and the rocks to fall apart
c) Chemical weathering
 Caused by the action of water on the chemicals in rocks
 Rain water is slightly acidic as it falls through the atmosphere
 When it comes into contact with rock, it dissolves some of it away
How does the sea erode the coast?

How are caves formed?

3) SHOPPING – PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE

Shopping hierarchies

o Corner shop – sub urban shopping street – out of town shopping center – city center shopping mall

What is the future of shopping?

o People in the future will use technology in everything, even shopping

o People will not walk to get their things
o There are apps like Amazon and Glovo that have already started
o The future is now!

4) WEATHER PATTERNS OVER EUROPE

THE MAP OF EUROPE

Types of clouds
 Clouds form when air cools so that the water vapor it holds condenses into water droplets
 Clouds are classified by height and shape
 There are 3 main types of clouds

1. Cumulus clouds
 They have bumpy tops
 They are white in color and they are like cotton

2. Nimbus clouds
  They are dark grey in color
 They are thick and attract rain

3. Cirrus clouds
 They are made of ice crystals because they are formed high up in the atmosphere
 They are short, feathery and hair like clouds

4. Stratus clouds
 They are low- level layer with a fairly uniform grey or white color
 They are flat, hazy and featureless clouds at low attitudes

The hydrological cycle

Types of rainfall
1. Relief rainfall
 When air is forced to rise over mountains, it cools and the water vapor it holds condenses to
form clouds
 Eventually, relief rain may fall

2. Convectional rainfall
 When the earth’s surface is heated by the sun, the air above it is also warmed up
 The warm air rises, but as it rises, it cools down
 As the air cools, the water vapor it holds condenses to form clouds and eventually it may rain

3. Frontal rainfall
 Warm air is lighter than cold air
 When the two meet, the warm air rises over the cold air
  As the warm air is forced to rise, it cools, so that the water vapor it holds condenses to form
clouds

Climate graphs
What affects Europe’s climate

Lines on maps which join places with equal temperatures are called isotherms
Factors that affect temperature

1. Attitude – This is the height above sea level

2. Latitude – Places near the equator are warmer than places near the poles
3. Distance from the sea – Summer land areas are warmer than the sea
4. Ocean currents
5. Prevailing winds – These are the directions from which the wind blows most often

5) INVESTIGATING BRAZIL
Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world
It has the world’s ninth largest economy
It has more forests than any other country

The map of brazil

 Facts about Brazil
i. One percent of landowners control over half the land in Brazil
ii. Working conditions in some Brazilian factories are terrible
iii. The working week is often very long
iv. Seven million Brazilian children are involved in child labor

6) LIMESTONE LANDSCAPES OF ENGLAND

Types of rocks

a) Igneous rocks
b) Metamorphic rocks

c) Sedimentary rocks
 These are rocks made of bits of rocks (sediments) which were laid down in layers, usually under
water. For a long time, they were compressed into new rocks
 Lime stone is a sedimentary rock and there are two types in England:
i. Oolitic/ Jurassic limestone - 135 – 180 million years’ old
ii. Carboniferous limestone – 225 – 600 million years’ old

Carboniferous limestone

 It is one of the oldest rocks in England

 It is made of calcium carbonate
 The calcium came from the shells of the sea creatures and the carbon from the softer body parts
 Carboniferous limestone is special bcs it is permeable – water can disappear underground and flow
right through it

NB:

Chalk and Jurassic limestone can hold water – they have tiny holes in them and they are porous

Porous – rocks that contain empty spaces in which fluids can be stored in
Limestone’s special: rock structure

 If you sliced through limestone, it would look a bit like a brick wall
 The spaces between the bricks are called joints
 They let water pass along them, so when it rains, the rainwater travels down through the rock until
it cannot go further
 Eventually, some comes back out to the surface as a spring
 The chemical reaction between rainwater and limestone:

Calcium carbonate + water + carbon dioxide = Calcium bicarbonate (soluble)

CaCO3 H2O CO2 Ca (HCO3)2

What are the typical limestone features?

 Limestone pavement – Limestone that is exposed at the surface to reveal clints and grykes
 Clints – the surface slabs of rocks on a limestone pavement
 Gryke – Gaps btwn blocks of stone on a limestone pavement
 Swallow holes – a funnel shaped hole which leads underground
 Stalactite – icicle shaped deposits of calcium carbonate hanging from a cave roof
 Stalagmite – Deposits of calcium carbonate which build up on a cave floor
 Pillar – When a stalactite and stalagmite join together
  Dry valleys – A valley formed on permeable rock after the Ice age; water now flows underneath
them bcs the rocks have thawed out
 Cave – a hole beneath the surface or in a cliff formed by the action of water
 Cavern – a large cave formed by meltwater
 Limestone scars - Vertical rocks faces that are exposed
 Bedding planes – horizontal cracks btwn layers of rocks
 Impermeable rocks - compact rocks which do not have pores, and they don’t allow water to
pass through them

7) CAN THE EARTH COPE?

 The earth is a fragile planet, but there are many ways it can protect and manage itself:
i. The ozone layer prevents harmful radiation from reaching the earth’s surface
ii. Vegetation takes CO2 from the air and releases O2 during photosynthesis
iii. Animals eat plants or other animals, so they recycle nutrients
iv. The soil contains organisms that recycle nutrients
v. Plants are at the bottom of all food chains and protect the soil from erosion
vi. Water is essential for life

How are ecosystems linked to human activity?

 An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals which exist together under similar conditions,
such as climate and soil
 Most ecosystems are affected by human activity
 People need to use and modify the natural environment to help them survive

How do ecosystems work?

 How are nutrients recycled?

Threats to the marine ecosystem

i. Sewage and waste from farms and industries

ii. Oil spills and leaks

iii. Waste from dredging, sewage sludge and ships’ garbage

Coral reefs

 It is made up of millions upon millions of coral polyps

 They are thin living layers which cover the reef
 Polyp are tiny animals, but contain plants called algae

 The algae use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into energy

 Coral reefs are very colorful because many different algae reflect different colors in the sunlight
 The coral polyps make hard calcium carbonate

Threats to the coral reef ecosystem

i. The effects of climate change – Changes in weather patterns cause problems for reef ecosystems
ii. The effect of changes in sea level – Coral reefs need sunlight, but the sea levels rise, this is reduced
by the deeper water above them
iii. Rise in sea temperatures – Coral reefs can only grow within a certain temperature range. Above that
corals deteriorate and may die. This is called coral bleaching
 8) CRIME AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITY
What is a crime?

 A crime is any action or offence that is punishable by law

 Crimes include: Murder shoplifting
Burglary Blackmailing
Assault fraud
Robbery Graffiti

Causes of crimes

a) Poverty
b) Unemployment
c) In rich societies, there is more to steal
d) Drug use and the cost of buying illegal drugs