Power Electronics 1 - 13 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

1.5.1 Construction of SCR

· We know that SCR is a four layer device. Fig. 1.5.1 (a)
shows the symbol of the SCR. It has three terminals : Anode (A)
Anode (A), Cathode (K) and Gate (G). A small positive
voltage between gate and cathode turns on the SCR.
· Fig. 1.5.1(b) shows the detailed structure. The p + layer Gate
(G)
is doped at 1019 / cm 3 . The player is doped at 1017 /cm 3 .
The p and p + layers from anode (A) of the SCR. The
thickness of the p-layer is 30 to 50 mm. The n - layer is Cathode (K)

lightly doped. The doping level of this layer is Fig. 1.5.1 (a) Symbol
1014 /cm 3 . The width of n - layer is 50 to 1000 mm. This
layer absorbs depletion layer of the junction J 2 .
· When SCR is forward biased (VAK positive), junction J 2 is reverse biased. And J 1
and J 3 are forward biased. The depletion layer of J 2 is absorbed by n - layer
when SCR is forward biased. The width of n - layer decides forward blocking
capability of the SCR. The next p-layer, having doping level of 1017 /cm 3 forms
the gate of SCR. The width of this layer is 30 to 100 mm. The next, i.e. n + layer
(doping level of 1019 /cm 3 ) forms the cathode of SCR.
Fig. 1.5.1(c) shows the simplified structure of SCR. The gate - cathode junction is
J 3 . When this junction is forward biased, (i.e. gate signal applied) SCR can be turn-on.
Due to gate signal, current starts flowing across J 3 . Some carriers flow across J 2 also.
Hence, internal regeneration starts and SCR turns on. This process is explained in
detail with the help of two transistor analogy in next section.

Gate (G) Cathode (K)

n+ Cathode (K)
J3
17 3
p 10 /cm
J2

n
n– 14
10 /cm
3
J3
p Gate
J1 J2 (G)
p 17 3
10 /cm n
J1
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p+ 19
10 /cm
3 p

Anode (A) Anode (A)

(b) Structure of SCR Fig. 1.5.1 (c) Simplified structure of SCR

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 Power Electronics 1 - 14 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

1.5.2 Merits, Demerits and Applications of SCR

Merits of SCR

i. Very small amount of gate drive is required since SCR is a regenerative device.
ii. SCRs with high voltage and current ratings are available.
iii. On-state losses in SCRs are reduced.

Demerits of SCR
i. Gate has no control, once the SCR is turned on.
ii. External circuits are required to turn-off the SCR.
iii. Operating frequencies are very low.
iv. Snubbers (RC circuits) are required for dv/dt protection.

Applications of SCR
i. SCRs are best suitable for controlled rectifiers.
ii. AC regulators, lighting and heating applications.
iii. DC motor drives, large power supplies and electronic circuit breakers.

Review Question
1. With the help of characteristics, explain the modes of operation of the thyristor.

1.6 SCR Characteristics and Modes of Operation

The working of the SCR can be discussed into three modes : Reverse blocking
mode, forward blocking mode and forward conduction mode. Fig. 1.6.1 shows the V-I
characteristics of the SCR. (See Fig. 1.6.1 on next page)
The characteristics shown in the above figure are called static characteristics. The
anode to cathode current I AK is plotted with respect to anode to cathode voltage VAK .
The voltage ' VBO ' is the forward break-over voltage. ' VBR ' is the reverse break down
voltage. And I g 1 , I g 2 , I g 3 are the gate currents applied to the SCR.
A
1.6.1 Reverse Blocking Mode
Fig. 1.6.2 shows the situation when the
P
thyristor will be in reverse blocking mode.
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J1
N –
In the above figure, observe that the J2
G P +
anode (A) is made negative with respect to J3
cathode (K). The gate is kept open. There N

K
Fig. 1.6.2 A reverse biased SCR

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 Power Electronics 1 - 15 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

IAK

Forward
conduction
(ON-state)
Reverse ON-state Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1
breakdown voltage drop
voltage Ig3 Forward
Ig2 Ig1 leakage
Reverse blocking current
VBR
VAK
VBO
Reverse Forward blocking
leakage (OFF - state)
current Forward
breakover
voltage

Fig. 1.6.1 Static V-I characteristics of a SCR

are three PN junctions in the SCR : J 1 , J 2 and J 3 . Due to this reverse bias,
junctions J 1 and J 3 are also reverse biased. And junction J 2 is forward biased. The
SCR doesnot conduct due to this reverse bias. A very small current flows from
cathode to anode. This current is called reverse leakage current of the SCR. This mode is
called reverse blocking mode. Fig. 1.6.1 shows the characteristic of SCR in reverse
blocking mode. Observe that reverse voltage increases but very small current flows. At
reverse breakdown voltage (VBR ), the reverse current increases rapidly. At the time of
reverse breakdown, the high voltage is present across the SCR and heavy current
flows through it. Hence large power dissipation takes place in the thyristor. Due to
this dissipation, the junction temperature exceeds the permissible value and the SCR is
damaged. Hence a reverse voltage across the SCR should never exceed VBO .
During the reverse blocking mode, the positive gate signal should not be applied.
If the positive signal is applied between gate and cathode, junction J 3 is forward
biased. Hence current starts flowing through it. This current adds to reverse leakage
current of the SCR. Hence dissipation is also increased.

1.6.2 Forward Blocking Mode

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The SCR is said to be forward biased when anode is made positive with respect to
cathode as shown in Fig. 1.6.3. Due to this forward bias the junction J 1 and J 3 is
forward biased and J 2 is reverse biased. Hence the forward voltage is to be hold by
junction J 2 . A very small current flows from anode to cathode. This current is called
forward leakage current. This current is of the order of few milliamperes. In the

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 Power Electronics 1 - 16 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

forward blocking mode, the

A
thyristor is forward biased but it
doesnot turn-on. In the forward
P blocking mode a very small
J1
N + forward leakage current flows. In
J2
G P – the forward blocking mode the
J3 voltage (VAK ) can be increased till
N
VBO . This situation is shown in Fig.
1.6.1. When the forward voltage
K reaches VBO , the SCR turns on. The
SCR goes from forward blocking
Fig. 1.6.3 SCR in forward biased condition mode to forward conduction mode.
Normally gate drive is applied for
this purpose. The highest voltage to be sustained in forward blocking mode is forward
break-over voltage, VBO .
When the voltage increases above VBO , the SCR goes into forward conduction
mode (i.e. turns on) even if gate drive is not applied. Thus SCR is not damaged if
voltage VAK > VBO , rather it is turned on.

1.6.3 Forward Conduction Mode

When the SCR is forward biased, then it can go into forward conduction by
following techniques :
i) When VAK > VBO
ii) When gate drive is applied
dv
iii) When exceeds permissible value
dt
iv) When gate cathode junction is exposed to light
Here note that the SCR can go in the forward conduction mode only if it is in the
forward blocking mode earlier.

(i) When V AK >V BO

The SCR is driven into forward conduction mode when anode to cathode voltage
(VAK ) exceeds the forward break-over voltage (VBO ). The SCR is said to have turned-on
when it operates in forward conduction mode. When VAK > VBO , the SCR is driven in
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forward conduction even if gate is open. From Fig. 1.6.3, it is clear that junction J 2 is
reverse biased during forward blocking mode (VAK < VBO ). When VAK exceeds VBO , the
avalanche break down of junction J 2 takes place even if gate drive is not applied.
Hence heavy current starts flowing through the SCR and anode to cathode voltage
falls to very small value. This is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. The dotted line (...........) indicates

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 Power Electronics 1 - 17 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

IAK switching of SCR from forward

blocking state (i.e. OFF) to forward
conduction state (i.e. ON). The anode
to cathode current of the SCR is only
Load
+ limited by the load. Fig. 1.6.4 shows
VAK
–
such situation :
G + When the SCR conducts in the
V
– forward conduction mode, it is said
to have turned ‘ON’. The anode to
cathode voltage is less than 2 volts.
Fig. 1.6.4 Use of SCR in forward conduction This voltage is normally neglected in
calculations. Then the current
through the load and SCR will be,
V
I AK = ... (1.6.1)
Load
Thus the SCR current is only limited by the load, once the SCR turns ‘on’.

(ii) When gate drive is applied

A positive gate to cathode signal is applied whenever the SCR is to be driven into
forward conduction mode (ON state). This is also called gate triggering of the SCR.
IAK
Such situation is shown by the
A typical circuit of Fig. 1.6.5. The SCR
is in forward blocking mode when
P gate drive is not applied. When the
J1 Load
N positive gate to cathode voltage is
J2 applied, current flows from gate to
G P
J3 + cathode. This current adds to the
+ N V forward leakage current. Hence
–
– avalanche breakdown of junction J 2
takes place at lower anode to
K cathode voltage also. Thus SCR is
Fig. 1.6.5 Gate triggering is used to turn-on driven into forward conduction
the SCR mode (ON state) even if VAK < VBO .
Fig. 1.6.1 shows the characteristic by
center (-.-.-.-) lines when gate drive is applied. Observe that, as the gate current is
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increased, the SCR turns on at lower and lower values of anode to cathode voltages.
All these anode to cathode voltages are less than VBO . Thus gate triggering is the most
convenient way of triggering the SCR.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 18 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Once the thyristor goes into forward conduction mode, the gate has no control
over the conduction of thyristor. The current I AK is only limited by the load, i.e.,
V
I AK =
Load
The SCR cannot be driven back into forward blocking mode by removing the gate
drive. There are some other techniques. We will discuss those techniques next.
dv
(iii) When exceeds permissible value
dt
dv
IAK Here is the rate of change of
A dt
anode to cathode voltage with respect
to time. Whenever the SCR is in
P
J1 forward blocking state, only forward
N +
J2 V
leakage current flows through the
G P – SCR. In such state an equivalent
J3
N internal capacitor is formed inside the
SCR from anode to gate and gate to
cathode. Fig. 1.6.6 shows such
K
internal circuit. Whenever the voltage
dv applied across the SCR changes
Fig. 1.6.6 SCR turns on by due to current
dt rapidly, a transient current flows
flow in equivalent internal capacitor
through the SCR. This transient
current flows due to rapid voltage
æ dv ö
variations ç ÷ and internal capacitance. This current adds to the forward leakage
è dt ø
current. And hence the SCR turns on even if VAK < VBO or gate drive is not applied.
dv
The turn-on makes false triggering (unwanted) of the SCR. It is never used for
dt
dv
triggering. Every SCR has rating. It is expressed in volts per microseconds (V / ms).
dt
dv
The voltage variations across the SCR must be kept less than permissible value of
dt
to avoid false triggering. Normally a small resistance is connected between gate and
dv
cathode to avoid false triggering of SCR due to . This resistance acts as a external
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dt
path for leakage current generated by the internal capacitor.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 19 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

(iv) When a gate cathode junction is exposed to light

When the gate cathode junction is exposed to a beam of light, the current flows in
the junction due to photons of light. This current acts as a gate drive to the SCR and
it is driven into conduction. This type of triggering is normally used in light activated
SCRs (LASCR).

1.6.4 Latching and Holding Currents

Now let us briefly discuss the two important currents which flow through the
SCR. These currents are : latching current and the holding current.

1.6.4.1 Latching Current ( I L )

Consider that the SCR is in forward blocking state. Then the SCR can be turned on
by applying a gate drive. Then the SCR goes into forward conduction mode (ON
state). For the SCR to remain in the ‘ON’-state, the anode to cathode current (I AK )
must be greater than latching current. i.e.,
I AK ³ I L ; to remain in ON-state after triggering. Fig. 1.6.7 shows the V-I
characteristics of the SCR showing latching current.

IAK

Goe
s to
IL ON-
stat
e

VBR
VAK
O

Fig. 1.6.7 V-I characteristics of the SCR showing latching current

Observe that latching current is the lowest current which flows through the SCR to
remain in forward conduction (ON-state) after triggering. If the current through the
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SCR is less than latching current, then the SCR goes back into forward blocking state
as soon as gate drive is removed. This is said to be SCR is not latched (i.e. not turned
on). From the above discussion, the latching current can be defined as follows :

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 Power Electronics 1 - 20 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Latching current is the minimum forward current that flows through the SCR to keep it
in forward conduction mode (i.e. ON-state) at the time of triggering. If forward current is
less than latching current, SCR doesnot turn-on.

The latching current is of the order of 10 to 15 milliamperes.

1.6.4.2 Holding Current ( IH )

Consider that the SCR is in forward conduction state (i.e. ON-state). The SCR goes
into forward blocking state when current through it falls below holding current (I H ).
i.e., if I AK < I H ; SCR turns-off. Fig. 1.6.8 shows the V-I characteristics of the SCR
showing holding current.

IAK

Goe
s to
IH OFF
- sta
te

VAK
O

Fig. 1.6.8 V-I characteristics of the SCR showing holding current

Observe that the holding current is the lowest current below which SCR turns-off.
In other words we can say that, for the SCR to remain in ON-state, its forward current
should not reduce below holding current. From the above discussion, the holding
current can be defined as follows :

Holding current is the minimum forward current that flows through the SCR to keep it
in forward conduction mode. When forward current reduces below holding current, SCR
turns off.
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The holding current of the SCRs is of the order of 8 to 10 milliamperes.

1.6.4.3 Comparison (Difference) between Holding and Latching Currents

The definitions of holding current and latching current appear similar but they are
totally different. The differences are mentioned below :

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 Power Electronics 1 - 21 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

1. Latching current is effective at the time of turning-ON, whereas holding

current is effective at the time of turning-OFF the SCR.
2. Latching current is the minimum current that should flow at the time of
triggering to turn-ON the SCR. Whereas once the SCR is already in ON-state,
its current should not reduce below holding current otherwise it turns-OFF.
3. Latching current is greater than holding current even though their
magnitudes are much related.

ß Example 1.6.1 : The SCR shown in Fig. 1.6.9 has the latching current of 20 mA and is
fired by the pulse of width 50 msec. Determine whether the SCR triggers or not.

i(t)

T1
R = 20 W
+
Vs = 100 V
–
L = 0.5 H

Fig. 1.6.9 Circuit of example 1.6.1

Solution : A step of voltage is applied to the R-L load when SCR turns on. The current
through the RL circuit for step input is given as,
R
Vs æ -t ö
i (t) = çç 1 - e L ÷÷ ... (1.6.2)
R è ø

Vg

t
0 50 msec

i(t) at SCR current

50 msec
t

Fig. 1.6.10 After 50 msec, i (t ) > I L to trigger the SCR properly (triggered)
Fig. 1.6.10 shows the gate pulse and current waveform. Here observe that the SCR
will be latched (triggered) if i (t) is greater than latching current when gate triggering
pulse is removed after 50 msec. Hence let us calculate current i (t) through the SCR at
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50 msec,
20
100 æ - 50 ´10- 6 ´ ö
i (t) = çç 1 - e 0.5 ÷÷ = 10 mA
20 è ø

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 Power Electronics 1 - 22 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Here note that current through the SCR is 10 mA. It is not reached to the latching
current level and trigger pulse is removed at 50msec. Hence the SCR will not be
triggered.

ß Example 1.6.2 : A SCR is connected in series with a 0.5 H inductor and 20 W

resistance. A 100 V DC voltage is applied to this circuit. If the latching current of the SCR
is 4 mA, find the minimum width of the gate trigger pulse required to properly turn-on the
SCR.

Solution : Fig. 1.6.11 shows the circuit diagram.

i(t)

T1
R = 20 W
+
Vs = 100 V
–
L = 0.5 H

Fig. 1.6.11 Circuit of example 1.6.2

Latching current, I L = 4 mA (Given). The current through the RL circuit is given by

equation 1.6.2 as,
R
Vs æ -t ö
i(t) = çç 1 - e L ÷÷
R è ø
In the above equation when i(t) is equal to latching current, SCR turns on. Hence
with i(t) = I L , above equation becomes,
R
Vs æ -t ö
IL = çç 1 - e L ÷÷
R è ø
Now we have to determine the time 't' in above equation. Putting other values,
20
100 æ -t ö
4 ´ 10 - 3 = çç 1 - e 0.5 ÷÷
20 è ø
Solving above equation for t,
t = 20 m sec
Thus the width of the gate trigger pulse must be 20 m sec to turn-on the SCR.
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 Power Electronics 1 - 23 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

ß Example 1.6.3 : The latching current of an SCR used in a phase controlled circuit,
comprising an inductive load of R = 10 W and L = 0.1 H is 15 mA. The input voltage is
325 sin 314 t. Obtain the minimum gate pulse width required for reliable triggering of the
p
SCR if gated at angle in every positive half cycle.
3
Solution : Fig. 1.6.12 shows the circuit diagram of this example.

i(t)

T1
R = 10 W

Vs = 325 sin 314 t

L = 0.1 H

Fig. 1.6.12 Circuit of example 1.6.3

p
Thus SCR is triggered at . Hence applied voltage at this angle will be,
3
p
Vs = 325 sin = 281.458 volts
3
Thus 281.458 volts is applied at the time when SCR is triggered. For short duration
(till SCR turns on) this voltage can be considered constant. The current through load is
then given by equation 1.6.2 as,
R
Vs æ -t ö
i(t) = çç 1 - e L ÷÷
R è ø
In this equation we have to determine the pulse width when SCR triggers
successfully. SCR will be triggered successfully when i(t) = I L = 15 mA. Putting other
values in above equation.
10
281.458 æ -t ö
15 ´ 10 - 3 = çç 1 - e 0.1 ÷÷
10 è ø

Solving the above equation,

t = 5.33 msec
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Thus, the minimum gate pulse should be 5.33 msec to reliably turn-on the SCR

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 Power Electronics 1 - 24 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

ß Example 1.6.4 : A SCR has a forward breakover voltage of 175 volts when a gate pulse
of 2 mA is made to flow. Find the conduction angle if a sinusoidal voltage of 350 V peak is
applied.

Solution : When the gate pulse is applied, the SCR turns on at 175 volts. The applied
voltage is,
v s = 350 sin wt
when v s reaches to 175 SCR will turn on. i.e.
175 = 350 sin wt
Hence the value of conduction angle (wt) will be,
\ wt = 30°
Thus, at 30°, SCR will turn-on.

ß Example 1.6.5 : In the SCR circuit shown in Fig. 1.6.13 below, the SCR has a latching
current of 50 mA and is fired by a pulse of length 50 msec. Show that without resistance R,
the SCR will fail to remian on, when the firing pulse ends and then find the maximum
value of R to ensure firing.

i
20 W
+
100 V R
–
0.5 W

Fig. 1.6.13 SCR circuit of example 1.6.5

Solution : To show that SCR does not latch
Here first consider the SCR circuit without resistance R. This circuit is shown
below in Fig. 1.6.14.

T
i(t)

R = 20 W
+
Vs = 100 V
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–
L = 0.5 H

Fig. 1.6.14 SCR circuit of example 1.6.5 without R

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 Power Electronics 1 - 25 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

For this circuit the given data is,

Vs = 100

R = 20 W

L = 0.5 H

I L = 50 mA

Pulse width = 50 ms
Now let us check whether the SCR current rises above latching current in the
firing pulse duration of 50 ms. The current in the RL circuit is given by equation 1.6.2
as,
R
Vs æ -t ö
i(t) = çç 1 - e L ÷÷
R è ø
Putting the value of R, L and Vs
20
100 æ -t ö
i(t) = çç 1 - e 0.5 ÷÷
20 è ø

= 5 (1 - e - 40t )
The current after t = 50 ms will be,
-6
i(t = 50ms) = 5(1 - e - 40 ´50 ´10 )

= 9.99 ´ 10 -3 » 10 mA
Thus during the firing pulse width of 50 ms, the SCR current rises upto 10 mA.
Since this current is less than latching current of 50 mA. SCR will fail to remain on
when firing pulse ends.

To determine value of R

The additional resistance connected in parallel with RL circuit increases the current
through SCR. SCR takes 10 mA current when firing pulse of width 50 ms ends. To
latch the SCR, 50 mA current
T
should be passed through it.
Hence additional 40 mA current 10 mA 40 mA
i(t=50 ms) = 50 mA
can be passed through 'R' as
+
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shown in Fig. 1.6.15. V = 100 V R

s
–
If we neglect the voltage drop
in the SCR, full Vs will appear
across R. Hence,
Fig. 1.6.15 Currents at t = 50 ms

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 Power Electronics 1 - 26 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Vs = 40 mA ´ R

Vs
\ R =
40 mA

100
=
40 ´ 10 -3

= 2500 W
Thus a maximum R = 2.5 kW will ensure firing of the SCR.

1.6.5 Two Transistor Model of SCR

The operation of the SCR can be explained with the help of two transistor model.
Fig. 1.6.16 shows how the two transistor model of the SCR is formed.

A
ID
A A
IB1 = IC2
T1
P P
J1 N N IC1
N
J2 G P P
G P T2
J3 N
N G IB2

ID
K K

K
(a) Four layer (b) Middle two layers (c) Two transistor mode
structure of split into two of the SCR from
SCR separate parts fig (b)

Fig. 1.6.16 A two transistor model of the SCR

As shown in Fig. 1.6.16(b), the middle two layers are split into two separate parts.
Because of this, the two transistors are formed. These transistors are shown in
Fig. 1.6.16(c). The transistor T1 is pnp, whereas T2 is npn. The base of T1 is connected
to collector of T2 . Similarly base of T2 is connected to collector of T1 . These transistors
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are in common base configuration. When the SCR is forward biased and gate is open,
various currents flow as shown in Fig. 1.6.16(c). As shown in this figure, the anode to
cathode current is I D . The collector current, emitter current and leakage currents of T1
are related as,

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 Power Electronics 1 - 27 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

I C1 = a 1 I E1 + I CO1 ... (1.6.3)

Here I E1 = I D and I CO1 is leakage current of T1 . Similarly for T2 ,

I C2 = a 2 I E2 + I CO 2 ... (1.6.4)

Here I E2 = I D and I CO 2 is leakage current of T2 .

Therefore equation 1.6.3 and 1.6.4 can be written as,
I C1 = a 1 I D + I CO1 ü
ý ... (1.6.5)
I C2 = a 2 I D + I CO 2 þ

In Fig. 1.6.16(c), observe that the current I D flows through the collectors of T1 and
T2 . Hence we can write,
I D = I C1 + I C2
Putting the values from equation 1.6.5 in above equation,
I D = a 1 I D + I CO1 + a 2 I D + I CO 2

\ I D = (a 1 + a 2 ) I D + I CO1 + I CO 2
I CO1 + I CO 2
\ ID = ... (1.6.6)
1 - (a 1 + a 2 )
I CO1 + I CO 2 can be considered as total reverse leakage current of junction J 2 . This
current can be denoted by the I CO . Then above equation can be written as,
I CO
ID = ... (1.6.7)
1 - ( a1 + a 2 )

Here I CO is the reverse leakage current of the reverse biased junction J 2 . And a 1
is the common base current gain of T1 and a 2 is common base current gain of T2 .
Initially when forward voltage is small, (a 1 + a 2 ) is very small and less than 1. Hence
forward blocking current as given by equation 1.6.7 is also small. As forward voltage
applied across the SCR increases, the values of a 1 and a 2 also increase. When
(a 1 + a 2 ) tends unity, then I D approaches infinity as given by equation 1.6.7. At this
instant, internal regeneration starts and the SCR goes into forward conduction
(ON-state) mode. The current through the SCR is only limited by the external load.
Once the SCR goes into conduction, the two transistor model is no more
applicable. Here note that the internal regeneration takes place in the SCR due to
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avalanche breakdown of reverse biased junction J 2 . It does not take place when SCR
is reverse biased. When the current through the SCR falls below holding current, the
forward blocking state is regained. Then a 1 and a 2 of transistors are also reduced to
small values.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 28 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

When the gate current I g is applied, then equation 1.6.7 will be written as,
I CO + I g
ID = ... (1.6.8)
1 -( a1 + a 2 )

Thus the forward leakage current (I D ) is increased due to gate drive ( I g ). This
leakage current flows through junction J 2 and its avalanche break-down occurs at
lower forward voltage. Thus with the gate drive, the SCR is turned on at voltages less
than VBO . Hence gate becomes convenient way of triggering the SCR. Once the SCR is
turned-on, the gate has no control over its conduction.

Review Questions
1. Explain the terms latching current and holding current and compare them.
2. Explain the operation of the SCR with the help of two transistor analogy.

1.7 SCR Turn-on and Turn-off

1.7.1 Different Ways to Turn-on the SCR

We know that SCR can be turned-on if the anode current is above latching
current. There is regenerative action in the SCR. SCR can be turned-on by following
ways:
1. Gate drive
SCR can be turned on by applying positive gate-cathode voltage. Injected
gate carriers increase the anode current and regenerative action starts. As
shown in equation 1.6.7, (a 1 + a 2 ) approaches unit and anode current (I D )
becomes large. It is limited only by external load. Once the SCR is turned-on,
there is no need of gate drive. Hence it can be removed. Normally pulsed
gate drive is applied to reduce losses in the SCR gate.
2. High forward voltage
SCR turns on when its anode-cathode voltage exceeds forward break over
voltage, i.e. VAk > VBO . This is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. At these voltages, the
leakage current is so high, that internal regenerative starts in the device.
dv
3.
dt
SCR can be thought of as a capacitor in the forward biased state. When the
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anode-cathode voltage changes rapidly, leakage current thought the device

increases due to internal capacitor. The leads to turn-on of the SCR.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 29 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

4. Light
SCR can be turned on by light, when it falls on gate cathode junction of the
SCR light induces electronic hole pairs and it helps to increases leakage
current.
5. High temperature
SCR turns on due to increased temperature AT higher temperature, there are
more electron-hole pairs across junctions. This inverses the leakage current
and the SCR turns on.

1.7.2 Turn-on Dynamic Characteristics

Fig. 1.7.1 shows the current and voltage of the SCR during turn-on. The gate pulse
is applied at t = 0. During the delay time (t d ), the anode current rises very slowly and
flows only near the narrow region of the gate. Observe that anode to cathode doesnot
reduce during t d . It remains to the forward blocking value. During the rise time (tr ),
the anode current increases rapidly and anode to cathode voltage falls rapidly. The
high voltage and current are present in the SCR. Hence large dissipation takes place in
the SCR.

Gate drive
Ig

O wt

Forward blocking
anode to cathode
voltage
Anode to cathode
voltage (VAk)

Anode current (I)

I
0.9 I

Anode to cathode
drop during ON state
0.1 I
wt
O
td tr tp

On time (ton)
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Fig. 1.7.1 Dynamic characteristics of SCR during turn-on

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 Power Electronics 1 - 30 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

This power dissipation is called switching loss of the SCR. The current starts
spreading in the remaining area of the SCR. During the spread time ( t p ), the
conduction spreads over the complete cross-section of the SCR. The anode current
reaches to its maximum value. And the anode to cathode voltage falls to lowest value
(i.e. less than 2 V). The dissipation in the SCR is also reduced. The turn-on time (t on ) of
the SCR is given as total of t d , tr and t p . Thus,
t on = t d + tr + t p
The turn-on time can be defined as,

The turn-on time of the SCR is defined as the time from initiation of gate drive to the
time when anode current reaches to its full value.

The turn-on time of the SCRs is about 1 to 3 microseconds. The turn-on time can
be effectively reduced by applying higher values of gate currents. Because of high gate
currents, more electron-holes are injected near junction J 2 . Hence avalanche
break-down of J 2 takes place fast. Therefore anode current rises fast. Thus effective
turn-on time is reduced. To turn-on the SCR, the gate pulse is thus sufficient.

1.7.3 SCR Turn-off

We know that SCR can be turned-off, when its forward current falls below holding
current. The can be done by two methods : i) Natural commutation and ii) forced
commutation.
i) Natural Commutation : In this type of turn-off, the supply voltage becomes zero or
negative, Hence SCR is reverse biased. Therefore it is turned-off.
ii) Force commutation : When the supply voltage is DC, then external commutation
component are used to turn-off the SCR. The commutation components apply reverse
bias across the SCR temporarily or pass impulse of negative current. Therefore SCR
turns-off.

1.7.4 Turn-off Dynamic Characteristics

Fig. 1.7.2 shows the SCR current and voltage during turn-off. The SCRs are not
turned off by gate. They need external circuit for turn-off. These circuits are called
commutation circuits. These commutation circuits has to hold negative voltage across
the SCR during turn-off period. The SCR is said to be turned-off when it regains
forward blocking capability after forward conduction. In the above figure observe that
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anode current falls and then it becomes negative. The negative pulse of current flows
through the SCR for short period. During the conducting state, the SCR is flooded
with carriers and it acts as short circuit. The negative anode current flows through the
SCR till all these carriers are removed. Then junctions J 1 and J 3 achieve their forward
blocking state. The time required for this is called reverse recovery time (trr ). At the end

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 Power Electronics 1 - 31 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Anode
current
iAK

wt

Anode to
cathode wt
voltage
VAK

trr tgr

Turn-off time, tq

Fig. 1.7.2 Dynamic characteristics of SCR during turn-off

of trr , reverse voltage appears across the SCR and anode current becomes zero. This is
shown in Fig. 1.7.2. But still, the SCR is not turned-on. The commutation circuit has to
hold negative voltage across the SCR for gate recovery time ( t gr ). During this time, the
excess carriers near junction J 2 are recombined. If negative voltage is removed by
commutation circuit before t gr , then SCR may turn-on again due to these excess carrier
near junction J 2 . Because they act like gate drive to the SCR. Hence the turn-off is
complete at the end of gate recovery time. The SCR regains its forward blocking
capability. The negative voltage imposed by commutation circuit can be removed at
the end of t gr . The turn-off time ( t q ) of the SCR is the total time required by reverse
recovery and gate recovery. i.e.,
t q = trr + t gr
The turn-off time can be defined as follows :

The turn-off time of the SCR is the time required to achieve forward blocking capability
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after commutation is initiated.

The turn-off time of the SCR varies from 5 to 200 microseconds. The turn-off time
of the commutation circuit is called circuit turn-off time (t c ). And hence circuit turn-off
time must be greater than the turn-off time of the SCR ( t c > t q ).

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 Power Electronics 1 - 32 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

1.7.5 Inverter Grade and Converter Grade SCRs

Inverter grade SCRs

The SCRs which have turn-off time less than 25 m s are called inverter grade SCRs.
Such SCRs are used in inverters, choppers etc.

Converter grade SCRs

The SCRs having larger turn-off times ( t q > 25 m s ) are called converter grade SCRs.
Such SCRs are used in controlled rectifiers, AC voltage controllers etc.

Review Questions
1. Explain the turn-on and turn-off dynamic characteristics of the SCR.
2. Define the following :
(i) turn-on time (ii) turn-off time (iii) converter grade SCR (iv) Inverter grade SCR

1.8 SCR Gate Characteristics

In the previous section we studied V-I characteristics of SCR. Now we will have a
closer look towards gate characteristics of the SCR. Fig. 1.8.1 shows the gate trigger
characteristics.
Gate voltage
Vg

Vg(max)
Constant
Pg
Reliable turn-on

Vg(min)

O Gate
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Ig(min) Ig(max)
current
Ig

Fig. 1.8.1 Gate trigger characteristics

The gate voltage is plotted with respect to gate current in the above characteristics.
I g ( max) is the maximum gate current that can flow through the SCR without damaging

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 Power Electronics 1 - 33 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

it. Similarly v g ( max) is the maximum gate voltage to be applied. Similarly v g ( min ) and
I g ( min ) are minimum gate voltage and current, below which SCR will not be
turned-on. Hence to turn-on the SCR successfully the gate current and voltage should
be
I g ( min ) < I g < I g ( max)

and v g ( min ) < v g < v g ( max)

The characteristic of Fig. 1.8.1 also shows the curve for constant gate power ( Pg ).
Thus for reliable turn-on, the ( v g , i g ) point must lie in the shaded area in Fig. 1.8.1.
It turns-on SCR successfully. Note that any spurious voltage/current spikes at the gate
must be less than v g ( min ) and I g ( min ) to avoid false triggering of the SCR. The gate
characteristics shown in Fig. 1.8.1 are for DC values of gate voltage and current.

1.8.1 Pulsed Gate Drive

Instead of applying a continuous (DC) gate drive, the pulsed gate drive is used.
The gate voltage and current are applied in the form of high frequency pulses. The
frequency of these pulses is upto 10 kHz. Hence the width of the pulse can be upto
100 micro seconds. The pulsed gate drive is applied for following reasons
(advantages) :
(i) The SCR has small turn-on time i.e. upto 5 microseconds. Hence a pulse of
gate drive is sufficient to turn-on the SCR.
(ii) Once SCR turns-on, there is no need of gate drive. Hence gate drive in the
form of pulses is suitable.
(iii) The DC gate voltage and current increases losses in the SCR. Pulsed gate drive
has reduced losses.
(iv) The pulsed gate drive can be easily passed through isolation transformers to
isolate SCR and trigger circuit.

1.8.2 Requirement of Gate Drive

The gate drive has to satisfy the following requirements :
(i) The maximum gate power should not be exceeded by gate drive, otherwise
SCR will be damaged.
(ii) The gate voltage and current should be within the limits specified by gate
characteristics (Fig. 1.8.1) for successful turn-on.
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(iii) The gate drive should be preferably pulsed. In case of pulsed drive the
following relation must be satisfied :
(Maximum gate power ´ pulse width) ´ (Pulse frequency) £ Allowable average
gate power

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 Power Electronics 1 - 34 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

(iv) The width of the pulse should be sufficient to turn-on the SCR successfully.
(v) The gate drive should be isolated electrically from the SCR. This avoids any
damage to the trigger circuit if in case SCR is damaged.
(vi) The gate drive should not exceed permissible negative gate to cathode voltage,
otherwise the SCR is damaged.
(vii) The gate drive circuit should not sink current out of the SCR after turn-on.

Review Questions
1. Explain the SCR gate characteristics.
2. What are the requirements of gate drive ? What is pulse gate drive ?

1.9 SCR Ratings

Every SCR is manufactured for particular voltage, current and switching
frequencies. If these values are exceeded, then the SCR can be damaged. These are
called ratings. The SCRs are to be protected when any of the voltage or current rating
tries to exceed. In this section we will discuss these concepts.

1.9.1 Current Ratings

The current flow through the SCR increase the junction temperature. The excess
current flow may exceed the permissible junction temperature and damage the device.
Hence the current should not exceed the rated value. The various current ratings are
discussed next :
(i) Average current rating ( IT )
The average current rating is the maximum repetitive average current that can
flow through the SCR. The power loss in the SCR depends upon average current
flowing through it. If the SCR is operating at sufficiently high frequency, then
switching loss will also be significant. Hence switching losses may be added to losses
due to average current.
(ii) R.M.S. current rating ( ITR )
The RMS current rating is the maximum repetitive rms current that can flow
through the SCR. The R.M.S. current rating is same as average current rating for DC
current. This rating is required to prevent excessive heating in metallic joints, leads
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and interfaces of SCRs.

(iii) Surge current rating ( ITSM )

The surge current rating is the peak amplitude of the surge current that the SCR
can withstand only limited number of times in its life cycle. The surge current is

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 Power Electronics 1 - 35 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

normally specified as number of cycles and peak amplitude. The SCR may be
damaged when surge current rating and its number of cycles are exceeded.

(iv) i 2 t rating

The i 2 t rating is the measure of thermal energy that the device can abosrb for a
short period of time. Whenever fault occurs, the fast acting fuse clears such fault. Due
to the fault, thermal energy is generated in the device also. The fuse should clear the
fault and device should be protected. Hence i 2 t rating is used to determine about how
long the device can absorb the thermal energy. The fuse must clear the fault before
the device is damaged due to exceeding i 2 t rating.
di
(v) rating
dt
di
The rating specifies maximum allowable rate of change of current through the
dt
device. Due to rapid variations in anode current, the carriers doesnot spread across the
junctions at the turn-on time. Hence they are concentrated in a small area of the
device, creating local heating. This is called hot-spot created due to high current
density in the restricted area of the junctions. Because of this, the junction temperature
di
increases and the device may be damaged. The rating specifies maximum allowable
dt
variations in anode current, so that the device will not be damaged. Normally it is
specified in Amperes/microseconds and typical values are from 50 A/ms to
800 A / msec.

1.9.2 Voltage Ratings

The SCR blocks the forward and reverse voltages. The voltage ratings mainly
specify the maximum allowable voltages those the device can withstand without
damaging the junctions.

(i) Peak repetitive forward blocking voltage (V DRM )

This is the maximum voltage that the SCR can block in the forward direction. It is
specified with maximum allowable junction temperature and gate open circuited. If
this rating is exceeded, the device turns on. Note that device is not damaged.

(ii) Peak repetitive reverse voltage (V RRM ) or peak inverse voltage (PIV)
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This is the maximum voltage that the device can withstand repetitively in the
reverse blocking state. It is also specified at maximum allowable junction temperature.
The device is damaged, when this rating is exceeded.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 36 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

(iii) Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage (V RSM )

This the maximum transient voltage that the device can safely withstand in the
reverse direction. This transient is not repetitive. The device is damaged if transient is
exceeded or it occurs repetitively. This transient voltage can be increased by putting a
diode of same current rating in series with the SCR. The total transient voltage
capacity becomes due to SCR and diode.
dv
(iv) rating
dt
dv
The rating specifies maximum allowable rate of change of forward voltage that
dt
the device can withstand in forward direction. If the forward voltage variations exceed
dv
rating, then the device turns on. Such turn-on is false triggering and disturbs the
dt
operation of the controller.
The other ratings are : turn-on time (t on ), turn-off time ( t q ), gate voltage ( v g ), gate
current ( i g ), latching current (I L ) and holding current (I H ). These ratings we have
discussed earlier in section 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8.

Review Question
1. Explain the following ratings :
(i) i 2 t rating
dv
(ii) rating
dt
di
(iii) rating
dt

1.10 Thyristor Types

Now let us briefly discuss other members of thyristor family. They are gate
turn-off thyristor family (GTO), light activated SCR (LASCR) etc.

1.10.1 Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO)

1.10.1.1 Structure of GTO

At the beginning of the chapter we discussed structure and working of SCR. The
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SCR is most commonly used member of thyristor family. But SCR needs external
circuits for turn-off. Now we present another thyristor, called GTO. The GTO can be
turned-off by gate drive. Thus gate has full control over the operation of GTO.
Fig. 1.10.1 shows the structure of GTO.

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 Power Electronics 1 - 37 Power Devices and Commutation Circuits

Gate

Cathode

n+ n+
J3

p+
J2
n–
J1
n+ p+ n+

Anode

Fig. 1.10.1 Structure of GTO

Observe that the structure of GTO is almost similar to SCR. But there are
significant differences that make GTO different than SCR. These differences are :
i. Gate and cathodes are highly interdigited with various geometric forms. This
maximizes periphery of the cathode and minimize gate-cathode distance.
ii. There are n + regions at regular intervals in the p + anode layer. This n + layer
makes direct contact with n - layer. This is called anode short. This speeds up
the turn-off mechanism of GTO.
iii. The operation of GTO can be explained with the help of two transistor
analogy. The gain of pnp transistor is reduced. This reduces the regenerative
action. Hence turn-off of GTO can be achieved by negative current from gate.
Fig. 1.10.2 shows the symbol of GTO.
Anode (A)

Gate
(G)

Cathode (K)
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Fig. 1.10.2 Symbol of GTO

Observe that there is double arrow on the gate. This indicates that bidirectional
current flows through the gate. The rest of the symbol is similar to SCR.

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