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java notes.pdf
1. 1 | P a g e Java programming What is Java? Java is a programming language and a platform. Java is a high level,
robust, object-oriented and secure programming language. Java was developed by Sun Microsystems (which is
now the subsidiary of Oracle) in the year 1995. James Gosling is known as the father of Java. Platform: Any
hardware or so!ware environment in which a program runs, is known as a platform. Since Java has a runtime
environment (JRE) and API, it is called a platform. Application 1. Desktop Applications such as acrobat reader,
media player, antivirus, etc. 2. Web Applications such as irctc.co.in, javatpoint.com, etc. 3. Enterprise Applications
such as banking applications. 4. Mobile 5. Embedded System 6. Smart Card 7. Robotics 8. Games, etc. Features of
Java Simple Java is very easy to learn, and its syntax is simple, clean and easy to understand. According to Sun
Microsystem, Java language is a simple programming language because: o Java syntax is based on C++ (so easier
for programmers to learn it a!er C++).
2. 2 | P a g e o Java has removed many complicated and rarely-used features, for example, explicit pointers,
operator overloading, etc. o There is no need to remove unreferenced objects because there is an Automatic
Garbage Collection in Java. Object-oriented Java is an object-oriented programming language. Everything in Java
is an object. Object-oriented means we organize our so!ware as a combination of di"erent types of objects that
incorporate both data and behaviour. Platform Independent Java is platform independent because it is di"erent
from other languages like C, C++, etc. which are compiled into platform specific machines while Java is a write
once, run anywhere language. A platform is the hardware or so!ware environment in which a program runs.
Secured Java is best known for its security. With Java, we can develop virus-free systems. Java is secured because:
o No explicit pointer o Java Programs run inside a virtual machine sandbox Robust The English mining of Robust is
strong. Java is robust because:
3. 3 | P a g e o It uses strong memory management. o There is a lack of pointers that avoids security problems. o
Java provides automatic garbage collection which runs on the Java Virtual Machine to get rid of objects which are
not being used by a Java application anymore. Architecture-natural Java is architecture natural because there are
no implementation dependent features, for example, the size of primitive types is fixed. Portable Java is portable
because it facilitates you to carry the Java bytecode to any platform. It doesn't require any implementation. High-
performance Java is faster than other traditional interpreted programming languages because Java bytecode is
"close" to native code. Distributed Java is distributed because it facilitates users to create distributed applications
in Java. Multi-threaded A thread is like a separate program, executing concurrently. We can write Java programs
that deal with many tasks at once by defining multiple threads. Dynamic Java is a dynamic language. It supports
the dynamic loading of classes. It means classes are loaded on demand. It also supports functions from its native
languages, i.e., C and C++.
4. 4 | P a g e First Java Program o class keyword is used to declare a class in Java. o public keyword is an access
modifier that represents visibility. It means it is visible to all. o static is a keyword. If we declare any method as
static, it is known as the static method. The core advantage of the static method is that there is no need to create
an object to invoke the static method. The main() method is executed by the JVM, so it doesn't require creating an
object to invoke the main() method. So, it saves memory. o void is the return type of the method. It means it
doesn't return any value. o main represents the starting point of the program. o String[] args or String args[] is used
for command line argument. o System.out.println() is used to print statement. Here, System is a class, out is an
object of the PrintStream class, println() is a method of the PrintStream class. What happens at runtime? At
runtime, the following steps are performed:
5. 5 | P a g e Q) Can you save a Java source file by another name than the class name? Yes, if the class is not public.
It is explained in the figure given below: Q) Can you have multiple classes in a java source file? Yes, like the figure
given below illustrates: Di"erence between JDK, JRE, and JVM JVM JVM (Java Virtual Machine) is an abstract
machine. It is called a virtual machine because it doesn't physically exist. It is a specification that provides a
runtime environment
6. 6 | P a g e JRE JRE is an acronym for Java Runtime Environment. It is also written as Java RTE. The Java Runtime
Environment is a set of so!ware tools which are used for developing Java applications. It is used to provide the
runtime environment. JDK JDK is an acronym for Java Development Kit. The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a
so!ware development environment which is used to develop Java applications and applets. It physically exists. It
contains JRE + development tools. Java Variables A variable is a container which holds the value while the Java
program is executed. A variable is assigned with a data type. Variable is a name of memory location. There are
three types of variables in java: local, instance and static. 1) Local Variable A variable declared inside the body of
the method is called local variable. You can use this variable only within that method and the other methods in the
class aren't even aware that the variable exists. A local variable cannot be defined with "static" keyword. 2)
Instance Variable A variable declared inside the class but outside the body of the method, is called an instance
variable. It is not declared as static. 3) Static variable A variable that is declared as static is called a static variable. It
cannot be local. You can create a single copy of the static variable and share it among all the instances of the class.
7. 7 | P a g e Data Types in Java Data types specify the di"erent sizes and values that can be stored in the variable.
There are two types of data types in Java: 1. Primitive data types: The primitive data types include boolean, char,
byte, short, int, long, float and double. 2. Non-primitive data types: The non-primitive data types include Classes,
Interfaces, and Arrays. Unicode System Unicode is a universal international standard character encoding that is
capable of representing most of the world's written languages. Why java uses Unicode System? Before Unicode,
there were many language standards: o ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) for the United
States. o ISO 8859-1 for Western European Language. o KOI-8 for Russian. o GB18030 and BIG-5 for Chinese, and so
on. Problem This caused two problems: 1. A particular code value corresponds to di"erent letters in the various
language standards. 2. The encodings for languages with large character sets have variable length. 3. Some
common characters are encoded as single bytes, other require two or more byte.
8. 8 | P a g e Solution To solve these problems, a new language standard was developed i.e. Unicode System. In
unicode, character holds 2 byte, so java also uses 2 byte for characters. lowest value:u0000 highest value:uFFFF
Operators in Java Operator in Java is a symbol that is used to perform operations. For example: +, -, *, / etc. There
are many types of operators in Java which are given below: o Unary Operator, o Arithmetic Operator, o Shi!
Operator, o Relational Operator, o Bitwise Operator, o Logical Operator, o Ternary Operator and o Assignment
Operator. Java Keywords Java keywords are also known as reserved words. Keywords are particular words that act
as a key to a code. These are predefined words by Java so they cannot be used as a variable or object name or class
name.
9. 9 | P a g e Java Control Statements | Control Flow in Java Java provides three types of control flow statements. 1.
Decision Making statements o if statements o switch statement 2. Loop statements o do while loop o while loop o
for loop o for-each loop 3. Jump statements o break statement o continue statement Decision-Making statements:
As the name suggests, decision-making statements decide which statement to execute and when. 1) If Statement:
In Java, the "if" statement is used to evaluate a condition. The control of the program is diverted depending upon
the specific condition. The condition of the If statement gives a Boolean value, either true or false. 2) if-else
statement The if-else statement is an extension to the if-statement, which uses another block of code, i.e., else
block. 3) if-else-if ladder: The if-else-if statement contains the if-statement followed by multiple else- if statements.
In other words, we can say that it is the chain of if-else
10. 10 | P a g e statements that create a decision tree where the program may enter in the block of code where the
condition is true. 4. Nested if-statement In nested if-statements, the if statement can contain a if or if-else
statement inside another if or else-if statement. Switch Statement: In Java, Switch statements are similar to if-else-
if statements. The switch statement contains multiple blocks of code called cases and a single case is executed
based on the variable which is being switched. Loop Statements In programming, sometimes we need to execute
the block of code repeatedly while some condition evaluates to true. However, loop statements are used to
execute the set of instructions in a repeated order. 1. for loop 2. while loop 3. do-while loop Java for loop In Java,
for loop is similar to C and C++. It enables us to initialize the loop variable, check the condition, and
increment/decrement in a single line of code. We use the for loop only when we exactly know the number of times,
we want to execute the block of code. Java for-each loop Java provides an enhanced for loop to traverse the data
structures like array or collection. In the for-each loop, we don't need to update the loop variable. The syntax to
use the for-each loop in java is given below. for(data_type var : array_name/collection_name){ //statements
11. 11 | P a g e } Java while loop The while loop is also used to iterate over the number of statements multiple
times. However, if we don't know the number of iterations in advance, it is recommended to use a while loop. Java
do-while loop The do-while loop checks the condition at the end of the loop a!er executing the loop statements.
When the number of iteration is not known and we have to execute the loop at least once, we can use do-while
loop. It is also known as the exit-controlled loop since the condition is not checked in advance. The syntax of the
do-while loop is given below. do { //statements } while (condition); Jump Statements Jump statements are used to
transfer the control of the program to the specific statements. In other words, jump statements transfer the
execution control to the other part of the program. Java break statement As the name suggests, the break
statement is used to break the current flow of the program and transfer the control to the next statement outside a
loop or switch statement. Java continue statement Unlike break statement, the continue statement doesn't break
the loop, whereas, it skips the specific part of the loop and jumps to the next iteration of the loop immediately.
12. 12 | P a g e Java Object Class Java OOPs Concepts Object-Oriented Programming is a paradigm that provides
many concepts, such as inheritance, data binding, polymorphism, etc. Object Any entity that has state and
behaviour is known as an object. For example, a chair, pen, table, keyboard, bike, etc. It can be physical or logical.
Class Collection of objects is called class. It is a logical entity. Inheritance When one object acquires all the
properties and behaviours of a parent object, it is known as inheritance. It provides code reusability.
Polymorphism If one task is performed in di"erent ways, it is known as polymorphism. For example: to convince
the customer di"erently, to draw something, for example, shape, triangle, rectangle, etc. Abstraction Hiding
internal details and showing functionality is known as abstraction. For example phone call, we don't know the
internal processing. Encapsulation Binding (or wrapping) code and data together into a single unit are known as
encapsulation. For example, a capsule, it is wrapped with di"erent medicines.
13. 13 | P a g e Coupling Coupling refers to the knowledge or information or dependency of another class. It arises
when classes are aware of each other. Cohesion Cohesion refers to the level of a component which performs a
single well- defined task. A single well-defined task is done by a highly cohesive method. Association Association
represents the relationship between the objects. Here, one object can be associated with one object or many
objects. Aggregation Aggregation is a way to achieve Association. Aggregation represents the relationship where
one object contains other objects as a part of its state. Composition The composition is also a way to achieve
Association. The composition represents the relationship where one object contains other objects as a part of its
state. Constructors in Java In Java, a constructor is a block of codes similar to the method. It is called when an
instance of the class is created. At the time of calling constructor, memory for the object is allocated in the
memory. Constructor Overloading in Java Constructor overloading in Java is a technique of having more than one
constructor with di"erent parameter lists.
14. 14 | P a g e Singleton design pattern in Java Singleton Pattern says that just "define a class that has only one
instance and provides a global point of access to it". In other words, a class must ensure that only single instance
should be created and single object can be used by all other classes. There are two forms of singleton design
pattern o Early Instantiation: creation of instance at load time. o Lazy Instantiation: creation of instance when
required. Advantage of Singleton design pattern o Saves memory because object is not created at each request.
Only single instance is reused again and again. Private Constructor in Java Java allows us to declare a constructor
as private. We can declare a constructor private by using the private access specifier. Note that if a constructor is
declared private, we are not able to create an object of the class. Instead, we can use this private constructor in
Singleton Design Pattern. Rules for Private Constructor The following rules keep in mind while dealing with private
constructors. o It does not allow a class to be sub-classed. o It does not allow to create an object outside the class.
o If a class has a private constructor and when we try to extend the class, a compile-time error occurs. o We cannot
access a private constructor from any other class. o If all the constant methods are there in our class, we can use a
private constructor.
15. 15 | P a g e Use Cases of Private Constructor The main purpose of using a private constructor is to restrict object
creation. We also use private constructors to implement the singleton design pattern. The use-cases of the private
constructor are as follows: o It can be used with static members-only classes. o It can be used with static utility or
constant classes. o It can also be used to create singleton classes. o It can be used to assign a name, for instance,
creation by utilizing factory methods. o It is also used to avoid sub-classing. Di"erent b/w Constructor and Method
Java static keyword The static keyword in Java is used for memory management mainly. We can apply static
keyword with variables, methods, blocks and nested
16. 16 | P a g e classes. The static keyword belongs to the class than an instance of the class. 1) Java static variable
If you declare any variable as static, it is known as a static variable. o The static variable can be used to refer to the
common property of all objects (which is not unique for each object), for example, the company name of
employees, college name of students, etc. o The static variable gets memory only once in the class area at the time
of class loading. 2) Java static method If you apply static keyword with any method, it is known as static method. o
A static method belongs to the class rather than the object of a class. o A static method can be invoked without the
need for creating an instance of a class. o A static method can access static data member and can change the value
of it. Q) Why is the Java main method static? Ans) It is because the object is not required to call a static method. If it
were a non-static method, JVM creates an object first then call main() method that will lead the problem of extra
memory allocation. 3) Java static block o Is used to initialize the static data member. o It is executed before the
main method at the time of classloading.
17. 17 | P a g e Q) Can we execute a program without main() method? Ans) No, one of the ways was the static block,
but it was possible till JDK 1.6. Since JDK 1.7, it is not possible to execute a Java class without the main method.
this keyword in Java There can be a lot of usage of Java this keyword. In Java, this is a reference variable that refers
to the current object. Java Inheritance Inheritance in Java Inheritance in Java is a mechanism in which one object
acquires all the properties and behaviours of a parent object. Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship which is
also known as a parent-child relationship. Why use inheritance in java o For Method Overriding (so runtime
polymorphism can be achieved).
18. 18 | P a g e o For Code Reusability. Types of inheritance in java On the basis of class, there can be three types of
inheritance in java: single, multilevel and hierarchical. 1) Single Inheritance When a class inherits another class, it is
known as a single inheritance. 2)Multilevel Inheritance Example When there is a chain of inheritance, it is known as
multilevel inheritance. 3)Hierarchical Inheritance Example When two or more classes inherits a single class, it is
known as hierarchical inheritance. Q) Why multiple inheritance is not supported in java? To reduce the complexity
and simplify the language, multiple inheritance is not supported in java. Aggregation in Java If a class have an
entity reference, it is known as Aggregation. Aggregation represents HAS-A relationship. Method Overloading in
Java If a class has multiple methods having same name but di"erent in parameters, it is known as Method
Overloading. If we have to perform only one operation, having same name of the methods increases the
readability of the program.
19. 19 | P a g e Q) Why Method Overloading is not possible by changing the return type of method only? In java,
method overloading is not possible by changing the return type of the method only because of ambiguity. Q) Can
we overload java main() method? Yes, by method overloading. You can have any number of main methods in a
class by method overloading. But JVM calls main() method which receives string array as arguments only. Java
Polymorphism Method Overriding in Java If subclass (child class) has the same method as declared in the parent
class, it is known as method overriding in Java. In other words, If a subclass provides the specific implementation
of the method that has been declared by one of its parent class, it is known as method overriding.
20. 20 | P a g e Covariant Return Type The covariant return type specifies that the return type may vary in the same
direction as the subclass. Super Keyword in Java The super keyword in Java is a reference variable which is used to
refer immediate parent class object. Instance initializer block Instance Initializer block is used to initialize the
instance data member. It run each time when object of the class is created. Final Keyword in Java The final
keyword in java is used to restrict the user. The java final keyword can be used in many context. Final can be: 1.
variable 2. method
21. 21 | P a g e 3. class 1) Java final variable If you make any variable as final, you cannot change the value of final
variable(It will be constant). 2) Java final method If you make any method as final, you cannot override it. 3) Java
final class If you make any class as final, you cannot extend it. Q) Is final method inherited? Ans) Yes, final method
is inherited but you cannot override it. Q) What is blank or uninitialized final variable? A final variable that is not
initialized at the time of declaration is known as blank final variable. Q) Can we initialize blank final variable? Yes,
but only in constructor. Q) What is final parameter? If you declare any parameter as final, you cannot change the
value of it.
22. 22 | P a g e Q) Can we declare a constructor final? No, because constructor is never inherited. Polymorphism in
Java Polymorphism in Java is a concept by which we can perform a single action in di"erent ways. There are two
types of polymorphism in Java: compile-time polymorphism and runtime polymorphism. We can perform
polymorphism in java by method overloading and method overriding. Runtime Polymorphism in Java Runtime
polymorphism or Dynamic Method Dispatch is a process in which a call to an overridden method is resolved at
runtime rather than compile-time. Upcasting If the reference variable of Parent class refers to the object of Child
class, it is known as upcasting. Static Binding and Dynamic Binding Connecting a method call to the method body
is known as binding. There are two types of binding 1. Static Binding (also known as Early Binding). 2. Dynamic
Binding (also known as Late Binding).
23. 23 | P a g e static binding When type of the object is determined at compiled time (by the compiler), it is known
as static binding. Dynamic binding When type of the object is determined at run-time, it is known as dynamic
binding. Java instanceof The java instanceof operator is used to test whether the object is an instance of the
specified type (class or subclass or interface). The instanceof in java is also known as type comparison operator
because it compares the instance with type. It returns either true or false. Java Abstraction Abstract class in Java A
class which is declared with the abstract keyword is known as an abstract class in Java. It can have abstract and
non-abstract methods (method with the body).
24. 24 | P a g e Abstraction in Java Abstraction is a process of hiding the implementation details and showing only
functionality to the user. Ways to achieve Abstraction There are two ways to achieve abstraction in java 1. Abstract
class (0 to 100%) 2. Interface (100%) Abstract Method in Java A method which is declared as abstract and does not
have implementation is known as an abstract method. Interface in Java An interface in Java is a blueprint of a
class. It has static constants and abstract methods.
25. 25 | P a g e The interface in Java is a mechanism to achieve abstraction. There can be only abstract methods in
the Java interface, not method body. It is used to achieve abstraction and multiple inheritance in Java. Why use
Java interface? There are mainly three reasons to use interface. They are given below. o It is used to achieve
abstraction. o By interface, we can support the functionality of multiple inheritance. o It can be used to achieve
loose coupling. Syntax: interface <interface_name>{ // declare constant fields // declare methods that abstract //
by default. } Q) What is marker or tagged interface? An interface which has no member is known as a marker or
tagged interface, for example, Serializable, Cloneable, Remote, etc. They are used to provide some essential
information to the JVM so that JVM may perform some useful operation. Di"erence between abstract class and
interface Abstract class Interface 1) Abstract class can have abstract and non-abstract methods. Interface can have
only abstract methods. Since Java 8, it can have default and static methods also. 2) Abstract class doesn't support
multiple inheritance. Interface supports multiple inheritance.
26. 26 | P a g e 3) Abstract class can have final, non- final, static and non-static variables. Interface has only static
and final variables. 4) Abstract class can provide the implementation of interface. Interface can't provide the
implementation of abstract class. 5) The abstract keyword is used to declare abstract class. The interface keyword
is used to declare interface. 6) An abstract class can extend another Java class and implement multiple Java
interfaces. An interface can extend another Java interface only. 7) An abstract class can be extended using keyword
"extends". An interface can be implemented using keyword "implements". 8) A Java abstract class can have class
members like private, protected, etc. Members of a Java interface are public by default. 9)Example: public abstract
class Shape{ public abstract void draw(); } Example: public interface Drawable{ void draw(); } Simply, abstract class
achieves partial abstraction (0 to 100%) whereas interface achieves fully abstraction (100%). Java Encapsulation
Java Package A java package is a group of similar types of classes, interfaces and sub- packages. Package in java
can be categorized in two form, built-in package and user- defined package. There are many built-in packages such
as java, lang, awt, javax, swing, net, io, util, SQL etc.
27. 27 | P a g e Sub package in java Package inside the package is called the sub package. It should be created to
categorize the package further. Access Modifiers in Java There are two types of modifiers in Java: access modifiers
and non-access modifiers. There are four types of Java access modifiers: 1. Private: The access level of a private
modifier is only within the class. It cannot be accessed from outside the class. 2. Default: The access level of a
default modifier is only within the package. It cannot be accessed from outside the package. If you do not specify
any access level, it will be the default. 3. Protected: The access level of a protected modifier is within the package
and outside the package through child class. If you do not make the child class, it cannot be accessed from outside
the package. 4. Public: The access level of a public modifier is everywhere. It can be accessed from within the class,
outside the class, within the package and outside the package. Access Modifier within class within outside package
by subclass only package outside package Private Y N N N Default Y Y N N Protected Y Y Y N Public Y Y Y Y
Encapsulation in Java
28. 28 | P a g e Encapsulation in Java is a process of wrapping code and data together into a single unit, for
example, a capsule which is mixed of several medicines. Advantage of Encapsulation in Java By providing only a
setter or getter method, you can make the class read- only or write-only. In other words, you can skip the getter or
setter methods. It provides you the control over the data. Suppose you want to set the value of id which should be
greater than 100 only, you can write the logic inside the setter method. It is a way to achieve data hiding in Java
because other class will not be able to access the data through the private data members. Java Array Java Arrays
Java array is an object which contains elements of a similar data type. Additionally, The elements of an array are
stored in a contiguous memory location. It is a data structure where we store similar elements. We can store only a
fixed set of elements in a Java array. Array in Java is index-based, the first element of the array is stored at the 0th
index, 2nd element is stored on 1st index and so on. Advantages o Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized,
we can retrieve or sort the data e"iciently. o Random access: We can get any data located at an index position.
Disadvantages o Size Limit: We can store only the fixed size of elements in the array. It doesn't grow its size at
runtime. To solve this problem, collection framework is used in Java which grows automatically.
29. 29 | P a g e Types of Array in java There are two types of array. o Single Dimensional Array o Multidimensional
Array Java OOPs Misc. Object class in Java The Object class is the parent class of all the classes in java by default. In
other words, it is the topmost class of java. The Object class is beneficial if you want to refer any object whose type
you don't know. Notice that parent class reference variable can refer the child class object, know as upcasting. 1.
Object obj=getObject();//we don't know what object will be returned from t his method Object Cloning in Java The
object cloning is a way to create exact copy of an object. The clone() method of Object class is used to clone an
object. The java.lang.Cloneable interface must be implemented by the class whose object clone we want to create.
If we don't implement Cloneable interface, clone() method generates CloneNotSupportedException. Why use
clone() method ? The clone() method saves the extra processing task for creating the exact copy of an object. If we
perform it by using the new keyword, it will take a lot of processing time to be performed that is why we use object
cloning.
30. 30 | P a g e Advantage of Object cloning o You don't need to write lengthy and repetitive codes. Just use an
abstract class with a 4- or 5-line long clone() method. o It is the easiest and most e"icient way for copying objects,
especially if we are applying it to an already developed or an old project. o Clone() is the fastest way to copy array.
Disadvantage of Object cloning o To use the Object.clone() method, we have to change a lot of syntaxes to our
code, like implementing a Cloneable interface, defining the clone() method and handling
CloneNotSupportedException, and finally, calling Object.clone() etc. o We have to implement cloneable interface
while it doesn't have any methods in it. Java Math class Java Math class provides several methods to work on math
calculations like min(), max(), avg(), sin(), cos(), tan(), round(), ceil(), floor(), abs() etc. Unlike some of the Strict
Math class numeric methods, all implementations of the equivalent function of Math class can't define to return
the bit-for-bit same results. Wrapper classes in Java The wrapper class in Java provides the mechanism to convert
primitive into object and object into primitive. Since J2SE 5.0, autoboxing and unboxing feature convert primitives
into objects and objects into primitives automatically. The automatic conversion of primitive into an object is
known as autoboxing and vice-versa unboxing. Autoboxing The automatic conversion of primitive data type into its
corresponding wrapper class is known as autoboxing, for example, byte to Byte, char to
31. 31 | P a g e Character, int to Integer, long to Long, float to Float, boolean to Boolean, double to Double, and
short to Short. Unboxing The automatic conversion of wrapper type into its corresponding primitive type is known
as unboxing. It is the reverse process of autoboxing. Java Strictfp Keyword Java strictfp keyword ensures that you
will get the same result on every platform if you perform operations in the floating-point variable. Di"erence
between object and class No. Object Class 1) Object is an instance of a class. Class is a blueprint or template from
which objects are created. 2) Object is a real world entity such as pen, laptop, mobile, bed, keyboard, mouse, chair
etc. Class is a group of similar objects. 3) Object is a physical entity. Class is a logical entity. 4) Object is created
through new keyword mainly e.g. Student s1=new Student(); Class is declared using class keyword e.g. class
Student{} 5) Object is created many times as per requirement. Class is declared once. 6) Object allocates memory
when it is created. Class doesn't allocated memory when it is created. 7) There are many ways to create object in
java such as new keyword, newInstance() method, clone() method, factory method and deserialization. There is
only one way to define class in java using class keyword.
32. 32 | P a g e Di"erence between method overloading and method overriding in java No. Method Overloading
Method Overriding 1) Method overloading is used to increase the readability of the program. Method overriding is
used to provide the specific implementation of the method that is already provided by its super class. 2) Method
overloading is performed within class. Method overriding occurs in two classes that have IS-A (inheritance)
relationship. 3) In case of method overloading, parameter must be di"erent. In case of method overriding,
parameter must be same. 4) Method overloading is the example of compile time polymorphism. Method overriding
is the example of run time polymorphism. 5) In java, method overloading can't be performed by changing return
type of the method only. Return type can be same or di"erent in method overloading. But you must have to
change the parameter. Return type must be same or covariant in method overriding. Java String Java String In
Java, string is basically an object that represents sequence of char values. An array of characters works same as
Java string. For example:
33. 33 | P a g e char[] ch={'j','a','v','a','t','p','o','i','n','t'}; String s=new String(ch); How to create a string object? There are
two ways to create String object: 1. By string literal 2. By new keyword 1) String Literal Java String literal is created
by using double quotes. For Example: 1. String s="welcome"; 2) By new keyword 1. String s=new
String("Welcome");//creates two objects and one reference va riable Immutable String in Java A String is an
unavoidable type of variable while writing any application program. String references are used to store various
attributes like username, password, etc. In Java, String objects are immutable. Immutable simply means
unmodifiable or unchangeable. Java String Bu"er Class Java String Bu"er class is used to create mutable
(modifiable) String objects. The String Bu"er class in Java is the same as String class except it is mutable i.e. it can
be changed. Java StringBuilder Class
34. 34 | P a g e Java StringBuilder class is used to create mutable (modifiable) String. The Java StringBuilder class is
same as StringBu"er class except that it is non- synchronized. It is available since JDK 1.5. Di"erence between
String and String Bu"er Di"erence between StringBu"er and StringBuilder StringBu"er Class StringBuilder Class
StringBu"er is present in Java. StringBuilder was introduced in Java 5. StringBu"er is synchronized. This means
that multiple threads cannot call the methods of StringBu"er simultaneously. StringBuilder is asynchronized. This
means that multiple threads can call the methods of StringBuilder simultaneously.
35. 35 | P a g e StringBu"er Class StringBuilder Class Due to synchronization, StringBu"er is called a thread safe
class. Due to its asynchronous nature, StringBuilder is not a thread safe class. Due to synchronization, StringBu"er
is lot slower than StringBuilder. Since there is no preliminary check for multiple threads, StringBuilder is a lot faster
than StringBu"er. How to create Immutable class? There are many immutable classes like String, Boolean, Byte,
Short, Integer, Long, Float, Double etc. In short, all the wrapper classes and String class is immutable. Java
toString() Method If you want to represent any object as a string, toString() method comes into existence. The
toString() method returns the String representation of the object. If you print any object, Java compiler internally
invokes the toString() method on the object. Advantage of Java toString() method By overriding the toString()
method of the Object class, we can return values of the object, so we don't need to write much code.
StringTokenizer in Java The java.util.StringTokenizer class allows you to break a String into tokens. It is simple way
to break a String. It is a legacy class of Java.
36. 36 | P a g e Exception Handling Exception Handling in Java The Exception Handling in Java is one of the
powerful mechanism to handle the runtime errors so that the normal flow of the application can be maintained.
What is Exception in Java? an exception is an event that disrupts the normal flow of the program. It is an object
which is thrown at runtime. Types of Java Exceptions There are mainly two types of exceptions: checked and
unchecked. An error is considered as the unchecked exception. However, according to Oracle, there are three types
of exceptions namely: 1. Checked Exception 2. Unchecked Exception 3. Error Di"erence between Checked and
Unchecked Exceptions 1) Checked Exception The classes that directly inherit the Throwable class except Runtime
Exception and Error are known as checked exceptions. For example, IO Exception, SQL Exception, etc. Checked
exceptions are checked at compile- time. 2) Unchecked Exception The classes that inherit the Runtime Exception
are known as unchecked exceptions. For example, Arithmetic Exception, NullPointerException,
37. 37 | P a g e ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException, etc. Unchecked exceptions are not checked at compile-time, but
they are checked at runtime. 3) Error Error is irrecoverable. Some example of errors are OutOfMemoryError,
VirtualMachineError, AssertionError etc. Java try-catch block Java try block Java try block is used to enclose the
code that might throw an exception. It must be used within the method. Syntax of Java try-catch try{ //code that
may throw an exception }catch(Exception_class_Name ref){} Java catch block Java catch block is used to handle
the Exception by declaring the type of exception within the parameter. The catch block must be used a!er the try
block only. You can use multiple catch block with a single try block. Java Catch Multiple Exceptions Java Multi-
catch block A try block can be followed by one or more catch blocks. Each catch block must contain a di"erent
exception handler. So, if you have to perform di"erent tasks at the occurrence of di"erent exceptions, use java
multi-catch block. Java Nested try block
38. 38 | P a g e In Java, using a try block inside another try block is permitted. It is called as nested try block. Why
use nested try block Sometimes a situation may arise where a part of a block may cause one error and the entire
block itself may cause another error. In such cases, exception handlers have to be nested. Java finally block Java
finally block is a block used to execute important code such as closing the connection, etc. Java finally block is
always executed whether an exception is handled or not. Why use Java finally block? o finally block in Java can be
used to put "cleanup" code such as closing a file, closing connection, etc. o The important statements to be printed
can be placed in the finally block. Usage of Java finally Let's see the di"erent cases where Java finally block can be
used. Java throw keyword The Java throw keyword is used to throw an exception explicitly. We can throw either
checked or unchecked exceptions in Java by throw keyword. It is mainly used to throw a custom exception. Java
Exception Propagation Exception propagation in Java occurs when an exception thrown from the top of the stack.
39. 39 | P a g e Java throws keyword The Java throws keyword is used to declare an exception. It gives an
information to the programmer that there may occur an exception. Syntax of Java throws return_type
method_name() throws exception_class_name{ //method code } Di"erence between throw and throws in Java
40. 40 | P a g e Di"erence between final, finally and finalize Java Custom Exception Creating our own Exception is
known as custom exception or user-defined exception. Basically, Java custom exceptions are used to customize
the exception according to user need. Why use custom exceptions? Java exceptions cover almost all the general
type of exceptions that may occur in the programming. However, we sometimes need to create custom exceptions.
41. 41 | P a g e Java Multithreading Multithreading in Java Multithreading in Java is a process of executing multiple
threads simultaneously. A thread is a lightweight sub-process, the smallest unit of processing. Multiprocessing and
multithreading, both are used to achieve multitasking. Multitasking Multitasking is a process of executing multiple
tasks simultaneously. We use multitasking to utilize the CPU. Multitasking can be achieved in two ways: o Process-
based Multitasking (Multiprocessing) o Thread-based Multitasking (Multithreading) 1) Process-based Multitasking
(Multiprocessing) o Each process has an address in memory. In other words, each process allocates a separate
memory area. o A process is heavyweight. o Cost of communication between the process is high. 2) Thread-based
Multitasking (Multithreading) o Threads share the same address space. o A thread is lightweight. o Cost of
communication between the thread is low. What is Thread in java A thread is a lightweight subprocess, the
smallest unit of processing. It is a separate path of execution.
42. 42 | P a g e Threads are independent. If there occurs exception in one thread, it doesn't a"ect other threads. It
uses a shared memory area. Life cycle of a Thread (Thread States) In Java, a thread always exists in any one of the
following states. These states are: 1. New 2. Active 3. Blocked / Waiting 4. Timed Waiting 5. Terminated Explanation
of Di"erent Thread States New: Whenever a new thread is created, it is always in the new state. Active: When a
thread invokes the start() method, it moves from the new state to the active state. The active state contains two
states within it: one is runnable, and the other is running. Runnable: A thread, that is ready to run is then moved to
the runnable state. In the runnable state, the thread may be running or may be ready to run at any given instant of
time. Running: When the thread gets the CPU, it moves from the runnable to the running state. Blocked or Waiting:
Whenever a thread is inactive for a span of time (not permanently) then, either the thread is in the blocked state or
is in the waiting state. Terminated: A thread reaches the termination state because of the following reasons: o
When a thread has finished its job, then it exists or terminates normally.
43. 43 | P a g e o Abnormal termination: It occurs when some unusual events such as an unhandled exception or
segmentation fault. Java Threads | How to create a thread in Java There are two ways to create a thread: 1. By
extending Thread class 2. By implementing Runnable interface. Thread class: Thread class provide constructors
and methods to create and perform operations on a thread.Thread class extends Object class and implements
Runnable interface. Commonly used Constructors of Thread class: o Thread() o Thread(String name) o
Thread(Runnable r) o Thread(Runnable r,String name) Commonly used methods of Thread class: 1. public void
run(): is used to perform action for a thread. 2. public void start(): starts the execution of the thread.JVM calls the
run() method on the thread. 3. public void sleep(long miliseconds): Causes the currently executing thread to sleep
(temporarily cease execution) for the specified number of milliseconds. 4. public void join(): waits for a thread to
die. 5. public void join(long miliseconds): waits for a thread to die for the specified miliseconds. 6. public int
getPriority(): returns the priority of the thread. 7. public int setPriority(int priority): changes the priority of the
thread.
44. 44 | P a g e 8. public String getName(): returns the name of the thread. 9. public void setName(String name):
changes the name of the thread. 10. public Thread currentThread(): returns the reference of currently executing
thread. 11. public int getId(): returns the id of the thread. 12. public Thread.State getState(): returns the state of the
thread. 13. public boolean isAlive(): tests if the thread is alive. 14. public void yield(): causes the currently executing
thread object to temporarily pause and allow other threads to execute. 15. public void suspend(): is used to
suspend the thread(depricated). 16. public void resume(): is used to resume the suspended thread(depricated). 17.
public void stop(): is used to stop the thread(depricated). 18. public boolean isDaemon(): tests if the thread is a
daemon thread. 19. public void setDaemon(boolean b): marks the thread as daemon or user thread. 20. public
void interrupt(): interrupts the thread. 21. public boolean isInterrupted(): tests if the thread has been interrupted.
22. public static boolean interrupted(): tests if the current thread has been interrupted. Runnable interface: The
Runnable interface should be implemented by any class whose instances are intended to be executed by a thread.
Runnable interface have only one method named run(). 1. public void run(): is used to perform action for a thread.
Starting a thread: The start() method of Thread class is used to start a newly created thread. It performs the
following tasks:
45. 45 | P a g e o A new thread starts(with new callstack). o The thread moves from New state to the Runnable state.
o When the thread gets a chance to execute, its target run() method will run. Thread Scheduler in Java A
component of Java that decides which thread to run or execute and which thread to wait is called a thread
scheduler in Java. In Java, a thread is only chosen by a thread scheduler if it is in the runnable state. However, if
there is more than one thread in the runnable state, it is up to the thread scheduler to pick one of the threads and
ignore the other ones. Priority: Priority of each thread lies between 1 to 10. If a thread has a higher priority, it
means that thread has got a better chance of getting picked up by the thread scheduler. Time of Arrival: Suppose
two threads of the same priority enter the runnable state, then priority cannot be the factor to pick a thread from
these two threads. In such a case, arrival time of thread is considered by the thread scheduler. Thread Scheduler
Algorithms On the basis of the above-mentioned factors, the scheduling algorithm is followed by a Java thread
scheduler. First Come First Serve Scheduling: In this scheduling algorithm, the scheduler picks the threads thar
arrive first in the runnable queue. Observe the following table: Threads Time of Arrival t1 0 t2 1
46. 46 | P a g e t3 2 t4 3 In the above table, we can see that Thread t1 has arrived first, then Thread t2, then t3, and
at last t4, and the order in which the threads will be processed is according to the time of arrival of threads. Hence,
Thread t1 will be processed first, and Thread t4 will be processed last. Time-slicing scheduling: Usually, the First
Come First Serve algorithm is non-preemptive, which is bad as it may lead to infinite blocking (also known as
starvation). To avoid that, some time-slices are provided to the threads so that a!er some time, the running thread
has to give up the CPU. Thus, the other waiting threads also get time to run their job.
47. 47 | P a g e In the above diagram, each thread is given a time slice of 2 seconds. Thus, a!er 2 seconds, the first
thread leaves the CPU, and the CPU is then captured by Thread2. The same process repeats for the other threads
too. Preemptive-Priority Scheduling: The name of the scheduling algorithm denotes that the algorithm is related
to the priority of the threads. Suppose there are multiple threads available in the runnable state. The thread
scheduler picks that thread that has the highest priority. Working of the Java Thread Scheduler
48. 48 | P a g e Let's understand the working of the Java thread scheduler. Suppose, there are five threads that have
di"erent arrival times and di"erent priorities. Now, it is the responsibility of the thread scheduler to decide which
thread will get the CPU first. The thread scheduler selects the thread that has the highest priority, and the thread
begins the execution of the job. If a thread is already in runnable state and another thread (that has higher priority)
reaches in the runnable state, then the current thread is pre-empted from the processor, and the arrived thread
with higher priority gets the CPU time. When two threads (Thread 2 and Thread 3) having the same priorities and
arrival time, the scheduling will be decided on the basis of FCFS algorithm. Thus, the thread that arrives first gets
the opportunity to execute first. Thread. Sleep() in Java The Java Thread class provides the two variant of the
sleep() method. First one accepts only an arguments, whereas the other variant accepts two arguments. The
method sleep() is being used to halt the working of a thread for a given amount of time. The time up to which the
thread remains in the sleeping state is known as the sleeping time of the thread. A!er the sleeping time is over, the
thread starts its execution from where it has le!. The sleep() Method Syntax: Following are the syntax of the sleep()
method. 1. public static void sleep(long mls) throws InterruptedException 2. public static void sleep(long mls, int n)
throws InterruptedException Can we start a thread twice No. A!er starting a thread, it can never be started again. If
you does so, an IllegalThreadStateException is thrown. In such case, thread will run once but for second time, it will
throw exception.
49. 49 | P a g e What if we call Java run() method directly instead start() method? o Each thread starts in a separate
call stack. o Invoking the run() method from the main thread, the run() method goes onto the current call stack
rather than at the beginning of a new call stack. Java join() method The join() method in Java is provided by the
java.lang.Thread class that permits one thread to wait until the other thread to finish its execution. Suppose th be
the object the class Thread whose thread is doing its execution currently, then the th.join(); statement ensures that
th is finished before the program does the execution of the next statement. When there are more than one thread
invoking the join() method, then it leads to overloading on the join() method that permits the developer or
programmer to mention the waiting period. Description of The Overloaded join() Method join(): When the join()
method is invoked, the current thread stops its execution and the thread goes into the wait state. The current
thread remains in the wait state until the thread on which the join() method is invoked has achieved its dead state.
Syntax: 1. public final void join() throws InterruptedException Naming Thread and Current Thread Naming Thread
The Thread class provides methods to change and get the name of a thread. By default, each thread has a name,
i.e. thread-0, thread-1 and so on. By we can change the name of the thread by using the setName() method. The
syntax of setName() and getName() methods are given below:
50. 50 | P a g e 1. public String getName(): is used to return the name of a thread. 2. public void setName(String
name): is used to change the name of a th read. Current Thread The currentThread() method returns a reference of
the currently executing thread. public static Thread currentThread(); Priority of a Thread (Thread Priority) Each
thread has a priority. Priorities are represented by a number between 1 and 10. In most cases, the thread scheduler
schedules the threads according to their priority (known as preemptive scheduling). But it is not guaranteed
because it depends on JVM specification that which scheduling it chooses. Setter & Getter Method of Thread
Priority public final int getPriority(): The java.lang.Thread.getPriority() method returns the priority of the given
thread. public final void setPriority(int newPriority): The java.lang.Thread.setPriority() method updates or assign
the priority of the thread to newPriority. The method throws IllegalArgumentException if the value newPriority
goes out of the range, which is 1 (minimum) to 10 (maximum). 3 constants defined in Thread class: 1. public static
int MIN_PRIORITY 2. public static int NORM_PRIORITY 3. public static int MAX_PRIORITY Default priority of a thread
is 5 (NORM_PRIORITY). The value of MIN_PRIORITY is 1 and the value of MAX_PRIORITY is 10.
51. 51 | P a g e Daemon Thread in Java Daemon thread in Java is a service provider thread that provides services to
the user thread. Its life depend on the mercy of user threads i.e. when all the user threads dies, JVM terminates this
thread automatically. There are many java daemon threads running automatically e.g. gc, finalizer etc. Points to
remember for Daemon Thread in Java o It provides services to user threads for background supporting tasks. It has
no role in life than to serve user threads. o Its life depends on user threads. o It is a low priority thread. Why JVM
terminates the daemon thread if there is no user thread? The sole purpose of the daemon thread is that it provides
services to user thread for background supporting task. If there is no user thread, why should JVM keep running
this thread. That is why JVM terminates the daemon thread if there is no user thread. Java Thread Pool Java
Thread pool represents a group of worker threads that are waiting for the job and reused many times. A thread
pool reuses previously created threads to execute current tasks In the case of a thread pool, a group of fixed-size
threads is created. A thread from the thread pool is pulled out and assigned a job by the service provider. Thread
Pool Methods newFixedThreadPool(int s): The method creates a thread pool of the fixed size s.
52. 52 | P a g e newCachedThreadPool(): The method creates a new thread pool that creates the new threads when
needed but will still use the previously created thread whenever they are available to use.
newSingleThreadExecutor(): The method creates a new thread. Advantage of Java Thread Pool Better performance
It saves time because there is no need to create a new thread. Real time usage It is used in Servlet and JSP where
the container creates a thread pool to process the request. ThreadGroup in Java Java provides a convenient way to
group multiple threads in a single object. In such a way, we can suspend, resume or interrupt a group of threads by
a single method call. Java thread group is implemented by java.lang.ThreadGroup class. A ThreadGroup represents
a set of threads. A thread group can also include the other thread group. The thread group creates a tree in which
every thread group except the initial thread group has a parent. A thread is allowed to access information about its
own thread group, but it cannot access the information about its thread group's parent thread group or any other
thread groups.
53. 53 | P a g e Constructors of ThreadGroup class There are only two constructors of ThreadGroup class. Java
Shutdown Hook A special construct that facilitates the developers to add some code that has to be run when the
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is shutting down is known as the Java shutdown hook. The Java shutdown hook comes
in very handy in the cases where one needs to perform some special cleanup work when the JVM is shutting down.
When does the JVM shut down? The JVM shuts down when: o user presses ctrl+c on the command prompt o
System.exit(int) method is invoked o user logo" o user shutdown etc. No. Constructor Description 1) ThreadGroup
(String name) creates a thread group with given name. 2) ThreadGroup(ThreadGroup parent, String name) creates
a thread group with a given parent group and name.
54. 54 | P a g e The addShutdownHook (Thread hook) method The addShutdownHook () method of the Runtime
class is used to register the thread with the Virtual Machine. Syntax: 1. public void addShutdownHook(Thread
hook){} How to perform single task by multiple threads in Java? If you have to perform a single task by many
threads, have only one run() method. How to perform multiple tasks by multiple threads (multitasking in
multithreading)? If you have to perform multiple tasks by multiple threads , have multiple run() methods. Java
Garbage Collection In java, garbage means unreferenced objects. Garbage Collection is process of reclaiming the
runtime unused memory automatically. In other words, it is a way to destroy the unused objects. Advantage of
Garbage Collection o It makes java memory e"icient because garbage collector removes the unreferenced objects
from heap memory. o It is automatically done by the garbage collector(a part of JVM) so we don't need to make
extra e"orts.
55. 55 | P a g e How can an object be unreferenced? There are many ways: o By nulling the reference o By assigning
a reference to another o By anonymous object etc. 1) By nulling a reference: 1. Employee e=new Employee(); 2.
e=null; 2) By assigning a reference to another: 1. Employee e1=new Employee(); 2. Employee e2=new Employee();
3. e1=e2;//now the first object referred by e1 is available for garbage col lection 3) By anonymous object: 1. new
Employee(); finalize() method The finalize() method is invoked each time before the object is garbage collected.
This method can be used to perform cleanup processing. This method is defined in Object class as: 1. protected
void finalize(){} gc() method The gc() method is used to invoke the garbage collector to perform cleanup
processing. The gc() is found in System and Runtime classes. 1. public static void gc(){}
56. 56 | P a g e Java Runtime class Java Runtime class is used to interact with java runtime environment. Java
Runtime class provides methods to execute a process, invoke GC, get total and free memory etc. There is only one
instance of java.lang.Runtime class is available for one java application. Important methods of Java Runtime class
No. Method Description 1) public static Runtime getRuntime() returns the instance of Runtime class. 2) public void
exit(int status) terminates the current virtual machine. 3) public void addShutdownHook(Thread hook) registers
new hook thread. 4) public Process exec(String command)throws IOException executes given command in a
separate process. 5) public int availableProcessors() returns no. of available processors. 6) public long
freeMemory() returns amount of free memory in JVM. 7) public long totalMemory() returns amount of total
memory in JVM.
57. 57 | P a g e Java Collections Collections in Java The Collection in Java is a framework that provides an
architecture to store and manipulate the group of objects. Java Collections can achieve all the operations that you
perform on a data such as searching, sorting, insertion, manipulation, and deletion. Java Collection means a single
unit of objects. Java Collection framework provides many interfaces (Set, List, Queue, Deque) and classes
(ArrayList, Vector, LinkedList, PriorityQueue, HashSet, LinkedHashSet, TreeSet). What is Collection in Java A
Collection represents a single unit of objects, i.e., a group. What is a framework in Java o It provides readymade
architecture. o It represents a set of classes and interfaces. o It is optional. What is Collection framework The
Collection framework represents a unified architecture for storing and manipulating a group of objects. It has: 1.
Interfaces and its implementations, i.e., classes 2. Algorithm 1) Java ArrayList Java ArrayList class uses a dynamic
array for storing the elements. It is like an array, but there is no size limit. We can add or remove elements anytime.
So, it is much more flexible than the
58. 58 | P a g e traditional array. It is found in the java.util package. It is like the Vector in C++. o We can not create
an array list of the primitive types, such as int, float, char, etc. It is required to use the required wrapper class in
such cases. For example: 1. ArrayList<int> al = ArrayList<int>(); // does not work 2. ArrayList<Integer> al = new
ArrayList<Integer>(); // works fine ArrayList class declaration Let's see the declaration for java.util.ArrayList class. 1.
public class ArrayList<E> extends AbstractList<E> implements List <E>, RandomAccess, Cloneable, Ser Java Non-
generic Vs. Generic Collection Java collection framework was non-generic before JDK 1.5. Since 1.5, it is generic.
Java new generic collection allows you to have only one type of object in a collection. Now it is type-safe, so
typecasting is not required at runtime. Let's see the old non-generic example of creating a Java collection. 1.
ArrayList list=new ArrayList();//creating old non-generic arraylist Let's see the new generic example of creating java
collection. 1. ArrayList<String> list=new ArrayList<String>();//creating new gener ic arraylist
59. 59 | P a g e 2) Java LinkedList class Java LinkedList class uses a doubly linked list to store the elements. It
provides a linked-list data structure. It inherits the Abstract List class and implements List and Deque interfaces.
The important points about Java LinkedList are: o Java LinkedList class can contain duplicate elements. o Java
LinkedList class maintains insertion order. o Java LinkedList class is non synchronized. o In Java LinkedList class,
manipulation is fast because no shi!ing needs to occur. o Java LinkedList class can be used as a list, stack or
queue. Hierarchy of LinkedList class As shown in the above diagram, Java LinkedList class extends
AbstractSequentialList class and implements List and Deque interfaces.
60. 60 | P a g e Doubly Linked List In the case of a doubly linked list, we can add or remove elements from both
sides. LinkedList class declaration Let's see the declaration for java.util.LinkedList class. 1. public class
LinkedList<E> extends AbstractSequentialList<E> impl ements List<E>, Deque<E>, Clonea Di"erence Between
ArrayList and LinkedList ArrayList LinkedList 1) ArrayList internally uses a dynamic array to store the elements.
LinkedList internally uses a doubly linked list to store the elements. 2) Manipulation with ArrayList is slow because
it internally uses an array. If any element is removed from the array, all the other elements are shi!ed in memory.
Manipulation with LinkedList is faster than ArrayList because it uses a doubly linked list, so no bit shi!ing is
required in memory. 3) An ArrayList class can act as a list only because it implements List only. LinkedList class can
act as a list and queue both because it implements List and Deque interfaces. 4) ArrayList is better for storing and
accessing data. LinkedList is better for manipulating data.
61. 61 | P a g e 5) The memory location for the elements of an ArrayList is contiguous. The location for the elements
of a linked list is not contagious. 6) Generally, when an ArrayList is initialized, a default capacity of 10 is assigned to
the ArrayList. There is no case of default capacity in a LinkedList. In LinkedList, an empty list is created when a
LinkedList is initialized. 7) To be precise, an ArrayList is a resizable array. LinkedList implements the doubly linked
list of the list interface. Java List List in Java provides the facility to maintain the ordered collection. It contains the
index-based methods to insert, update, delete and search the elements. It can have the duplicate elements also.
We can also store the null elements in the list. The List interface is found in the java.util package and inherits the
Collection interface. It is a factory of ListIterator interface. Through the ListIterator, we can iterate the list in forward
and backward directions. The implementation classes of List interface are ArrayList, LinkedList, Stack and Vector.
The ArrayList and LinkedList are widely used in Java programming. The Vector class is deprecated since Java 5.
Java HashSet Java HashSet class is used to create a collection that uses a hash table for storage. It inherits the
AbstractSet class and implements Set interface.
62. 62 | P a g e The important points about Java HashSet class are: o HashSet stores the elements by using a
mechanism called hashing. o HashSet contains unique elements only. o HashSet allows null value. o HashSet class
is non synchronized. o HashSet doesn't maintain the insertion order. Here, elements are inserted on the basis of
their hashcode. o HashSet is the best approach for search operations. o The initial default capacity of HashSet is
16, and the load factor is 0.75. Java LinkedHashSet Class
63. 63 | P a g e Java LinkedHashSet class is a Hashtable and Linked list implementation of the Set interface. It
inherits the HashSet class and implements the Set interface. The important points about the Java LinkedHashSet
class are: o Java LinkedHashSet class contains unique elements only like HashSet. o Java LinkedHashSet class
provides all optional set operations and permits null elements. o Java LinkedHashSet class is non-synchronized. o
Java LinkedHashSet class maintains insertion order. Java TreeMap class Java TreeMap class is a red-black tree
based implementation. It provides an e"icient means of storing key-value pairs in sorted order. The important
points about Java TreeMap class are: o Java TreeMap contains values based on the key. It implements the
NavigableMap interface and extends AbstractMap class. o Java TreeMap contains only unique elements.
64. 64 | P a g e o Java TreeMap cannot have a null key but can have multiple null values. o Java TreeMap is non
synchronized. o Java TreeMap maintains ascending order. Java TreeSet class Java TreeSet class implements the
Set interface that uses a tree for storage. It inherits AbstractSet class and implements the NavigableSet interface.
The objects of the TreeSet class are stored in ascending order. The important points about the Java TreeSet class
are: o Java TreeSet class contains unique elements only like HashSet. o Java TreeSet class access and retrieval
times are quiet fast. o Java TreeSet class doesn't allow null element. o Java TreeSet class is non synchronized. o
Java TreeSet class maintains ascending order. Backward Ski p 10s
65. 65 | P a g e Java Queue Interface The interface Queue is available in the java.util package and does extend the
Collection interface. It is used to keep the elements that are processed in the First In First Out (FIFO) manner. It is
an ordered list of objects, where insertion of elements occurs at the end of the list, and removal of elements occur
at the beginning of the list. Being an interface, the queue requires, for the declaration, a concrete class, and the
most common classes are the LinkedList and PriorityQueue in Java. Implementations done by these classes are
not thread safe. If it is required to have a thread safe implementation, PriorityBlockingQueue is an available
option. Features of a Queue The following are some important features of a queue. o As discussed earlier, FIFO
concept is used for insertion and deletion of elements from a queue. o The Java Queue provides support for all of
the methods of the Collection interface including deletion, insertion, etc. o PriorityQueue, ArrayBlockingQueue
and LinkedList are the implementations that are used most frequently. o The NullPointerException is raised, if any
null operation is done on the BlockingQueues. o Those Queues that are present in the util package are known as
Unbounded Queues. o Those Queues that are present in the util.concurrent package are known as bounded
Queues. o All Queues barring the Deques facilitates removal and insertion at the head and tail of the queue;
respectively. In fact, deques support element insertion and removal at both ends.
66. 66 | P a g e PriorityQueue Class PriorityQueue is also class that is defined in the collection framework that gives
us a way for processing the objects on the basis of priority. It is already described that the insertion and deletion of
objects follows FIFO pattern in the Java queue. However, sometimes the elements of the queue are needed to be
processed according to the priority, that's where a PriorityQueue comes into action. Java Deque Interface The
interface called Deque is present in java.util package. It is the subtype of the interface queue. The Deque supports
the addition as well as the removal of elements from both ends of the data structure. Therefore, a deque can be
used as a stack or a queue. We know that the stack supports the Last In First Out (LIFO) operation, and the
operation First In First Out is supported by a queue. As a deque supports both, either of the mentioned operations
can be performed on it. Deque is an acronym for "double ended queue". Java Hashtable class Java Hashtable class
implements a hashtable, which maps keys to values. It inherits Dictionary class and implements the Map interface.
Points to remember o A Hashtable is an array of a list. Each list is known as a bucket. The position of the bucket is
identified by calling the hashcode() method. A Hashtable contains values based on the key. o Java Hashtable class
contains unique elements. o Java Hashtable class doesn't allow null key or value. o Java Hashtable class is
synchronized.
67. 67 | P a g e The initial default capacity of Hashtable class is 11 whereas loadFactor is 0.75 Java Map Interface A
map contains values on the basis of key, i.e. key and value pair. Each key and value pair is known as an entry. A Map
contains unique keys. A Map is useful if you have to search, update or delete elements on the basis of a key. Java
Map Hierarchy There are two interfaces for implementing Map in java: Map and SortedMap, and three classes:
HashMap, LinkedHashMap, and TreeMap. A Map doesn't allow duplicate keys, but you can have duplicate values.
HashMap and LinkedHashMap allow null keys and values, but TreeMap doesn't allow any null key or value. A Map
can't be traversed, so you need to convert it into Set using keySet() or entrySet() method. Java HashMap Java
HashMap class implements the Map interface which allows us to store key and value pair, where keys should be
unique. If you try to insert the duplicate key, it will replace the element of the corresponding key. It is easy
68. 68 | P a g e to perform operations using the key index like updation, deletion, etc. HashMap class is found in the
java.util package. HashMap in Java is like the legacy Hashtable class, but it is not synchronized. It allows us to store
the null elements as well, but there should be only one null key. Since Java 5, it is denoted as HashMap<K,V>,
where K stands for key and V for value. It inherits the AbstractMap class and implements the Map interface. Points
to remember o Java HashMap contains values based on the key. o Java HashMap contains only unique keys. o Java
HashMap may have one null key and multiple null values. o Java HashMap is non synchronized. o Java HashMap
maintains no order. o The initial default capacity of Java HashMap class is 16 with a load factor of 0.75. Java
EnumSet class Java EnumSet class is the specialized Set implementation for use with enum types. It inherits
AbstractSet class and implements the Set interface. EnumSet class declaration Let's see the declaration for
java.util.EnumSet class. 1. public abstract class EnumSet<E extends Enum<E>> exten ds AbstractSet<E>
implements Cloneable, Serializable
69. 69 | P a g e Di"erence between HashMap and Hashtable HashMap and Hashtable both are used to store data in
key and value form. Both are using hashing technique to store unique keys. HashMap Hashtable 1) HashMap is non
synchronized. It is not-thread safe and can't be shared between many threads without proper synchronization
code. Hashtable is synchronized. It is thread-safe and can be shared with many threads. 2) HashMap allows one
null key and multiple null values. Hashtable doesn't allow any null key or value. 3) HashMap is a new class
introduced in JDK 1.2. Hashtable is a legacy class. 4) HashMap is fast. Hashtable is slow. 5) We can make the
HashMap as synchronized by calling this code Map m = Collections.synchronizedMap( hashMap); Hashtable is
internally synchronized and can't be unsynchronized. 6) HashMap is traversed by Iterator. Hashtable is traversed
by Enumerator and Iterator. 7) Iterator in HashMap is fail- fast. Enumerator in Hashtable is not fail- fast. 8) HashMap
inherits AbstractMap class. Hashtable inherits Dictionary class.
70. 70 | P a g e Java LinkedHashMap class Java LinkedHashMap class is Hashtable and Linked list implementation
of the Map interface, with predictable iteration order. It inherits HashMap class and implements the Map interface.
Points to remember o Java LinkedHashMap contains values based on the key. o Java LinkedHashMap contains
unique elements. o Java LinkedHashMap may have one null key and multiple null values. o Java LinkedHashMap is
non synchronized. o Java LinkedHashMap maintains insertion order. o The initial default capacity of Java HashMap
class is 16 with a load factor of 0.75.
71. 71 | P a g e Java Collections class Java collection class is used exclusively with static methods that operate on
or return collections. It inherits Object class. The important points about Java Collections class are: o Java
Collection class supports the polymorphic algorithms that operate on collections. o Java Collection class throws a
NullPointerException if the collections or class objects provided to them are null. Di"erence between Comparable
and Comparator o Comparable and Comparator both are interfaces and can be used to sort collection elements. o
However, there are many di"erences between Comparable and Comparator interfaces that are given below.
Comparable Comparator 1) Comparable provides a single sorting sequence. In other words, we can sort the
collection on the basis of a single element such as id, name, and price. The Comparator provides multiple sorting
sequences. In other words, we can sort the collection on the basis of multiple elements such as id, name, and price
etc. 2) Comparable a"ects the original class, i.e., the actual class is modified. Comparator doesn't a"ect the
original class, i.e., the actual class is not modified.
72. 72 | P a g e 3) Comparable provides compareTo() method to sort elements. Comparator provides compare()
method to sort elements. 4) Comparable is present in java.lang package. A Comparator is present in the java.util
package. 5) We can sort the list elements of Comparable type by Collections.sort(List) method. We can sort the list
elements of Comparator type by Collections.sort(List, Comparator) method. Di"erence between ArrayList and
Vector
73. 73 | P a g e Java Vector Vector is like the dynamic array which can grow or shrink its size. Unlike array, we can
store n-number of elements in it as there is no size limit. It is a part of Java Collection framework since Java 1.2. It
is found in the java.util package and implements the List interface, so we can use all the methods of List interface
here. It is recommended to use the Vector class in the thread-safe implementation only. If you don't need to use
the thread-safe implementation, you should use the ArrayList, the ArrayList will perform better in such case. The
Iterators returned by the Vector class are fail-fast. In case of concurrent modification, it fails and throws the
ConcurrentModificationException. Java Stack The stack is a linear data structure that is used to store the collection
of objects. It is based on Last-In-First-Out (LIFO). Java collection framework provides many interfaces and classes
to store the collection of objects. One of them is the Stack class that provides di"erent operations such as push,
pop, search, etc. In this section, we will discuss the Java Stack class, its methods, and implement the stack data
structure in a Java program. But before moving to the Java Stack class have a quick view of how the stack works.
The stack data structure has the two most important operations that are push and pop. The push operation inserts
an element into the stack and pop operation removes an element from the top of the stack. Let's see how they
work on stack.
74. 74 | P a g e Java JDBC JDBC stands for Java Database Connectivity. JDBC is a Java API to connect and execute
the query with the database. It is a part of JavaSE (Java Standard Edition). JDBC API uses JDBC drivers to connect
with the database. There are four types of JDBC drivers: o JDBC-ODBC Bridge Driver, o Native Driver, o Network
Protocol Driver, and o Thin Driver The java.sql package contains classes and interfaces for JDBC API. A list of
popular interfaces of JDBC API are given below: o Driver interface o Connection interface o Statement interface o
PreparedStatement interface o CallableStatement interface o ResultSet interface o ResultSetMetaData interface o
DatabaseMetaData interface o RowSet interface
75. 75 | P a g e A list of popular classes of JDBC API are given below: o DriverManager class o Blob class o Clob class
o Types class Why Should We Use JDBC Before JDBC, ODBC API was the database API to connect and execute the
query with the database. But, ODBC API uses ODBC driver which is written in C language (i.e. platform dependent
and unsecured). Java Reflection API Java Reflection is a process of examining or modifying the run time behavior
of a class at run time. The java.lang.Class class provides many methods that can be used to get metadata, examine
and change the run time behavior of a class. The java.lang and java.lang.reflect packages provide classes for java
reflection. JDBC Driver JDBC Driver is a so!ware component that enables java application to interact with the
database. There are 4 types of JDBC drivers: 1. JDBC-ODBC bridge driver 2. Native-API driver (partially java driver)
3. Network Protocol driver (fully java driver) 4. Thin driver (fully java driver)
76. 76 | P a g e 1) JDBC-ODBC bridge driver The JDBC-ODBC bridge driver uses ODBC driver to connect to the
database. The JDBC-ODBC bridge driver converts JDBC method calls into the ODBC function calls. Advantages: o
easy to use. o can be easily connected to any database. Disadvantages: o Performance degraded because JDBC
method call is converted into the ODBC function calls. o The ODBC driver needs to be installed on the client
machine. 2) Native-API driver The Native API driver uses the client-side libraries of the database. The driver
converts JDBC method calls into native calls of the database API. It is not written entirely in java. Advantage: o
performance upgraded than JDBC-ODBC bridge driver. Disadvantage: o The Native driver needs to be installed on
the each client machine. o The Vendor client library needs to be installed on client machine. 3) Network Protocol
driver The Network Protocol driver uses middleware (application server) that converts JDBC calls directly or
indirectly into the vendor-specific database protocol. It is fully written in java. Advantage: o No client side library is
required because of application server that can perform many tasks like auditing, load balancing, logging etc.
77. 77 | P a g e Disadvantages: o Network support is required on client machine. o Requires database-specific
coding to be done in the middle tier. o Maintenance of Network Protocol driver becomes costly because it requires
database-specific coding to be done in the middle tier. 4) Thin driver The thin driver converts JDBC calls directly
into the vendor-specific database protocol. That is why it is known as thin driver. It is fully written in Java language.
Advantage: o Better performance than all other drivers. o No so!ware is required at client side or server side.
Disadvantage: o Drivers depend on the Database. Java Database Connectivity with 5 Steps
78. 78 | P a g e 1) Register the driver class The forName() method of Class class is used to register the driver class.
This method is used to dynamically load the driver class. Syntax of forName() method 1. public static void
forName(String className)throws ClassNotFound Exception 2) get connection object The getConnection() method
of DriverManager class is used to establish connection with the database. Syntax of getConnection() method 1. 1)
public static Connection getConnection(String url)throws SQLEx ception 2. 2) public static Connection
getConnection(String url,String name,Stri ng password) 3. throws SQLException 3) Create the Statement object
The createStatement() method of Connection interface is used to create statement. The object of statement is
responsible to execute queries with the database. Syntax of createStatement() method 1. public Statement
createStatement()throws SQLException 4) Execute the query The executeQuery() method of Statement interface is
used to execute queries to the database. This method returns the object of ResultSet that can be used to get all the
records of a table. Syntax of executeQuery() method 1. public ResultSet executeQuery(String sql)throws
SQLException
79. 79 | P a g e 5) Close the connection object By closing connection object statement and ResultSet will be closed
automatically. The close() method of Connection interface is used to close the connection. Syntax of close()
method 1. public void close()throws SQLException

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