ADVANCED LEVEL PHYSICS @B.E.

PAFRA

GRAVITATION
Gravitation deals with motion of planets in a
The unit of G is and
gravitational field. This motion is governed by
laws among which are Kepler‟s laws of
DIMENSION OF G AND ITS UNITS:
gravitation and Newton‟s laws of gravitation.
[ ][ ]
KEPLER’S LAWS OF GRAVITATION [ ]
[ ][ ]
Law I: The planets describe ellipses about the
From the dimensions of G, it can be seen that G
sun as one focus.
can also be expressed in .
Law II: The imaginary line joining the sun and
VERIFICATION OF KEPLER’S 3RD LAW
the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
(To show that Newton’s law of gravitation is
intervals
consistent with Kepler’s third law)
Law III: The squares of the periods of
Consider a planet of mass, above the sun of
revolution of the planets are proportional to the
. If the distance separating the planet and the
cubes of their mean distances from the sun.
sun is ;
( )
NEWTON’S LAWS OF GRAVITATION:
It states that “the force of attraction between two
bodies in the universe is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely
The force which keeps the planet moving around
proportional to the square of their distances
the sun is represented by;
apart”.
Therefore, if M and m are masses of two bodies
in the universe which are at a distance, r apart But

then; ( ) …………………. (i)

……………… (i) and,
From Newton‟s law of gravitation;
………………… (ii)
…………………. (i)
Combining the two equations gives;
For the planet moving round a sun, the
centripetal force required to keep it in motion
should be provided by the gravitational force of
where G is a constant of
attraction between the planet and the sun.
proportionality known as the universal
Therefore Eqn. (i) = Eqn. (ii)
gravitational constant.
( )

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, where is the torsional constant

of the torsion wire.

( ) Calculation for G:
Moment of a couple (deflecting torque) on CD,
Since is a constant then;
.
which is the Kepler‟s third law.
But also opposing torque in the wire, ,
DETERMINATION OF THE UNIVERSAL
where is the torsional constant of the wire.
GRAVITATION CONSTANT, G
For the polished bar to stop rotating, then the
opposing torque, produced by the torsion wire
should be equal to the deflecting torque, .

Note:
 Two identical gold balls a and b of mass, m 1. The torsion wire should be very sensitive to
each are suspended by a long and a short enable the small deflection to be measured
fine torsion wire of known torsional constant accurately.
respectively from ends C and D of a highly 2. The size of the apparatus should be small for
– polished bar CD of length, . it to be screened considerably from air
 Two large identical lead spheres A and B of convection currents.
mass, M each are in turn brought into 3. The constant, can be determined by
position near a and b respectively. allowing CD to oscillate through a small
 As a result of the attraction between the angle and then observing its period of
masses, two equal but opposite forces act on oscillation, which was of the order of 3
CD. minutes. If is the known moment of inertia
 The bar thus deflects and the angle of of the system about the torsion wire, then;
deflection, is measured by a lamp and
√ .
scale method by light deflected from CD.
MASS OF THE SUN:
 The distance, d between a and A or b and B
The mass, of the sun can be found from the
then measured and the Universal
period of a satellite and its distance from the
gravitational constant, G obtained from;
sun. consider the case of the earth. Its period,
is about 365days or seconds.
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Its distance, from the centre of the sun is about …………… (i) where g is the
. acceleration due to gravity.
If the mass of the earth is then for circular From Newton‟s law of gravitation, the force of
motion round the sun; attraction of the earth on the mass, m is;

………….. (ii)

Equating (i) and (ii) gives;

Centripetal force, …………… (i)

Force of attraction, …………… (ii)
Now, , ,
But Force of attraction = Centripetal force

( )

The volume of a sphere is where r is its

radius. Thus the density, of the earth is

( )
approximately given by;
( )

MASS AND DENSITY OF THE EARTH: By substituting the known values of g, G and r
the mean density of the earth is found to be
about 5500kgm-3.
Differences between G and g:
G g
Constant. Varies with
altitude.
Assuming that mass, M of the earth is
Occurs due to forces of Acts on only
concentrated at its centre and that it is spherical
attraction between two bodies. one body.
and of radius, r, it then follows that for a body of
SI unit is Nm2kg-2 SI unit is ms-1
mass, m on the earth‟s surface there is a force of
MAGNITUDE OF ACCELERATION DUE
attraction on mass, m.
TO GRAVITY, g:

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(a) Above the earth’s surface. b. Assuming a constant density then since the
Consider an object of mass, m in an orbit of mass of a sphere is proportional to ;
radius, R from the centre, , the radius of where M is the mass of the earth.
the earth. Then, if is the acceleration due to
Suppose is the acceleration due to gravity at
gravity at this place;
the radius, b. Then, from above;
……………… (i)

But if g is the acceleration due to gravity at the

earth‟s surface; Since , it follows by substitution that;

……………… (ii)

Dividing (i) and (ii) gives;

since r and g are constants.
Thus assuming a uniform density of core, which
is not the case in practice, the acceleration due to
since r and g are constants.
gravity, is directly proportional to the
Thus above the earth‟s surface, the acceleration
distance from the centre.
due to gravity, varies inversely proportional
If the depth below the earth‟s surface is h, then
as the square of the distance from the centre.
.
For a height, h above the earth,
( )
( )
( ) …………………….. (II)

Comparing (I) and (II), it can be seen that the

( ) ( )
acceleration at a distance, h below the earth‟s
Since powers of ( ) and higher can be surface is greater than at the same distance, h
above the earth‟s surface.
neglected when h is small compared with r.
Graph of variation of acceleration of free fall
reduction in acceleration due to
from the earth.
gravity.

……………… (I)

(b) Below the earth’s surface.

Consider an object of mass, m at a point below
the earth‟s surface. If its distance from the centre
is b, the effective mass, of the earth which
attracts it is that contained in a sphere of radius,

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(c) Variation of acceleration due to gravity

with location on the surface of the earth: 2. The acceleration due to gravity on the
- The earth is elliptical in shape. It is flattened surface of mars is about 0.4 times the
at the poles and bulged out at the equator. acceleration due to gravity on the surface of
The equatorial radius is about 21km longer the earth. How much would a body weigh
than the polar radius. Therefore, the weight on the surface of mars if it weighs 800N on
of the body increases as it is taken from the the earth‟s surface?
equator to the poles and less attracted Solution:
towards the earth than at the poles (i.e.
). But
- The earth rotates about its polar axis, so a
body at the poles is practically stationary since mg = 800N
while towards the equator experiences a
centripetal force, where is the MOTION OF SATELLITE
equatorial radius. A satellite is a small body that moves in space
round a planet.
There are two types of satellites; Natural

Example: satellites e.g. the moon and Artificial satellites

1. A body has a weight of 10N on the earth. e.g. Canal France International (CFI)

What will its weight be on the moon if the Artificial satellites are man-made called space

ratio of the moon‟s mass to the earth‟s mass crafts / space stations placed in orbits about the

is and the ratio of the moon‟s earth, moon or other planets to collect

radius to that of the earth is 0.27? information or for communication and scientific

Solution: study purposes.

Artificial satellites are grouped into;
……….. (i)
(i) Passive satellites. These simply reflect
………… (ii) signals of the same strength from one point
Dividing (ii) and (i) gives; to another.
(ii) Active satellites. These are satellites that are
able to amplify and retransmit signals that
they pick from one point on the earth to
another.
Satellites are initially launched from the earth
into space with the help of a rocket. When a
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rocket reaches that particular height, a second

phase of the launch is initiated where the
satellite is fired horizontally into the orbit to
start its circular motion and the rest of the rocket
burns in space.
GEOSTATIONARY /
GEOSYNCHRONOUS SATELLITES:
These are communication satellites with orbital  It is done by launching three or more
period of 24hrs and stays at the same point geostationary communication satellites into
above the earth surface provided it is above the space with help of a rocket.
equator and its moving in the same direction as  Microwave signals are transmitted from a
the earth is rotating. large steerable horn antenna A in an Earth
The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as station to the geostationary satellites S1.
the parking orbit. Satellite S1 has a number of aerials which
Parking orbit: receive them and amplify and retransmit
This is the path in space of a satellite which them to Satellite S2, which in turn transmits
makes it appear to be in the same position with them back to the earth and they are received
respect to an observer at a point one the earth. by steerable dish aerial, B in an earth station.
Note: For an object (satellite) in parking orbit; Orbital velocity of a satellite:
- It has a period of 24 hours. Satellites are natural or artificial bodies
- Angular velocity relative to that of the earth describing orbits around a planet under its
is zero. gravitational attraction. Moon is a natural
- Direction of the object in the orbit is the satellite of the earth and the earth is a natural
same as the direction of rotation of the earth satellite of the sun. The condition for
orbit about its axis. establishment of artificial satellites is that the
Satellites of this type are used to relay television centre of orbit of satellite must coincide with
signals and telephone messages from one point centre of earth or the satellite must move around
on the earth surface to another. the great circle of the Earth.
HOW COMMUNICATION IS DONE Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity
USING A SATELLITE required to put the satellite into its orbit around
the earth.

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 Orbital velocity when the satellite revolves

to the surface of the planet i.e. h = 0;

√ √

PERIOD OF A SATELLITE:
It is the time taken by a satellite to go once
around the earth.

Consider a satellite of mass, m which just circles

the earth of mass, M close to its surface in an √
orbit. If r is the radius of the earth, h the height
As
of the satellite above the earth and R the radius
of orbit of the satellite then, for revolution of √
satellite around the earth, the gravitational pull
provides the required centripetal force. Since then;

( )
√

√ OR
Consider a satellite of mass, m moving in a
As and ; circular orbit of radius, h above the earth‟s

√ surface.
Attractive force = centripetal force;
Note:
 Orbital velocity is independent of the mass
of the orbiting body and is always along the But
tangent of the orbit i.e. satellites of different
masses have same orbital velocity, if they
are in the same orbit.
 Orbital velocity depends on the mass of the √

central body and radius of the orbit.

But and also
 For a given planet, the greater the radius of
orbit the lesser will be the orbital velocity of ( )
√
the satellite.
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Example: (c) What will be the additional distance of

1. Find the period of revolution of a satellite the satellite if it was to appear
moving in a circular orbit round the earth at stationary?
a height of above the earth‟s Solution:
surface.
Solution:

.
Centripetal force, …… (i)
(a)
Attractive force, …… (ii)

Equating (i) and (ii) gives; √

But √
[( ) ]

(b) Time required is period.

√
but
But

( )
√ [( ) ( )]

[( ) ( )]
√
(c) From Kepler‟s third law;

2. An artificial satellite move round the earth ………….. (i)

in a circular orbit in the plane of the equator
at a height 30,000km above the earth‟s
surface.
(a) Calculate its speed. ( ) …………. (ii)
(b) What is the time between successive If the satellite is stationary, then the at
appearances over a point on the equator? geostationary,
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( ) ( ) ………… (i)
( ) ………….. (iii)
……….. (ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i) gives;
Equating (i) and (ii) gives;
( )
( )

;
But

3. A communication satellite orbits the earth in

synchronous orbit. Calculate the height of (b) Potential Energy:
the communication satellite above the Consider a satellite of mass, m moving around
earth‟s surface. the earth of mass, M and is being brought from
Solution: infinity into the region of earth‟s gravitational
force.
From Newton‟s law of gravitation;

but Total work done;

∫ ∫
√ but hours for

synchronous orbits. [ ] ∫
( )
√
∫

But [ ]

[ ]

ENERGY OF A SATELLITE: since

(a) Kinetic energy:
But Work done = Potential energy.
Consider a satellite of mass, m moving in an
orbit of radius, R around the earth of mass, M at
a constant speed, v. (c) Mechanical energy:
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increase of the speed, the satellite becomes

hotter and it may burnout.
Qn. Explain why any opposition to the forward
motion of a satellite may cause it to burn.
A graph of K.E with variation of distance
Note:
(i) Mechanical energy and kinetic energy only from centre of the earth:

differ by the sign therefore their magnitude

is the same.
(ii) If the radius of the orbit of the satellite
decreases, the gravitational potential energy
of the satellite becomes more negative
implying that it has decreased. A graph of P.E with variation of distance
 Decrease in radius however causes an from centre of the earth:
increase in the kinetic energy, resulting
in an increase in the speed of the
satellite in its new orbit.
 Decrease in orbital radius also results
into the mechanical energy becoming
more negative hence it has decreased.
EFFECT OF FRICTION ON A SATELLITE
 If a satellite is located within the earth
atmosphere as it moves in its orbit, the
atmospheric gasses offer frictional resistance Example:
to its motion. The satellite thus would be 1. A satellite of mass 100kg is in a circular

expected to do work to overcome this orbit at a height above the

resistance and as its doing so, it falls to an earth‟s surface.
orbit of lower radius. (a) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential

 The decrease in the radius causes the total energy and the mechanical energy of the
satellite in this orbit.
energy ( ) to decrease while the kinetic
(b) State what happens when the
energy of the satellite ( ) increases mechanical energy of the satellite is
resulting into an increase in the speed of the reduced.
satellite in its new orbit. Because of the Solution:

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(a) But

But

(( ) ( )) (ii)

But
( )

( ) ( )
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL:
Gravitational potential, at a point in the
gravitational field of the earth is defined as
being numerically equal to the work done in
bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.
(b) – Frictional force increases.
- Satellite falls to orbit of small radius. Thus where is the gravitational

- P.E reduces. potential at some point (Jkg-1) and W is the work

- K.E increases. done in bringing a mass, m from infinity to that
- Satellite becomes hot and may burn. point. The potential at infinity is conventionally
2. A mass satellite is launched in a taken as zero.
parking orbit about the earth. Calculate the; For a point outside the earth, assumed spherical,
(i) Height of the satellite above the earth‟s we can imagine the whole mass, M of the earth
surface. concentrated at its centre. The force of attraction
(ii) Mechanical energy of the satellite. on a unit mass outside the earth is thus ,
Solution: where is the distance from the centre.
(i) but The work done by the gravitational force in
moving a distance, towards the earth is given
√ but
by;

√
Hence the work done at a point distant a from
hours for parking orbits.
the centre is given by;

√ ∫ ……… (i)

But work done, W = potential, U

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The gravitational field strength at a point in a

gravitational field is defined as the force per unit
Note:
mass acting on a mass placed at that point.
- If the potential at infinity is taken as zero by
Thus where g = gravitational field
convention. The negative sign indicates that
strength (Nkg-1 = ms-2) and F = the force acting
the potential at infinity (zero) is higher than
on a mass, m.
the potential close to the earth.
Note:
- Generally, on the earth‟s surface, of radius
- The same symbol (g) is used for
, we therefore obtain;
gravitational field strength as for
…………. (ii)
acceleration due to gravity. This because
- The amount of work done against the
they are one and the same thing i.e. the
gravitational force of mass, m to move the
field strength at a point in a gravitational
mass a distance, to position is given
field is equal to the gravitational
by;
acceleration of any mass placed at that
( ) point.
- Gravitational field strength is a vector
- The gravitational potential energy of a body
quantity.
of mass, m at a point where the gravitational
The gravitational field of the earth:
potential is is given by .
Example:
A body of mass 15kg is moved from the earth‟s
surface to a point above the earth. if
the radius of the earth is and its
mass is , calculate the work done
in taking the body to that point. The gravitational field of the earth over a

Solution: small area:

( )

Task: The analogy between Gravity and

Electricity.

( ) VELOCITY OF ESCAPE:
This is the minimum vertical velocity with
which a body is projected from the surface of the
Gravitational field strength:

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earth so that it escapes from the earth‟s In orbit, however, the state of affairs is different.
gravitational pull. This time the acceleration of the spacecraft and
Derivation of formula: astronaut are both in magnitude, where is
Suppose a rocket of mass, m is fired from the the acceleration due to gravity outside the
earth‟s surface, Q so that it just escapes from the spacecraft at the particular height of the orbit as
gravitational influence of the earth. Then; in figure (ii). If is the reaction of the surface
of the spacecraft in contact with the astronaut,
then for circular motion;
.
Thus . Consequently, the astronaut
becomes „weightless‟; he experiences no
√ = velocity of escape.
reaction at the floor when he walks about. E.g.
But At the earth‟s surface we feel the reaction at the
ground and are thus conscious of our weight.
√
Inside a lift which is falling fast, the reaction at
WEIGHTLESSNESS:
our feet diminishes. If the lift falls freely, the
acceleration of objects inside is the same as that
outside and hence the reaction on them is zero.
This produces the sensation of „weightlessness‟.
In orbit, as in figure (ii) objects inside a
spacecraft are also in free fall because they have
the same acceleration, as the spacecraft.
When a rocket is fired to launch a spacecraft and Consequently the sensation of weightlessness is
astronaut into orbit round the earth, the initial experienced.
acceleration must be very high owing to the Definition:
large initial thrust required. This acceleration, a Weightlessness is a condition experienced by the
is of the order of 15g where g is the gravitational body while in free fall, in which the effect of
acceleration at the earth‟s surface. Suppose R is gravity is cancelled by the inertial force resulting
the reaction of the couch to the astronaut is from the orbital flight.
initially strapped as in figure (i). then, from OR refers to the state where an object or person
, , where m is is in free fall and experiences no apparent
the mass of the astronaut. Thus . This gravitational force, resulting in a sensation of
force is 16 times the weight of the astronaut and floating due to the absence of weight.
thus initially he experiences a large force.
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