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O X F O R D I B D I P L O M A P R O G R A M M E

2 0 1 4 E D I T I O N

PH YSI C S

C O U R S E C O M PA N I O N

David Homer

Michael Bowen-Jones
 Adrian Hillman/Shutterstock; p420: © sciencephotos / Alamy; p427:

Zigzag Mountain Art/Shutterstock; p445: Ziga Cetrtic/Shutterstock; p461:

 Shutterstock; p475: Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic

Ray Research), The University of Tokyo; p481: ANDREW LAMBERT

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom

PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY; p486: Paul Noth/Condenast

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It

Cartoons; p499: Kamioka Observatory, ICRR (Institute for Cosmic Ray

furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,

Research), The University of Tokyo; p507: MIKKEL JUUL JENSEN / SCIENCE

and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark

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of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

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The moral rights of the authors have been asserted

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First published in 2014

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of Celestron; p616: Israel Pabon/Shutterstock; p617: PETER BASSET T/

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

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in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without

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the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly

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reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction

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outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department,

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LIBRARY; p385: www.astro.cornell.edu; p386: NOAA; p391: Robert

Contents

1 Measurements and 9 Wave phenomena (AHL) D Astrophysics

uncer tainties Simple harmonic motion 353 Stellar quantities 641

Measurements in physics 1 Single-slit diffraction 364 Stellar characteristics

Uncertainties and errors 8 Interference 367 and stellar evolution 659

Vectors and scalars 18 Resolution 376 Cosmology 660

The Doppler effect 381 Stellar processes 666

2 Mechanics Further cosmology 675

Motion 27 10 Fields (AHL)

Forces 44 Describing elds 391 Internal assessment

Work, energy, and power 61 Fields at work 405 (with thanks to Mark Headlee for

Momentum 73 his assistance with this chapter) 687

11 Electromagnetic induction

3 Thermal physics (AHL) Index 693

Temperature and energy Electromagnetic induction 427

changes 91 Power generation and

Modelling a gas 100 transmission 439

Capacitance 455

4 Oscillations and waves

Oscillations 115 12 Quantum and nuclear

Travelling waves 123 physics (AHL)

Wave characteristics 134 The interaction of matter

Wave behaviour 145 with radiation 475

Standing waves 158 Nuclear physics 492

5 Electricity and magnetism A Relativity

Electric elds 169 The beginnings of relativity 507

Heating effect of an electric Lorentz transformations 513

current 192 Spacetime diagrams 522

Electric cells 217 Relativistic mechanics 529

Magnetic effects of electric General relativity 534

currents 227

B Engineering physics

6 Circular motion and Rigid bodies and rotational

gravitation dynamics 549

Circular motion 245 Thermodynamics 559

Newton’s law of gravitation 257 Fluids and uid dynamics 570

Forced vibrations and

7 Atomic, nuclear, and resonance 582

par ticle physics

Discrete energy and C Imaging

radioactivity 267 Introduction to imaging 593

Nuclear reactions 282 Imaging instrumentation 608

The structure of matter 290 Fibre optics 620

Imaging the body 626

8 Energy production

Energy sources 307

Thermal energy transfer 329

iii
 Course book denition The IB Learner Prole

The IB Diploma Programme course books are The aim of all IB programmes to develop

resource materials designed to support students internationally minded people who work to create

throughout their two-year Diploma Programme a better and more peaceful world. The aim of the

course of study in a particular subject. They will programme is to develop this person through ten

help students gain an understanding of what learner attributes, as described below.

is expected from the study of an IB Diploma

Inquirers: They develop their natural curiosity.

Programme subject while presenting content in a

They acquire the skills necessary to conduct

way that illustrates the purpose and aims of the IB.

inquiry and research and snow independence in

They reect the philosophy and approach of the

learning. They actively enjoy learning and this love

IB and encourage a deep understanding of each

of learning will be sustained throughout their lives.

subject by making connections to wider issues and

Knowledgeable: They explore concepts, ideas,

providing opportunities for critical thinking.

and issues that have local and global signicance.

The books mirror the IB philosophy of viewing the

In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and

curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach;

develop understanding across a broad and balanced

the use of a wide range of resources, international

range of disciplines.

mindedness, the IB learner prole and the IB

Thinkers: They exercise initiative in applying

Diploma Programme core requirements, theory

thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize

of knowledge, the extended essay, and creativity,

and approach complex problems, and make

action, service (CAS).

reasoned, ethical decisions.

Each book can be used in conjunction with other

Communicators: They understand and express

materials and indeed, students of the IB are

ideas and information condently and creatively in

required and encouraged to draw conclusions from

more than one language and in a variety of modes

a variety of resources. Suggestions for additional

of communication. They work effectively and

and further reading are given in each book

willingly in collaboration with others.

and suggestions for how to extend research are

provided.
Principled: They act with integrity and honesty,

with a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect

In addition, the course books provide advice

for the dignity of the individual, groups and

and guidance on the specic course assessment

communities. They take responsibility for their

requirements and on academic honesty protocol.

own action and the consequences that accompany

They are distinctive and authoritative without

them.
being prescriptive.

Open-minded: They understand and appreciate

IB mission statement
their own cultures and personal histories, and are

The International Baccalaureate aims to develop

open to the perspectives, values and traditions

inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people

of other individuals and communities. They are

who help to create a better and more peaceful

accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of

world through intercultural understanding and

points of view, and are willing to grow from the

respect.
experience.

To this end the organization works with schools,

Caring: They show empathy, compassion and

governments and international organizations to

respect towards the needs and feelings of others.

develop challenging programmes of international

They have a personal commitment to service, and

education and rigorous assessment.

to act to make a positive difference to the lives of

others and to the environment.

These programmes encourage students across the

world to become active, compassionate and lifelong

Risk-takers: They approach unfamiliar situations

learners who understand that other people, with

and uncertainty with courage and forethought,

their differences, can also be right.

and have the independence of spirit to explore

new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and

articulate in defending their beliefs.

iv
Balanced: They understand the importance of
What constitutes malpractice?

intellectual, physical and emotional balance to

Malpractice is behaviour that results in, or may

achieve personal well-being for themselves and

result in, you or any student gaining an unfair

others.
advantage in one or more assessment component.

Malpractice includes plagiarism and collusion.

Reective: They give thoughtful consideration

to their own learning and experience. They are

Plagiarism is dened as the representation of the

able to assess and understand their strengths and

ideas or work of another person as your own. The

limitations in order to support their learning and

following are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism:

personal development.

●
words and ideas of another person to support

one’s arguments must be acknowledged

A note on academic honesty

●
passages that are quoted verbatim must
It is of vital importance to acknowledge and

be enclosed within quotation marks and

appropriately credit the owners of information

acknowledged
when that information is used in your work.

After all, owners of ideas (intellectual property)

●
CD-Roms, email messages, web sites on the

have property rights. To have an authentic piece

Internet and any other electronic media must

of work, it must be based on your individual

be treated in the same way as books and

and original ideas with the work of others fully

journals

acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments, written

●
the sources of all photographs, maps,

or oral, completed for assessment must use your

illustrations, computer programs, data, graphs,

own language and expression. Where sources are

audio-visual and similar material must be

used or referred to, whether in the form of direct

acknowledged if they are not your own work

quotation or paraphrase, such sources must be

appropriately acknowledged. ●
works of art, whether music, lm dance,

theatre arts or visual arts and where the

How do I acknowledge the work of others?

creative use of a part of a work takes place, the

The way that you acknowledge that you have used

original artist must be acknowledged.

the ideas of other people is through the use of

footnotes and bibliographies.

Collusion is dened as supporting malpractice by

another student. This includes:

Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or

endnotes (placed at the end of a document) are ●

allowing your work to be copied or submitted

to be provided when you quote or paraphrase

for assessment by another student

from another document, or closely summarize the

●
duplicating work for different assessment

information provided in another document. You

components and/or diploma requirements.

do not need to provide a footnote for information

that is part of a ‘body of knowledge’. That is, Other forms of malpractice include any action

denitions do not need to be footnoted as they are that gives you an unfair advantage or affects the

part of the assumed knowledge. results of another student. Examples include,

taking unauthorized material into an examination

Bibliographies should include a formal list of the

room, misconduct during an examination and

resources that you used in your work. ‘Formal’

falsifying a CAS record.

means that you should use one of the several

accepted forms of presentation. This usually

involves separating the resources that you use

into different categories (e.g. books, magazines,

newspaper articles, internet-based resources, CDs

and works of art) and providing full information

as to how a reader or viewer of your work can

nd the same information. A bibliography is

compulsory in the Extended Essay.

v
 Using your IB Physics

Online Resources

What is Kerboodle?

Kerboodle is an online learning platform. If your school has a

subscription to IB Physics Kerboodle Online Resources you will be able

to access a huge bank of resources, assessments, and presentations to

guide you through this course.

What is in your Kerboodle Online Resources?

There are three main areas for students on the IB Physics Kerboodle:

planning, resources, and assessment.

Resources

There a hundreds of extra resources available on the IB Physics

Kerboodle Online. You can use these at home or in the classroom to

develop your skills and knowledge as you progress through the course.

Watch videos and animations of experiments, difcult concepts, and

science in action.

Hundreds of worksheets – read articles, perform experiments and

simulations, practice your skills, or use your knowledge to answer

questions.

Look at galleries of images from the book and see their details close up.

Find out more by looking at recommended sites on the Internet,

answer questions, or do more research.

Planning

Be prepared for the practical work and your internal assessment with

extra resources on the IB Physics Kerboodle online.

Learn about the different skills that you need to perform an investigation.

Plan and prepare experiments of your own.

Learn how to analyse data and draw conclusions successfully

and accurately.

vi
Assessment

Click on the assessment tab to check your knowledge or revise for your

examinations. Here you will nd lots of interactive quizzes and exam-

style practice questions.

Formative tests: use these to check your comprehension, there’s one

auto-marked quiz for every sub-topic. Evaluate how condent you

feel about a sub-topic, then complete the test. You will have two

attempts at each question and get feedback after every question. The

marks are automatically reported in the markbook, so you can see

how you progress throughout the year.

Summative tests: use these to practice for your exams or as revision,

there’s one auto-marked quiz for every topic. Work through the test

as if it were an examination – go back and change any questions you

aren’t sure about until you are happy, then submit the test for a nal

mark. The marks are automatically reported in the markbook, so you

can see where you may need more practice.

Assessment practice: use these to practice answering the longer

written questions you will come across when you are examined.

These worksheets can be printed out and performed as a timed test.

Don't forget!

You can also nd extra resources on our free website

www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-physics

Here you can nd all of the answers

and even more practice questions.

vii
 experiments slightly to suit the apparatus in your
Introduction

school. These are a valuable opportunity to build

Physics is one of the earliest academic disciplines

the skills that are assessed in IA (see page 687).

known – if you include observational astronomy,

possibly the oldest. In physics we analyse the natural

Nature of science

world to develop the best understanding we can of

These sections help you to develop your

how the universe and its constituent parts interrelate.

understanding by studying a specic illustrative

Our aim as physicists is to develop models that

example or learning about a signicant experiment

correspond to what is observed in the laboratory and

in the history of physics.

beyond. These models come in many forms: some

Here you can explore the methods of science and

may be quantitative and based on mathematics;

some of the knowledge issues that are associated

some may be qualitative and give a verbal description

with scientic endeavour. This is done using

of the world around us. But, whatever form the

carefully selected examples, including research that

models take, physicists must all agree on their validity

led to paradigm shifts in our understanding of the

before they can be accepted as part of our physical

natural world.
description of the universe.

Models used by physicists are linked by a coherent

Theory of K nowledge
set of principles known as concepts. These are over-

arching ideas that link the development of the

These shor t sections have ar ticles on scientic questions

subject not only within a particular physical topic

that arise from Theory of knowledge. We encourage you

(for example, forces in mechanics) but also between

draw on these examples of knowledge issues in your TOK

topics (for example, the common mathematics that

essays. Of course, much of the material elsewhere in the

links radioactive decay and capacitor discharge).

book, par ticularly in the nature of science sections, can be

In studying physics, take every opportunity to

used to prompt TOK discussions.

understand a new concept when you meet it. When

the concept occurs elsewhere your prior knowledge

Worked example
will make the later learning easier.

These are step-by-step examples of how to answer

This book is designed to support your learning

questions or how to complete calculations. You should

of physics within group 4 of the IB Diploma

review them carefully, preferably after attempting the

Programme. Like all the disciplines represented in this

question yourself.

subject group it has a thorough basis in the facts and

concepts of science, but it also draws out the nature

End -of-Topic Questions

of science. This is to give you a better understanding

At the end of each topic you will nd a range of

of what it means to be a scientist, so that you can,

questions, including both past IB Physics exam

for example, identify shortcomings in scientic topics

questions and new questions. Answers can be

presented to you in the media or elsewhere. Not

found at www.oxfordsecondary.co.uk/ib-physics

everyone taking IB Physics will want to go on to be

Authors do not write in isolation. In particular,

a physicist or engineer, but all citizens need to have

our ways of describing and explaining physics

an awareness of the importance of science in modern

have been honed by the students we have

society.

been privileged to teach over the years, and by

The structure of this book needs an explanation; all

colleagues who have challenged our ways of

of the topics include the following elements:

thinking about the subject. Our thanks go to them

all. More specically, we thank Jean Godin for

Understanding
much sound advice during the preparation of this

The specics of the content requirements for

text. Any errors are, of course, our responsibility.

each sub-topic are covered in detail. Concepts are

Last but in no sense least, we thank our wives,

presented in ways that will promote enduring

Adele and Brenda, for their full support during

understanding.

the preparation of this book. We could not have

completed it without their understanding and

Investigate!

enormous patience.

These sections describe practical work you

M Bowen-Jones
can undertake. You may need to modify these

D Homer

viii
1 MEASUREMENTS AND U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Introduction

This topic is different from other topics in the in the context of other subject matter. Although

course book. The content discussed here will be you may wish to do so, you would not be

used in most aspects of your studies in physics. expected to read this topic in one go, rather you

You will come across many aspects of this work would return to it as and when it is relevant.

1.1 Measurements in physics

Understanding
Applications and skills

➔ Fundamental and derived SI units

➔ Using SI units in the correct format for all

➔ Scientic notation and metric multipliers

required measurements, nal answers to

➔ Signicant gures calculations and presentation of raw and

processed data
➔ Orders of magnitude

➔ Using scientic notation and metric multipliers

➔ Estimation

➔ Quoting and comparing ratios, values, and

approximations to the nearest order of

magnitude

➔ Estimating quantities to an appropriate number

of signicant gures

Nature of science

In physics you will deal with the qualitative and the with words than symbols and vice-versa. It is

quantitative, that is, descriptions of phenomena impossible to avoid either methodology on the IB

using words and descriptions using numbers. When Diploma course and you must learn to be careful with

we use words we need to interpret the meaning and both your numbers and your words. In examinations

one person's interpretation will not necessarily be you are likely to be penalized by writing contradictory

the same as another's. When we deal with numbers statements or mathematically incorrect ones. At the

(or equations), providing we have learned the rules, outset of the course you should make sure that you

there is no mistaking someone else's meaning. It is understand the mathematical skills that will make

likely that some readers will be more comfor table you into a good physicist.

1
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Quantities and units

Physicists deal with physical quantiti e s , which are those thi ng s

that are measureable such as mass, leng th, time , e le ctr ic al c u r r en t ,

etc. Quantities are r e l a ted to one a n ot h e r by e quat i on s such as

m
__
ρ = which is the symb o l i c f or m of s ay ing that d e ns i t y is t he ra ti o
V

of the mass of an o b j e ct to its vo lume . Not e t h at the s y m bols in t he

equation are all w r i tte n in i ta l ic ( s lop in g ) fon t s – this is ho w we

can be sure that t he s y mbol s r e pr es e nt qu a n t it i e s. Units ar e a l wa ys

written in Roman ( up r ig ht) font bec a u s e th ey so m e t im e s sh a r e the

same symbol with a q ua ntity. So “ m” represents the qua nti ty “ma s s”

but “m” represents the uni t “me tre ”. We wi ll use t h is con ven t i on

throughout the co ur s e b ook , a nd it is a l so the co n ve n t io n us ed by

theIB.

Nature of science

Greek Russian
The use of symbols

α alpha ν nu

The use of Greek letters such as rho ( ρ) is very

β beta ξ ksi

common in physics. There are so many quantities

γ gamma ο omicron

that, even using the 52 Arabic letters (lower case delta pi

δ π

ε epsilon ρ rho
and capitals), we soon run out of unique symbols.

ζ zeta σ sigma
Sometimes symbols such as d and x have multiple

η eta τ tau

uses, meaning that Greek letters have become just

θ theta υ upsilon

one way of trying to tie a symbol to a quantity

ι iota φ phi

uniquely. Of course, we must consider what kappa chi

κ χ

λ lambda ψ psi
happens when we run out of Greek letters too – we

 mu ω omega
then use Russian ones from the Cyrillic alphabet.

Fundamental quantities are those quantities that are considered to be

so basic that all other quantities need to be expressed in terms of them.

m
__
In the density equation ρ = only mass is chosen to be fundamental
V

(volume being the product of three lengths), density and volume are

said to be derived quantities.

It is essential that all measurements made by one person are understood

by others. To achieve this we use units that are understood to have

unambiguous meaning. The worldwide standard for units is known as

SI– Système international d’unités . This system has been developed from

the metric system of units and means that, when values of scientic

quantities are communicated between people, there should never be

anyconfusion. The SI denes both units and prexes – letters used

to form decimal multiples or sub-multiples of the units. The units

themselves are classied as being either fundamental (or base), derived,

and supplementary.

There are only two supplementary units in SI and you will meet only

one of these during the Diploma course, so we might as well mention

them rst. The two supplementary units are the radian (rad) – the

unit of angular measurement and the steradian (sr) – the unit of “solid

angle”.The radian is a useful alternative to the degree and is dened as

the angle subtended by an arc of a circle having the same length as theradius,

2
 1 . 1 M E A S U R E M E N T S I N P H Y S I C S

as shown in gure 1. We will look at the radian in more detail in

Sub-topic6.1. The steradian is the three-dimensional equivalentof

r
the radian and uses the idea of mapping a circle on to the surface of

a sphere. r

1 rad

Fundamental and derived units r

In SI there are seven fundamental units and you will use six of these

on the Diploma course (the seventh, the candela, is included here for

completeness). The fundamental quantities are length, mass, time,

electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of substance, and

luminous intensity. The units for these quantities have exact denitions

▲ Figure 1 Denition of the radian.

and are precisely reproducible, given the right equipment. This means

that any quantity can, in theory, be compared with the fundamental

measurement to ensure that a measurement of that quantity is accurate.

In practice, most measurements are made against more easily achieved

standards so, for example, length will usually be compared with a

standard metre rather than the distance travelled by light in a vacuum.

You will not be expected to know the denitions of the fundamental

quantities, but they are provided here to allow you to see just how

precise they are.

metre (m): the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during

1
_________
a time interval of of a second.

299 792 458

kilogram (kg): mass equal to the mass of the international prototype

of the kilogram kept at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at

Sèvres, near Paris.

▲ Figure 2 The international prototype kilogram.

second (s): the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation

corresponding to the transition between the two hyperne levels of the

ground state of the caesium-133 atom.

TOK
ampere (A): that constant current which, if maintained in two

straightparallel conductors of innite length, negligible circular

Deciding on what is

cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between

fundamental
7

these conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 newtons per metre of length.

Who has made the decision

1
_____
kelvin (K): the fraction of the thermodynamic temperature of the

273.16
that the fundamental

triple point of water.

quantities are those of

mole (mol): the amount of substance of a system that contains as many mass, length, time, electrical

elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon–12. When current, temperature,

the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specied and may be luminous intensity, and

atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specied groups of amount of substance? In an

such particles. alternative universe it may

be that the fundamental

candela (cd): the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source

quantities are based on force,

12

that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 10 hertz and

volume, frequency, potential

1
___
that has a radiant intensity in that direction of watt per steradian.

683
dierence, specic heat

All quantities that are not fundamental are known as derived and these
capacity, and brightness.

can always be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities through a

Would that be a drawback

relevant equation. For example, speed is the rate of change of distance with
or would it have meant that

s
___
respect to time or in equation form v = (where s means the change in
“humanity” would have
t

distance and t means the change in time). As both distance (and length)
progressed at a faster rate?

and time are fundamental quantities, speed is a derived quantity.

3
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

The units used for fundamental quantities are unsurprisingly known as

fundamental units and those for derived quantities are known as derived
Note

units. It is a straightforward approach to be able to express the unit of

If you are reading this at the

any quantity in terms of its fundamental units, provided you know the

star t of the course, it may seem

equation relating the quantities. Nineteen fundamental quantities have

that there are so many things

their own unit but it is also valid, if cumbersome, to express this in terms

that you might not know; but,

of fundamental units. For example, the SI unit of pressure is the pascal

take hear t, “Rome was not

1 2

(Pa), which is expressed in fundamental units as m kg s

built in a day” and soon much

will come as second nature.

When we write units as m s

Nature of science
2

and m s it is a more eective

Capitals or lower case?

and preferable way to writing

what you may have written in

Notice that when we write the unit newton in full, we use a lower case

the past as m/s and m/s ; both

n but we use a capital N for the symbol for the unit – unfortunately

forms are still read as “metres

some word processors have default setting to correct this so take care!

per second” and “metres per

All units written in full should start with a lower case letter, but those

second squared.”
that have been derived in honour of a scientist will have a symbol that

is a capital letter. In this way there is no confusion between the scientist

and the unit: “Newton” refers to Sir Isaac Newton but “newton” means

the unit. Sometimes units are abbreviations of the scientist’s surname,

so amp (which is a shortened form of ampère anyway) is named after

Ampère, the volt after Volta, the farad, Faraday, etc.

Example of how to relate fundamental and derived units

The unit of force is the newton (N). This is a derived unit and can

be expressed in terms of fundamental units as kg m s . The reason

for this is that force can be dened as being the product of mass and

acceleration or F = ma. Mass is a fundamental quantity but acceleration

___
v

is not. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity or a = where v

t

represents the change in velocity and t the change in time. Although

time is a fundamental quantity, velocity is not so we need to take

another step in dening velocity in fundamental quantities. Velocity is

the rate of change of displacement (a quantity that we will discuss later

in the topic but, for now, it simply means distance in a given direction).

s
___
So the equation for velocity is v = with s being the change in

t

displacement and t again being the change in time. Displacement (a

length) and time are both fundamental, so we are now in a position to

put N into fundamental units. The unit of velocity is m s and these are

already fundamental– there is no shortened form of this. The units of

acceleration will therefore be those ofvelocity divided by time and so

m s
____ 2

will be which is written as m s . So the unit of force will be the unit

s

of mass multiplied by the unit of acceleration and, therefore, be kg m s .

This is such a common unit that it has its own name, the newton,

(N≡kg m s – a mathematical way of expressing that the two units are

identical). So if you are in an examination and forget the unit of force

you could always write kg m s (if you have time to work it out!).

▲ Figure 3 Choosing fundamental units in

an alternative universe.

Signicant gures

Calculators usually give you many digits in an answer. How do you

decide how many digits to write down for the nal answer?

4
 1 . 1 M E A S U R E M E N T S I N P H Y S I C S

Scientists use a method of rounding to a certain number of signicant

gures (often abbreviated tos.f.). “Signicant” here means meaningful.

Consider the number 84 072, the 8 is the most signicant digit, because

it tells us that the number is eighty thousand and something. The 4 is

the next most signicant telling us that there are also four thousand and

something. Even though it is a zero, the next digit, the 0, is the third

most signicant digit here.

When we face a decimal number such as 0.00245, the 2 is the most

signicant digit because it tells us that the number is two thousandth

and something. The 4 is the next most signicant, showing that there are

four ten thousandths and something.

If we wish to express this number to two signicantgures we need to

round the number from three to two digits. If the last number had been

0.00244 we would have rounded down to 0.0024 and if it had been

0.00246 we would have rounded up to 0.0025. However, it is a 5 so what

do we do? In this case there is equal justication for rounding up and

down, so all you really need to be is consistent with your choice for a set of

gures – you can choose to round up or down. Often you will have further

digits to help you, so if the number had been 0.002451 and you wanted it

rounded to two signicant gures it would be rounded up to 0.0025.

Some rules for using signicant gures

●
A digit that is not a zero will always be signicant – 345 is three

signicant gures (3s.f.).

●
Zeros that occur sandwiched between non-zero digits are always

signicant – 3405 (4 s.f.); 10.3405 (6 s.f.).

●
Non-sandwiched zeros that occur to the left of a non-zero digit are

not signicant – 0.345 (3 s.f); 0.034 (2 s.f.).

●
Zeros that occur to the right of the decimal point are signicant,

provided that they are to the right of a non-zero digit – 1.034 (4 s.f.);

1.00 (3 s.f.); 0.34500 (5 s.f.); 0.003 (1 s.f.).

●
When there is no decimal point, trailing zeros are not signicant

(tomake them signicant there needs to be a decimal point)

– 400 (1s.f.); 400. (3 s.f.) – but this is rarely written.

Scientic notation

One of the fascinations for physicists is dealing with the very large

(e.g. the universe) and the very small (e.g. electrons). Many physical

constants (quantities that do not change) are also very large or very

small. This presents a problem: how can writing many digits be avoided?

The answer is to use scientic notation.

The speed of light has a value of 299 792 458m s . This can be rounded to

three signicant gures as 300 000 000 m s . There are a lot of zeros in this

and it would be easy to miss one out or add another. In scientic notation

8 1

this number is written as 3.00× 10 m s (to three signicant gures).

Let us analyse writing another large number in scientic notation. The

mass of the Sun to four signicant gures is 1 989 000 000 000 000 000

000 000 000 000 kg (that is 1989 and twenty-seven zeros). To convert

5
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

this into scientic notation we write it as 1.989 and then we imagine

moving the decimal point 30 places to the left (remember we can write

as many trailing zeros as we like to a decimal number without changing

it). This brings our number back to the original number and so it gives

30

the mass of the Sun as 1.989 × 10 kg.

A similar idea is applied to very small numbers such as the charge on

the electron, which has an accepted value of approximately 0.000 000

000 000 000 000 1602 coulombs. Again we write the coefcient as 1.602

and we must move the decimal point 19 places to the right in order to

bring 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 1602 into this form. The base is always

10 and moving our decimal point to the right means the exponent is

19

negative. We can write this number as 1.602 × 10 C.

Apart from avoiding making mistakes, there is a second reason why

scientic notation is preferable to writing numbers in longhand. This is

when weare dealing with several numbers in an equation. Inwriting

8 1

the value of the speed of light as 3.00 × 10 m s , 3.00 is called the

“coefcient” of the number and it will always be a number between 1

and10. The 10 is called the “base” and the 8 is the“exponent”.

There are some simple rules to apply:

●
When adding or subtracting numbers the exponent must be the

same or made to be the same.

●
When multiplying numbers we add the exponents.

●
When dividing numbers we subtract one exponent from the other.

●
When raising a number to a power we raise the coefcient to the

power and multiply the exponent by the power.

Worked examples

In these examples we are going to evaluate each Here the exponents are subtracted (since the 8 is

of the calculations. negative) to give: 5 8 = −3

6 5 3

1 1.40 × 10 + 3.5 × 10 So we write this product as: 7.8 × 10

Solution 4.8 × 10
_
4
2

6 6 3.1 × 10
These must be written as 1.40 × 10 + 0.35 × 10

Solution
so that both numbers have the same exponents.

6
The coefcients are divided and the exponents are

They can now be added directly to give 1.75 × 10

subtracted so we have: 4.8 ÷ 3.1 = 1.548 (which

5 8

2 3.7 × 10 × 2.1 × 10
we round to 1.5)

Solution
And 5 2 = 3

The coefcients are multiplied and the exponents

3

This makes the result of the division 1.5 × 10

are added, so we have: 3.7 × 2.1 = 7.77 (which we

7 3

5 (3.6 × 10 )
round to 7.8 to be in line with the data – something

we will discuss later in this topic) and: 5 + 8 = 13

Solution

13 3

So we write this product as: 7.8 × 10 We cube 3.6 and 3.6 = 46.7

5 8
And multiply 7 by 3 to give 21
3 3.7 × 10 × 2.1 × 10

21

This gives 46.7 × 10 , which should become

Solution

22

4.7 × 10 in scientic notation.

Again the coefcients are multiplied and the

exponents are added, so we have: 3.7 × 2.1 = 7.8

6
 1 . 1 M E A S U R E M E N T S I N P H Y S I C S

Factor Name Symbol

Metric multipliers (prexes)

24
yotta Υ
10

Scientists have a second way of abbreviating units: by using metric

21
zetta Ζ
10

multipliers (usually called “prexes”). An SI prex is a name or

18
exa Ε
10

associated symbol that is written before a unit to indicate the

15
peta Ρ
10

12

appropriate power of10. So instead of writing 2.5 × 10 J we could

12
tera Τ
10

alternatively write this as 2.5 TJ (terajoule). Figure 4 gives the 20 SI 9

giga
10

6
prexes – these are provided for you as part of the data booklet used mega Μ
10

3
in examinations. kilo
10

2
hecto
10

1
deka
10

Orders of magnitude 1
deci d
10

2
centi c
An important skill for physicists is to understand whether or not the 10

3
milli m
10
physics being considered is sensible. When performing a calculation in

6
micro 
10
which someone’s mass was calculated to be 5000 kg, this should ring

9
nano n
10

alarm bells. Since average adult masses (“weights”) will usually be

12
pico p
10

60–90 kg, a value of 5000 kg is an impossibility.

15
femto f
10

18
atto a
A number rounded to the nearest power of 10 is called an order of 10

21
zepto z
magnitude. For example, when considering the average adult human 10

24
yocto y
10
mass: 60–80 kg is closer to 100 kg than 10 kg, making the order of

2 1

magnitude 10 and not 10 . Of course, we are not saying that all adult ▲ Figure 4 SI metric multipliers.

humans have a mass of 100 kg, simply that their average mass is closer

to 100 than 10. In a similar way, the mass of a sheet of A4 paper may be

3.8 g which, expressed in kg, will be 3.8 × 10 kg. Since 3.8 is closer to

1 than to 10, this makes the order of magnitude of its mass 10 kg. This

suggests that the ratio of adult mass to the mass of a piece of paper (should

10
____ 2 −( 3) 5

you wish to make this comparison)= = 10 = 10 = 100 000. In

3

10

other words, an adult human is 5 orders of magnitude (5powers of 10)

heavier than a sheet of A4 paper.

Estimation

Estimation is a skill that is used by scientists and others in order to

produce a value that is a useable approximation to a true value.

Estimation is closely related to nding an order of magnitude, but may

result in a value that is more precise than the nearest power of 10.

Whenever you measure a length with a ruler calibrated in millimetres

you can usually see the whole number of millimetres but will need to

1
__
estimate to the next mm – you may need a magnifying glass to help

10

you to do this. The same thing is true with most non-digital measuring

instruments.

Similarly, when you need to nd the area under a non-regular curve,

you cannot truly work out the actual area so you will need to nd the

area of a rectangle and estimate how many rectangles there are. Figure5

shows a graph of how the force applied to an object varies with time.

The area under the graph gives the impulse (as you will see in Topic2).

There are 26 complete or nearly complete yellow squares under the

curve and there are further partial squares totalling about four full

squares in all. This gives about 30 full squares under the curve. Each

curve has an area equivalent to 2 N × 1 s = 2 N s. This gives an estimate

of about 60 N s for the total impulse.

7
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

In an examination, estimation questions will always have a

tolerance given with the accepted answer, so in this case it might be

(60 ± 2) N s.

12

These two par tial

10

squares may be

N/ecrof
8

combined to approximate

6
to a whole square, etc.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

time/s

▲ Figure 5

1.2 Uncer tainties and errors

Understanding
Applications and skills

➔ Random and systematic errors

➔ Explaining how random and systematic errors

➔ Absolute, fractional, and percentage uncer tainties

can be identied and reduced

➔ Error bars
➔ Collecting data that include absolute and/or

➔ Uncer tainty of gradient and intercepts fractional uncer tainties and stating these as an

uncer tainty range (using ±)

➔ Propagating uncer tainties through calculations

Nature of science
involving addition, subtraction, multiplication,

In Sub-topic 1.1 we looked at the how we dene division, and raising to a power

the fundamental physical quantities. Each of these

➔ Using error bars to calculate the uncer tainty in

is measured on a scale by comparing the quantity

gradients and intercepts

with something that is “precisely reproducible”. By

precisely reproducible do we mean “exact”? The Equations

answer to this is no. If we think about the denition

Propagation of uncer tainties:

of the ampere, we will measure a force of 2 × 10 N.

If: y = a ± b
7

If we measure it to be 2.1 × 10 it doesn’t invalidate

then: y = a + b

the measurement since the denition is given to just

_____
ab

If: y =
one signicant gure. All measurements have their c

y
______ ______
a ______
b ______
c
limitations or uncer tainties and it is impor tant that
then: = + +
y a c
b

both the measurer and the person working with the

n

If: y = a

measurement understand what the limitations are.

y
_______ ______
a

then: = ⎜n ⎟
y a
This is why we must always consider the uncer tainty

in any measurement of a physical quantity.

8
 1 . 2 U N C E R T A I N T I E S A N D E R R O R S

Uncertainties in measurement

Introduction

No experimental quantity can be absolutely accurate when measured–

it is always subject to some degree of uncertainty. We will look at the

reasons for this in this section.

There are two types of error that contribute to our uncertainty about a

reading – systematic and random.

Systematic errors

As the name suggests, these types of errors are due to the system being

used to make the measurement. This may be due to faulty apparatus. For

example, a scale may be incorrectly calibrated either during manufacture

of the equipment, or because it has changed over a period of time.

Rulers warp and, as a result, the divisions are no longer symmetrical.

A timer can run slowly if its quartz crystal becomes damaged (not

because the battery voltage has fallen– when the timer simply stops).

▲ Figure 1 Zero error on digital calliper.

When measuring distances from sealed radioactive sources or light-

dependent resistors (LDRs), it is hard to know where the source is

actually positioned or where the active surface of the LDR is.

The zero setting on apparatus can drift, due to usage, so that it no longer

reads zero when it should – this is called a zero error

Figure 1 shows a digital calliper with the jaws closed. This should read

0.000 mm but there is a zero error and it reads 0.01 mm. This means that

all readings will be 0.01 mm bigger than they should be. The calliper can

be reset to zero or 0.01 mm could be subtracted from any readings made.

Often it is not possible to spot a systematic error and experimenters have

to accept the reading on their instruments, or else spend signicant effort

in making sure that they are re-calibrated by checking the scale against a

standard scale. Repeating a reading never removes the systematic error.

The real problem with systematic errors is that it is only possible to check

them by performing the same task with another apparatus. If the two

sets give the same results, the likelihood is that they are both performing

well; however, if there is disagreement in the results a third set may be

needed to resolve any difference.

In general we deal with zero errors as well as we can and then move

on with our experimentation. When systematic errors are small, a

measurement is said to be accurate

9
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Nature of science

Systematic errors

Uncertainty when using a 300 mm ruler may be The meter in gure 4 shows an analogue ammeter

quoted to ±0.5 mm or ±1 mm depending on your with a fairly large scale – there is justication in

view of how precisely you can gauge the reading. giving this reading as being (40 ± 5) A.

To be on the safe side you might wish to use the

larger uncertainty and then you will be sure that

the reading lies within your bounds.

▲ Figure 2 Millimeter (mm) scale on ruler.

▲ Figure 4 Analogue scale. ▲ Figure5 Digital scale.

You should make sure you observe the scale from

The digital ammeter in gure 5 gives a value

directly above and at right angles to the plane of

of 0.27 A which should be recorded as

the ruler in order to avoid parallax errors.

(0.27 ± 0.01) A.

In each of these examples the uncertainty is

quoted to the same precision (number of

decimal places) as the reading – it is essential

to do this as the number of decimal places is

always indicative of precision. When we write an

energy value as being 8 J we are implying that it

01 9 8 7 6 4 3 2 1

is (8 ± 1) J and if we write it as 8.0 J it implies a

precision of ±0.1J.

▲ Figure 3 Parallax error.

Random errors

Random errors can occur in any measurement, but crop up most

frequently when the experimenter has to estimate the last signicant

gure when reading a scale. If an instrument is insensitive then it may

be difcult to judge whether a reading would have changed in different

circumstances. For a single reading the uncertainty could well be better

than the smallest scale division available. But, since you are determining

the maximum possible range of values, it is a sensible precaution to

use this larger precision. Dealing with digital scales is a problem – the

likelihood is that you have really no idea how precisely the scales are

calibrated. Choosing the least signicant digit on the scale may severely

underestimate the uncertainty but, unless you know the manufacturer’s

data regarding calibration, it is probably the best you can do.

When measuring a time manually it is inappropriate to use the precision

of the timer as the uncertainty in a reading, since your reaction time

is likely to be far greater than this. For example, if you timed twenty

oscillations of a pendulum to take 16.27 s this should be recorded as

being (16.3 ± 0.1) s. This is because your reaction time dominates the

precision of the timer. If you know that your reaction time is greater

than 0.1 s then you should quote that value instead of 0.1 s.

10
 1 . 2 U N C E R T A I N T I E S A N D E R R O R S

The best way of handling random errors is to take a series of repeat

readings and nd the average of each set of data. Half the range of the

values will give a value that is a good approximation to the statistical

value that more advanced error analysis provides. The range is the

largest value minus the smallest value.

Readings with small random errors are said to be precise (this

does not mean they are accurate, however)

Worked examples

1 In measuring the angle of refraction at an air-

glass interface for a constant angle of incidence

the following results were obtained (using a

T/ °C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

protractor with a precision of ± 1 ):

Express the temperature and its uncertainty to

45°, 47°, 46°, 45°, 44°

an appropriate number of signicant gures.

How should we express the angle of

Solution
refraction?

The scale is calibrated in degrees but they are

Solution
quite clear here, so it is reasonable to expect

The mean of these values is 45.4 ° and the range is

a precision of ±0.5 °C. The meniscus is closer

(47° − 44°) = 3°
to 6 than to 6.5 (although that is a judgement

decision) so the values should be recorded as

Half the range is 1.5°

(6.0± 0.5) °C. Remember the measurement and

How then do we record our overall value for

the uncertainty should be to the same number of

the angle of refraction?

decimal places.

Since the precision of the protractor is ±1°,

3 A student takes a series of measurements

weshould quote our mean to a whole number

of a certain quantity. He then averages his

(integral) value and it will round down to

measurements. What aspects of systematic

45°. We should not minimize our uncertainty

and random uncertainties is he addressing by

unrealistically and so we should round this up

taking repeats and averages?

to 2°. This means that the angle of refraction

Solution
should be recorded as 45 ± 2°

Systematic errors are not dealt with by means of

2 The diagram below shows the position of the

repeat readings, but taking repeat readings and

meniscus of the mercury in a mercury-in-glass

averaging them should cause the average value

thermometer.

to be closer to the true value than a randomly

chosen individual measurement.

Absolute and fractional uncer tainties

The values of uncertainties that we have been looking at are

called absolute uncertainties . These values have the same units

as thequantity and should be written to the same number of

decimalplaces.

Dividing the uncertainty by the value itself leaves a dimensionless quantity

(one with no units) and gives us the fractional uncertainty. Percentaging

the fractional uncertainty gives the percentage uncertainty

11
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Worked example

Calculate the absolute, fractional, and percentage range = (2.8 2.5) N = 0.3 N, giving an

uncertainties for the following measurements of a absolute uncertainty of 0.15N that rounds

force, F: up to 0.2 N

2.5 N, 2.8 N, 2.6 N We would write our value for F as (2.6 ± 0.2) N

0.2
___
the fractional uncertainty is = 0.077 and the

2.6

Solution
percentage uncertainty will be 0.077 × 100% =

2.5 N + 2.8 N + 2.6 N

________________
mean value = = 2.63 N, this is
7.7%
3

rounded down to 2.6 N

Propagation of uncer tainties

Often we measure quantities and then use our measurements to

calculate other quantities with an equation. The uncertainty in

the calculated value will be determined from a combination of the

uncertainties in the quantities that we have used to calculate the value

from. This is known as propagation of uncertainties

There are some simple rules that we can apply when we are propagating

uncertainties. In more advanced treatment of this topic we would

demonstrate how these rules are developed, but we are going to focus

on your application of these rules here (since you will never be asked to

prove them and you can look them up in a text book or on the Internet

if you want further information).

In the uncertainty equations discussed next, a, b, c, etc. are the quantities

and a, b, c, etc. are the absolute uncertainties in these quantities.
11

Addition and subtraction

This is the easiest of the rules because when we add or subtract

21

quantities we always add their absolute uncertainties.

When a = b + c or a = b c then a = b + c
31

In order to use these relationships don’t forget that the quantities being

added or subtracted must have the same units.

41

So if we are combining two masses m and m then the total mass m will
1 2

be the sum of the other two masses.

51

m = (200 ± 10) g and m = (100 ± 10) g so m = 300 g and m = 20 g

1 2

meaning we should write this as:

61

m = (300 ± 20) g

We use subtraction more often than we realise when we are measuring

71

lengths. When we set the zero of our ruler against one end of an object

we are making a judgement of where the zero is positioned and this really
81

means that the value is (0.0 ± 0.5) mm.

A ruler is used to measure a metal rod as shown in gure 6. The length

is found by subtracting the smaller measurement from the larger one.

91

The uncertainty for each measurement is ± 0.5 mm.

Larger measurement = 195.0 mm

02

Smaller measurement = 118.5 mm

▲ Figure 6 Measuring a length.

Length = (76.5 ± 1.0) mm as the uncertainty is 0.5 mm + 0.5 mm

12
 1 . 2 U N C E R T A I N T I E S A N D E R R O R S

Nature of science

Subtracting values

When subtraction is involved in a relationship If a = b c then a = 1.0 and since a = b + c

you need to be particularly careful. The resulting then a = 0.2

quantity becomes smaller in size (because of

We have gone from two values in which the

subtraction), while the absolute uncertainty becomes

percentage uncertainty is 2.5% and 3.3%

larger(because of addition). Imagine two values that

respectively to a calculated value with uncertainty

are subtracted: b = 4.0 ± 0.1 and c =3.0 ± 0.1.

of 20%. Now that really is propagation of

We won’t concern ourselves with what these uncertainties!

quantities actually arehere.

Multiplication and division

When we multiply or divide quantities we add their fractional or

percentage uncertainties, so:

b c

when a = bc or a = or a =
c
b

a b c
___ ___ ___
then = +
a c
b

There are very few relationships in physics that do not include some

form of multiplication or division.

m
__
We have seen that density ρ is given by the expression ρ = where
V

m is the mass of a sample of the substance and V is its volume. For a

particular sample, the percentage uncertainty in the mass is 5% and for

the volume is 12%

The percentage uncertainty in the calculated value of the density will

therefore be ±17%

If the sample had been cubical in shape and the uncertainty in each

of the sides was 4% we can see how this brings about a volume with

uncertainty of 12%:

For a cube the volume is the cube of the side length (V = l = l × l × l)

V
___ __
l l
__ l
__
so = + + = 4% + 4% + 4% = 12%
V l l l

This example leads us to:

Raising a quantity to a power

V l
___ __
From the cube example you might have spotted that = 3
V l

This result can be generalized so that when a = b (where n can be a

positive or negative whole, integral, or decimal number)

a b
___ ___
then = n
a ⎜ ⎟
b

The modulus sign is included as an alternative way of telling us that the

uncertainty can be either positive or negative.

13
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Worked example

The period T of oscillation of a mass m on a spring, Using the division and power relationships:

m
__
having spring constant k is T = 2π
a b c m k
√ ___ ___ ___ T
___ 1
___ 1
___
k
= n + n or here = +
a c m
b T 2 2 k

Don’t worry about what these quantities actually mean

so the percentage uncertainty in T will be half that

at this stage.

in m + half that in k

The uncertainty in k is 11% and the uncertainty in

This means that the percentage error in

m is 5%.

T = 0.5 × 5% + 0.5 × 11% = 8%

Calculate the approximate uncertainty in a value

If the measured value of T is 1.20 s then the

for T of 1.20 s.
8
___
absolute uncertainty is 1.20 × = 0.096 This

100

rounds up to 0.10 and so we quote T as being

Solution

(1.20 ± 0.10) s.

First let’s adjust the equation a little – we can

write it as Remember that the quantity and the uncertainty

n
1

must be to the same number of decimal places

m b
__ 2

T = 2π which is of the form a = 2π ( )

( ) c
k
and so the zeros are important, as they give us the

Although we will truncate π, we can really write it

precision in the value.

to as many signicant gures as we wish and so the

percentage uncertainty in π, as in 2 will bezero.

Drawing graphs

3.0

An important justication for experimental work is to investigate the

1

relationship between physical quantities. One set of values is rarely very

s m/deeps

2.0
revealing even if it can be used to calculate a physical constant, such as

dividing the potential difference across a resistor by the current in the

resistor to nd the resistance. Although the calculation does tell you the
1.0

resistance for one value of current, it says nothing about whether the

resistance depends upon the current. Taking a series of values would tell

you if the resistance was constant but, with the expected random errors,
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

it would still not be denitive. By plotting a graph and drawing the line
time/s

of best t the pattern of results is far easier to spot, whether it is linear or

▲ Figure 7 Error bars.

some other relationship.

Error bars

In plotting a point on a graph, uncertainties are recognized by adding

The value could lie

anywhere inside this error bars. These are vertical and horizontal lines that indicate the

rectangle
possible range of the quantity being measured. Suppose at a time of

(0.2± 0.05) s the speed of an object was (1.2 ± 0.2) m s this would be

plotted as shown in gure 7.

3.0

This means that the value could possibly be within the rectangle that
1

s m/deeps

touches the ends of the error bars as shown in gure 8. This is the zone

2.0

of uncertainty for the data point. A line of best t should be one that

spreads the points so that they are evenly distributed on both sides of the

1.0
line and also passes through the error bars.

0
Uncertainties with gradients

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Using a computer application, such as a spreadsheet, can allow you to

time/s

plot a graph with data points and error bars. You can then read off the
▲ Figure 8 Zone of uncer tainty.

gradient and the intercepts from a linear graph directly. The application

14
 1 . 2 U N C E R T A I N T I E S A N D E R R O R S

will automatically draw the best trend line. You can then add the trend

lines with the steepest and shallowest gradients that are just possible –

while still passing through all the error bars. Students quite commonly,

but incorrectly, use the extremes of the error bars that are furthest apart

on the graphs. Although these could be appropriate, it is essential that all

the trend lines you draw pass through all of the error bars.

In an experiment to measure the electromotive force (emf) and internal

resistance of a cell, a series of resistors are connected across the cell. The

currents in and potential differences across the resistors are then measured.

A graph of potential difference, V, against current, I, should give a straight

line of negative gradient. As you will see in Topic5 the emf of a cell is

related to the internal resistance r by theequation:

ε = I(R + r) = V + Ir

This can be rearranged to give V = ε Ir

So a graph of V against I is of gradient r (the internal resistance) and

intercept ε (the emf of the cell).

The table on the right shows a set of results from this experiment. With

a milliammeter and voltmeter of low precision the repeat values are

identical to the measurements given in the table.

The graph of gure 9 shows the line of best t together with two lines

that are just possible.

EMF and Internal Resistance

1.8

I ± 5/mA V ± 0.1/V

1.6
V = −0.013I + 1.68

15 1.5

V = −0.0127I + 1.64

1.4

V = −0.0153I + 1.78 20 1.4

1.2

25 1.4

1.0
30 1.3

V/V

0.8
35 1.2

0.6 50 1.1

0.4 55 0.9

70 0.8
0.2

85 0.6
0.0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

90 0.5
I/mA

▲ Figure 9 A graph of potential dierence, V, against current, I, for a cell.

Converting from milliamps to amps, the equations of these lines suggest that

the internal resistance (the gradient) is 13.0  and the range is from 12.7 

to 15.3  (= 2.6 ) meaning that half the range = 1.3 

This leads to a value for r = (13.0 ± 1.3) .

The intercept on the V axis of the line of best t = 1.68 which rounds

to 1.7 V (since the data is essentially to 2 signicant gures). The range

of the just possible lines gives 1.6 to 1.8 V (when rounded to two

signicant gures). This means that ε = (1.6 ± 0.1) V.

15
1 M E A S U R E M E N TS A N D U N C E R TA I N T I E S

Nature of science

Drawing graphs manually

●
One of the skills expected of physicists is to include the origin, your axes give you a false

draw graphs by hand and you may well be origin (which is ne).

tested on this in the data analysis question in

●
Use sensible scales that will make both plotting

Paper 3 of the IB Diploma Programme physics

and your calculations clear-cut (avoid scales that

examination. You are also likely to need to

are multiples of 3, 4, or 7 – stick to 2, 5, and 10).

draw graphs for your internal assessment.

●
Try to plot your graph as you are doing the

●
Try to look at your extreme values so that you

experiment – if apparently unusual values

have an idea of what scales to use. You will

crop up, you will see them and can check that

need a minimum of six points to give you a

they are correct.

reasonable chance of drawing a valid line.

●
Before you draw your line of best t, you need

●
Use scales that will allow you to spread your

to consider whether or not it is straight or a

points out as much as possible (you should

curve. There may well be anomalous points

ll your page, but not overspill onto a second

(outliers) that you can ignore, but if there is

sheet as that would damage your line quality

a denite trend to the curve then you should

and lose you marks). You can always calculate

opt for a smooth curve drawn with a single

an intercept if you need one; when you don’t

line and not “sketched” artistically!

Figure 10 shows some of the key elements of a good hand-drawn graph. Calculating the gradients on

the graph is very useful when checking values.

best straight line line that is just possible

gradient of best straight line

6 3

(59.6 − 42.0) × 10 m
Second “just possible”

58 =

(398 − 288) K line should be added

7 3 1 for a real investigation –

= 1.60 × 10 m K

it has been missed out

56

here so that you can

gradient of just possible line

6 3 clearly see the values

(58.6 − 42.0) × 10 m

54 = on the two lines

(398 − 286) K

7 3 1

= 1.48 × 10 m K

52
3

Use a large gradient

6

50
01/V

triangle to reduce

uncer tainties

All values on V axis

48

have been divided by

6 3

10 and are in m

46

outlier ignored Uncer tainties in

44
for best temperature are too

straight line small to draw error bars

False origin – neither

42

line has been forced

through this point

40

260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400

T/K

▲ Figure 10 Hand-drawn graph.

16
 1 . 2 U N C E R T A I N T I E S A N D E R R O R S

Linearizing graphs

Note
Many relationships between physical quantities are not directly

Relationships can never be

proportional and a straight line cannot be obtained simply by plotting

“indirectly propor tional” – this

one quantity against the other. There are two approaches to dealing

is a meaningless term since it

with non-proportional relationships: when we know the form of the

is too vague. Consequently the

relationship and when we do not.

term “propor tional” means the

1
__
If we do know the form of the relationship such as p ∝ (for a gas held
V
same as “directly propor tional”.

√
at constant temperature) or T ∝ l (for a simple pendulum) we can plot

a graph of one quantity against the power of the other quantity to obtain

a straight-line origin graph. An alternative for the simple pendulum is to

plot a graph of T against l which will give the same result. This topic is dealt with in more

detail and with many fur ther

You should think about the propagation of errors when you

examples on the website.

2
√
consider the relative merits of plotting T against l or T against l.

The following discussion applies to HL examinations, but offers such a useful

technique that SL students may wish to utilize it when completing IAs or if they

undertake an Extended Essay in a science subject.

expontential shape

45
If we don’t know the actual power involved in a relationship, but we

0.039t
30

stinu y rartibra/N
suspect that one quantity is related to the other, we can write a general N = 32e

n 25
relationship in the form y = kx where k and n are constants.

20

By taking logs of this equation we obtain log y = log k + n log x which we

15

can arrange into log y = n log x + log k and is of the form y = m x + c. This
10

means that a graph of log y against log x will be linear of gradient n and 5

0
have an intercept on the log y axis of log k

0 20 40 60 80 100

This technique is very useful in carrying out investigations when a

t/arbitrary units

relationship between two quantities really is not known. The technique

▲ Figure 11

is also a useful way of dealing with exponential relationships by taking

logs to base e, instead of base 10. For example, radioactive nuclides

linear form of same data

decay so that either the activity or the number of nuclei remaining falls

4.0

according to the same general form. Writing the decay equation for the

3.5

number of nuclei remaining gives:

3.0
In N = −0.0385t + 3.4657

λt

N = N e by taking logs to the base e we get ln N = lnN λt (where

2.5
0 0
N nI

lnN is the usual way of writing log N). 2.0

e

1.5

By plotting a graph of ln N against t the gradient will be λt and the

1.0

intercept on the lnN axis will be lnN . This linearizes the graph shown
0

0.5
in gure 11 producing the graph of gure 12. A linear graph is easier to

0.0
analyse than a curve.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Capacitors also discharge through resistors using the same general t/arbitrary units

▲ Figure 12
mathematical relationship as that used for radioactive decay.

17
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Field Book:
Pennsylvanian Plant Fossils of Illinois
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Field Book: Pennsylvanian Plant Fossils of Illinois

Author: Charles William Collinson

Romayne Skartvedt

Release date: July 6, 2021 [eBook #65776]

Language: English

Credits: Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading

Team at https://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIELD BOOK:

PENNSYLVANIAN PLANT FOSSILS OF ILLINOIS ***
 Field Book
PENNSYLVANIAN PLANT FOSSILS OF
ILLINOIS

Charles Collinson
Romayne Skartvedt

Illinois State Geological Survey

Educational Series 6

STATE OF ILLINOIS
DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION
 First edition 1960
Reprinted 1966

ILLINOIS STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

URBANA ILLINOIS
John C. Frye, Chief

Printed by Authority of State of Illinois, Ch. 127, IRS, Par. 58.25.

Field Book
PENNSYLVANIAN PLANT FOSSILS OF ILLINOIS

Charles Collinson
Romayne Skartvedt
Illustrations by Marie E. Litterer

3
 FOREWORD

This field book is intended to guide beginners in their collection and

general classification of plant fossils. It illustrates the plant fossils
most commonly found in Illinois and relates them to the plants of
which they were a part. A list of publications that will furnish more
detailed identification of specimens is included. The book has been
prepared in response to numerous inquiries to the Illinois State
Geological Survey from amateur collectors.

Information has been drawn from numerous sources. The works of

Hirmer, Janssen, Lesquereux, Noé, and Langford have been
particularly useful.

We are especially indebted to Dr. Robert M. Kosanke, paleobotanist

at the Illinois State Geological Survey, and Dr. Wilson N. Stewart,
professor of botany of the University of Illinois, for helpful
suggestions and use of their libraries.

4
 KEY TO PLANTS ILLUSTRATED ON TIME
CHART
1. Foerstia. These fossils may be the earliest known occurrence of
bryophytes, although some authors have referred them to
the brown algae. After Dawson.
2. Psilophyton. A primitive vascular plant. After Dawson.
3. Lepidodendron. After Hirmer.
4. Sigillaria. After Hirmer.
5. Calamites. After Hirmer.
6. Sphenophyllum. After Fuller and Tippo.
7. Equisetum. The only living genus of scouring rushes. After
Fuller and Tippo.
8. Megaphyton. An ancient true fern. After Hirmer.
9. Modern tropical tree fern. After Fuller and Tippo.
10. Medullosa. An ancient seed fern. After Stewart.
11. Williamsonia. An extinct cycad-like tree. After Sahni.
12. Cycas. A modern cycad. After Chamberlain.
13. Baiera. A fossil leaf genus of ginkgo, whose only living
representative is the species Ginkgo biloba, saved from
extinction by careful cultivation in China. Several specimens
of this “living fossil” were presented to this country by the
Chinese and are now flourishing on many college
campuses, including that of the University of Illinois. After
Mägdefrau.
14. Cordaites. After Grand Eury.
15. Lebachia. A “transition conifer,” forerunner of present day
conifers. After Mägdefrau.
16. Pinus. Modern pine. After Mägdefrau.
17. Acer. Common maple, an angiosperm whose leaves are also
found among Tertiary fossils. After Mägdefrau.
18. Rosa. The prairie rose, an angiosperm.
19. Campsis. Trumpet vine, an angiosperm.

5
 Geologic Time Chart

Time Units
Era and Years
CENOZOIC “Recent Life”
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
MESOZOIC “Middle Life”
Cretaceous
70 million
herbaceous lycopods
Jurassic
25 million
yellow-green algae
selaginellids
Triassic
30 million
cycad-like plants
Equisetum
PALEOZOIC “Ancient Life”
Permian
25 million
transition conifers
pines, spruces, firs, etc.
Equisetites
Pennsylvanian
25 million
ferns related to modern families
bryophytes
Mississippian
30 million
seed ferns
calamites
cycads
Devonian
55 million
cordaites
sphenophyllids
 ancient ferns
Silurian
40 million
psitopsids
Foerstia
Ordovician
80 million
red algae
green algae
Cambrian
80 million
PROTEROZOIC and ARCHAEOZOIC ERAS
4½ billion years
blue-green algae
chemosynthetic bacteria?
NO CERTAIN FOSSILS KNOWN
Plants
Algae
yellow-green algae
brown algae
red algae
green algae
blue-green algae
Mosses
bryophytes
Foerstia
Vascular Plants
“Whisk Ferns”
psitopsids
Club-mosses
scale and seal trees
quillworts
herbaceous lycopods
Scouring Rushes, Horsetails
Equisetites
Equisetum
calamites
selaginellids
Ferns and Seed Plants
Ferns
ancient ferns
ferns related to modern families
Gymnosperms
 Cycads
seed ferns
cycads
cycad-like plants
Ginkgo
Conifers
cordaites
transition conifers
pines, spruces, firs, etc.
Flowering Plants

7
 Field Book
PENNSYLVANIAN PLANT FOSSILS OF
ILLINOIS

Charles Collinson and Romayne Skartvedt

Plants that flourished 200 million years ago have made Illinois one of
the best known fossil collecting sites in the world. The unusual
abundance and preservation of these fossils in the northern part of
the state have brought collectors to Illinois from many countries, and
prized specimens from that area may be seen in science museums
throughout the world.

The remarkable fossils represent plants that lived during the geologic
period called the Pennsylvanian or Coal Age and are the result of
special geologic conditions that occurred repeatedly during the
period.
At the beginning of the Pennsylvanian Period, Illinois was part of a
vast lowland that stretched for hundreds of miles to the north,
south, and west, and was bordered on the east by highlands. At
times much of the plain was swampy and, because the climate was
relatively warm and moist, great jungles of fast growing trees,
shrubs, and vines covered the landscape. As successive generations
of plants lived and died, plant material fell into the swamp waters
and, protected there from decay, accumulated.

Frequently during the period, seas spread over the swampy

lowlands, submerging the forests and covering them with mud. 8
Each submergence lasted only a short time, geologically
speaking. When the seas withdrew, the deposits of sand and mud
left behind were cut by streams that carried fresh sand and mud
from the eastern highlands. The streams eventually became clogged
with sediments and when the lowland was again depressed swamp
conditions returned and forests grew afresh. Such a cycle of
deposition was repeated again and again during Pennsylvanian time,
and after burial each layer of plant material gradually lost most of its
liquids and gases and was slowly converted into one of the
numerous coal beds presently found in Illinois.
 Reconstruction of Pennsylvanian Coal-forming Swamp

In some places in the state conditions existed that were especially

favorable for preservation of plants, and there delicately preserved
fossils are found in great numbers. In the most favorable areas, such
as in northern Illinois, the plants are preserved in stony nodules
called concretions, but they also may be found separately as molds,
casts, or petrifactions.

Molds (concave surfaces) and casts (convex surfaces) are

fossilization phenomena in which the actual plant, embedded in the
surrounding background rock, was dissolved, leaving a hollow space
(mold) that subsequently filled with other material. A cast was 9
thus formed that preserved the plant’s external features.

Most petrifactions are fossils in which silica, carbonate, or other

material permeated or replaced the internal structures of the plant
and preserved them so well that in most specimens the finest
cellular details can be observed. Compressions, another kind of
petrifaction, are the pressed carbonized remains of the plant itself.
PENNSYLVANIAN FLORA

Aphthoroblattina
 Teneopteron

The far-reaching Pennsylvanian swamplands had abundant species

of trees and other plants that long since have become extinct.
Today’s common deciduous trees were not present; flowering plants
had not yet evolved. Instead, the tangled forests were dominated by
giant ancestors of presently existing club-mosses, horsetails, ferns,
conifers, and cycads. The undergrowth also was well developed,
consisting mainly of ferns, fernlike plants, Sphenophyllum, and small
club-mosses. The plant fossils give no indication of seasonal
variations. The forests, evidently always green, grew rapidly and
abundantly, with foliage of unprecedented size and luxuriance. Land
animals were just beginning to develop and included sluggish,
salamander-like amphibians, large primitive insects, and a few small
reptiles. The insects flourished as never before or since in the damp
forests and attained remarkable size. Insects more than four 10
inches long were common and some are known to have been
more than a foot long with a wingspread proportionately broad.
Ancestors of the modern spiders, scorpions, centipedes (one fossil
found in Illinois was twelve inches long), cockroaches, and
dragonflies are represented by several hundred species.

The fossilized plants of Pennsylvanian time belonged to only a few

main categories: scale and seal trees, ancient scouring rushes
(horsetails), herbaceous Sphenophyllum, ferns, seed ferns, and
cordaitean trees.
 SCALE AND SEAL TREES
(Plate 1)
Scale and seal trees were abundant during the Pennsylvanian Period
and were important contributors to coal beds. Although distantly
related to the diminutive club-mosses and ground pines of the
present, the trees grew on straight, slender trunks to heights of
more than a hundred feet.
Reconstruction of Lepidodendron
(after Hirmer)
Scale trees were so called because their numerous, closely set,
spirally arranged leaves left scarred “cushions” on the branches and
trunk, making them appear scaly. Seal trees derived their name from
the signetlike appearance of their leaf cushions. The two best known
types belong to the genera Lepidodendron (scale tree) and Sigillaria
(seal tree), and fossils of both are common in Illinois.

Lepidodendron had long, slender, somewhat tapering trunks. 11

Some of the trees reached heights of more than 100 feet and
measured more than two feet in basal diameter. The trunk ended in
a spreading crown formed by repeated dichotomous branching. The
leaves were awl-shaped or linear, ranging from one to 30 inches
long.

The leaf cushions of Lepidodendron are diamond-shaped, longer

than broad, and arranged in spiral rows around the trunk and
branches. A different name, Lepidophyllum, is used for fossils of the
long, bladelike leaf when it is found detached.

Spores were borne in long cylindrical cones at the tips of the

branches. Those cones referred, or assigned, to the genus
Lepidostrobus bore both small spores (microspores) and large spores
(megaspores) in the same cones. Those in which only a large single
spore, a somewhat seedlike structure, was developed in a spore sac
(sporangium) are referred to the genus Lepidocarpon.

The rather commonly found genus Stigmaria comprises so-called

“appendages” which, although stemlike in structure, apparently
served as roots for the scale and seal trees. These appendages are
identified by irregular spirals of circular scars (pits) that mark the
attachment points of former rootlets.
Reconstruction of Sigillaria
(after Hirmer)
Sigillaria, although less common than Lepidodendron, was widely
distributed during the Pennsylvanian Period. It differed in 12
growth habit from Lepidodendron in that it generally had
fewer branches and not uncommonly was unbranched. Some species
also possessed a thicker trunk, with hexagonal to elongate leaf
cushions separated by vertical ribs. The trunk was crowned, in the
manner of the modern palm tree, by a cluster of large, grasslike
leaves.

The detached leaves of Sigillaria, extremely difficult to distinguish

from Lepidophyllum (leaves of Lepidodendron), are referred to the
genus Sigillariophyllum if preserved as compressions and to
Sigillariopsis if preserved as petrifactions. Unbranched Sigillaria
trunks have been found that are more than 100 feet long and six
feet in diameter near the base, but the average height probably was
closer to 50 feet.
Reconstruction of Calamites
(After Hirmer)
Not all Pennsylvanian trees were large, however. Small forms are
known, including the important undergrowth genera Lycopodites and
Selaginellites. In woody types the trunk consisted of an inner region
of conducting and supporting tissues, surrounding concentric cortical
layers, and an outer layer of corklike bark. Although the fossil
impressions of the various bark layers have been given separate
generic names, these are not commonly used.
 SCOURING RUSHES
(Plate 2)
Although related to the small, inconspicuous horsetails of today, the
ancient scouring rushes of the Pennsylvanian Period grew to 13
the size of trees and were among the most widely distributed
plant groups.

Some of these plants attained heights of 40 feet or more, but the

average was closer to 20 feet. The trunks were jointed and bore a
whorl of branches at the joints (nodes). Their small leaves also grew
in whorls at nodes along the smaller branches. Internodal regions
were ribbed in the same manner as present day horsetails. Fossils of
the trunks are assigned to the genus Calamites and quite commonly
are preserved in sandstone and shale.

The leaf whorls are placed in the genus Annularia. One form
commonly found in Illinois has long, pointed, needlelike leaves and is
given the name Asterophyllites. Calamostachys, shown on plate 5, is
one of the most common calamite cones.
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