Animal

- Animals are multicellular heterotrophs without cell walls. Animals move more rapidly and in more
complex ways than other organisms. In most, ingestion of food is followed by digestion in an
internal cavity.
General Features of Animals
- Multicellular Heterotrophs- Animals are made of many cells and cannot make their own food.
They need to eat other living things for energy.
- Diverse in Forms- Animals come in many shapes and sizes. They can be tiny insects or huge
whales, and their bodies are very different.
- No cell walls- Unlike plants and fungi, animals don’t have hard walls around their cells. Their cells
are flexible, which helps them move and change shape.
- Reproduction- Animals usually reproduce by having babies. This can happen in different ways, like
laying eggs or giving birth to live young.
- Active Movement- Animals can move on their own. They have muscles and other parts that help
them move to find food, escape danger, or mate.
- Embryonic Development- is the process where a baby animal grows and changes from a single cell
into a complete organism. It starts after the egg is fertilized or when the baby begins to form inside
the mother.
Animal characterization based on body symmetry
1. Bilateral Symmetry- The body can be divided into two equal halves along one line (like cutting a
person down the middle. Example: Humans, dogs,
and butterflies
2. Radial Symmetry- The body is arranged around a
central point, like a wheel. Animals like starfish and
jellyfish have this type of symmetry.
3. Spherical symmetry means an animal’s body is
shaped like a ball, and it looks the same from every
direction. Any cut through the center will divide it
into two matching halves.
4. Asymmetry- The body has no symmetry or equal halves. For example, sponges have no regular
shape.
Anatomical Terminology
- Anatomical terminology is the special language used to describe the parts of the body and their
positions. It helps scientists and doctors talk clearly about
where things are in the body. Here are some simple
examples:
o Anterior or Ventral Side (front): The front side of the
body (like your chest or face).
o Posterior or Dorsal Side (back): The backside of the
body (like your back or buttocks).
o Superior (above): Something closer to the top of the
body (like the head is superior to the chest).
o Inferior (below): Something closer to the bottom of
the body (like the feet are inferior to the knees).
o Medial (middle): Closer to the center of the body (like the nose is medial to the eyes).
o Lateral (side): Farther from the center of the body (like the arms are lateral to the chest).
 o Proximal (closer): Closer to where a limb attaches to the body (like the shoulder is proximal to
the hand).
o Distal (farther): Farther from where a limb attaches to the body (like the fingers are distal to the
elbow).
Body Planes
1. Frontal Plane (Coronal Plane): This plane divides the body
into front (anterior) and back (posterior) parts.
2. Sagittal Plane: This plane divides the body into left and right
parts. If the division is exactly in the middle, creating equal left
and right halves, it's called the midsagittal plane. If it’s off-
center, it’s called the parasagittal plane.
3. Transverse Plane (Horizontal Plane): This plane divides the
body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) parts. For
example, it’s like cutting across the body at the waist to separate
the upper and lower halves.
-
Animal Characterization based on features of Embryological Development
1. Based on Germ Layers
- Diploblastic: Animals that develop two layers of cells during embryonic development:
o Ectoderm (outer layer)
o Endoderm (inner layer)
Examples: Jellyfish, corals.
- Triploblastic: Animals that develop three layers of cells:
o Ectoderm
o Mesoderm (middle layer)
o Endoderm
Examples: Humans, dogs, fish.

2. Based on Early Embryo Development

 Protostomes ("first mouth"):
o The mouth forms first during development, then
anus.
o Examples: Insects, worms, snails.
 Deuterostomes ("second mouth"):
o The anus forms first, and the mouth forms later.
o Examples: Humans, starfish.

3. Based on Body Cavity (Coelom)

- Acoelomate: Animals without a body cavity (space between layers). Example: Flatworms.
- Pseudocoelomate: Animals with a false or incomplete body cavity. Example: Roundworms.
- Coelomate: Animals with a true body cavity surrounded by mesoderm. Example: Humans,
earthworms.
 Vertebrates and Invertebrates
1. Animals can be divided into two groups based on whether they have a backbone:
Vertebrates
- These are animals that have a backbone or spinal column.
- They also have an internal skeleton (bones).
o Examples: Humans, dogs, birds, fish, and snakes.
2. Invertebrates
- These are animals that do not have a backbone.
- Most invertebrates have a soft body, and some have a hard outer covering (like a shell).
o Examples: Insects, jellyfish, worms, and octopuses.
A complete gut design and segmentation
- A complete gut is when an animal has a digestive system with two openings: a mouth for food to
enter and an anus for waste to exit. Food moves in one direction through the body, allowing for better
digestion and absorption.
Examples: Humans, fish, earthworms.
- Segmentation means the body is divided into repeating sections or segments. These segments can
help with movement, flexibility, and the organization of internal organs.
- Examples: Humans have segmented parts, like the spine (vertebrae).
Cellular Components: Tissue
1. Epithelial Tissue- Covers and protects the body’s surface, lines
organs, and forms glands. Example: Skin, the lining of the
stomach.
Function: Protection, absorption, secretion.
3 types of epitheliums
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium- The cells are cube-shaped, like tiny boxes. Only one layer of cells.
Function: Helps with secretion (releasing substances like hormones) and absorption (taking in
substances like nutrients). Found in kidney tubules and glands.
 Simple Columnar Epithelium- The cells are tall and column-shaped, like rectangles standing up.
Only one layer of cells. Found in the stomach lining and intestines.
Function: Helps with absorption (like nutrients from food) and secretion (like mucus).
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium- The top layer of cells is
flat (squamous), but there are many layers stacked on top
of each other. Multiple layers, making it thicker. Found in
the skin, mouth, and esophagus.
 Function: Protects against wear and tear and prevents
damage to underlying tissues.

2. Connective Tissue- Supports, connects, and holds different parts of the body together. Example:
Bones, blood, fat.
Function: Provides structure, transports nutrients, stores energy.
Types of Connective Tissue
Loose tissue: Holds
things together
(areolar, adipose).
Dense tissue: Strong
connections (tendons,
ligaments).
Cartilage: Flexible
support (nose, joints).
Bone: Hard support (skeleton).
Blood and lymph: Transport and defense.

3. Muscle Tissue- Helps the body move by contracting and relaxing. It responds to stimuli from motor
neurons or hormones.
Types of Muscle Tissue
- Skeletal Muscle Tissue- Attached to bones and helps with
movement. You can control it (voluntary).
Example: Muscles in your arms and legs.
- Smooth Muscle-Found in the walls of organs like the stomach,
intestines, and blood vessels. Works automatically (involuntary).
Example: Helps move food through the digestive system.
 Cardiac Muscle- Found only in the heart. Pumps blood by
contracting. Works automatically (involuntary).

4. Nervous Tissue: Sends messages between the brain and the rest of
the body, allowing for communication and control.
2 basic cell types of Nervous tissue
- Neurons- These are the main cells that carry messages (signals)
in the form of electrical impulses. They help the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves communicate with the rest of the body.
 Neuroglia (Glial Cells)- These are helper cells that support,
protect, and nourish the neurons. They do not carry signals but
make sure neurons work properly.
 Features used to clarify
animals

Animals are classified based on certain features that help group them: A possible phylogeny of the
major groups of the kingdom Animalia.
1. Does the animal have bones? (Vertebrates or Invertebrates)
2. Is the body symmetrical (same on both sides)?
3. Does the embryo form two layers (diploblastic) or three layers (triploblastic)?
4. Does it have a body cavity? (Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate, Coelomate)
5. Does it have an incomplete gut (one opening) or a complete gut (two openings: mouth and anus)?
6. Is the body divided into repeating segments (metamerism)?
7. Is it a protostome (mouth forms first) or a deuterostome (anus forms first)?
8. Does it reproduce sexually, asexually, or both?

Chordates have an internal flexible rod. The deuterostomes coelomates whose nearest relations in the
animal kingdom are the echinoderms. The characterized by a notochord, jointed appendages, and
segmentation.
Nonvertebrate chordates are animals that belong to the group Chordata but do not have a backbone.
They have the basic features of chordates, like a notochord (a flexible rod for support), but they lack a true
spine. There are two main groups:
1. Urochordates (Tunicates)- These animals live in water and are often
called sea squirts. In their larval stage, they have a notochord, nerve
cord, and tail, but they lose these features as they grow. Example:
Tunicates.
2. Cephalochordates (Lancelets)- These are small, fish-like animals
that live in the sand in shallow water. They keep their notochord and
nerve cord throughout their life. Unlike vertebrates, they have no bones
or brain, but they show the basic structure of a chordate. Example:
Lancelets (like Amphioxus).

Characteristics of Vertebrates
1. The vertebral column, also known as the spine, backbone, or spinal column, is the central axis of
the skeleton that runs from the base of the skull to the tailbone.
2. Head. In all vertebrates but the earliest fishes, there is a distinct and well-differentiated head, with a
skull and brain. For this reason, the vertebrates are sometimes called the craniate chordates (Greek
kranion, “skull”)

Vertebrates differ from other chordates in other important respects:

1. Neural crest- Vertebrates have special cells called the neural crest during development. These cells
help form important parts of the body like the skull, nerves, and some parts of the face.
2. Internal organs- Vertebrates have well-developed internal organs, such as a heart, lungs, kidneys,
and liver. These organs are more complex and efficient compared to other chordates, helping
vertebrates survive in many environments.

Vertebrates’ family tree

- Fish → Amphibians → Reptiles → Birds → Mammals
This order shows how vertebrates evolved from water-dwelling fish to land-dwelling and more
advanced animals like mammals.
 Major orders of Mammals
1. Carnivor
a- meat-
eating
mammals.
2. Primates-
known for
having
large
brains
3. Rodentia-
sharp,

continuously growing teeth. (rabbit).

4. Chiroptera- mammals that can fly. (like bats)
5. Cetacea- mammals that live in water. (whales)
6. Artiodactyla- Even-toed hoofed mammals.
7. Perissodactyla- Odd-toed hoofed mammals.
 Key Mammalian Characteristics
1. Hair- All mammals have hair or fur at some point in their life, even if it's only in the early stages. Hair
helps keep mammals warm, provides protection, and sometimes helps with sensory functions (like
whiskers in cats).
2. Mammary Glands- Female mammals have mammary glands that produce milk to feed their young.
This is an important feature that helps mammal babies grow and survive after birth.
Internal organs of toad and its function
1. Heart
 Function: Pumps blood throughout the
body, carrying oxygen and nutrients to the
organs.
2. Lungs
 Function: Help the toad breathe by
exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide
with the air.
3. Liver
 Function: Produces bile (a fluid that
helps digest fat) and removes toxins from
the blood.
4. Stomach
 Function: Breaks down food into smaller
pieces for digestion.
5. Small Intestine
 Function: Absorbs nutrients from
digested food.
6. Large Intestine
 Function: Absorbs water and forms solid
waste.
7. Kidneys
 Function: Remove waste from the blood
and produce urine.

Internal Organs of earthworm and its function

1. Mouth- takes in soil containing food.

2. Pharynx- pushes food from the mouth into the esophagus.
3. Esophagus- Moves food from the pharynx to the crop.
4. Crop- stores food temporarily
5. Gizzard- grind the food into smaller pieces.
6. Intestines- digest food and absorb nutrients.
7. Anus- expels undigested waste from the body.
8. Seminal Vesicles- They store and help mature the
sperm produced by the earthworm. These sperm are
later used during reproduction when the earthworm
exchanges them with another earthworm.