Centre for School of Distance Education

Bharati Vidyapeeth
101 : FUNDAMENTALS OF

(Deemed to be University), Pune, India

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BCA

Writers Team

Author Unit No.

Dr. H. M. Padalikar 1 to 6

REVIEW
COURSE SUBJECT FACULTY

BCA Fundamentals of Dr. Ajit More

Information Technology
 CONTENTS
Unit Contents Page No.

Introduction to Computer
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of computer
1.3 Basics of Computer
1.4 Characteristics of Computer
1.5 Evolution of Computer
1 11-25
1.6 Block Diagram of Computer:
1.7 Generations of Computer
1.8 Classification of Computers:
1.9 Applications of Computer
1.10 Capabilities and limitations of computer:
Questions

Computer Arithmetic
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Binary Number
2.3 Binary Arithmetic:
2.4 Number System:
2 2.5 Converting from one number system to another 26-51
2.6 1’s Complements and 2’s Complements:
2.7 Computer Codes
2.8 Rules and laws of Boolean algebra,
2.9 Basic Gates
Questions

Input – Output Devices

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Input Units
3 3.3 Vision Input System 52-67
3.4 Output Unit
3.5 Sound cards
Questions

Storage Fundamentals
4.1 Introduction:
4.2 Computer Storage
4 4.3 Secondary Memory 68-78
4.4 Primary Vs. Secondary Storage
4.5 Data storage & retrieval methods.
Questions
Unit Contents Page No.

Software
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Software and its needs
5 5.3 Types of software 79-98
5.4 Programming Languages
5.5 Algorithms and Flowchart
Questions

Data Communication
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Communication Process
6.3 Data Transmission speed
6.4 Types of Data Transmission
6.5 Types of Serial Transmission
6.6 Data Transmission Medias
6 99-129
6.7 Types of Network
6.8 TYPES OF NETWORKS
6.9 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
6.10 Computer Protocols, Concepts relating to networking:
6.11 Internet
6.12 Business Data Processing
Questions
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 1. Introduction to Computer

NOTES

Learning Objectives
This chapter describes the basics of computer and its characteristics. The
main objective of this chapter is to make you understand
• what is computer and what characteristics of computer
• What is number system and what are binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal number systems.
• Binary arithmetic
• Boolean algebra

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A machine that takes input data and processes it to produce the output is
called a computer. This is the oldest view of computer, whereas, todays computer,
called as smart device, can do a lot other than producing output. It can help you
in managing your schedule and make you alert accordingly to predict the weather
information. In every aspect, our day to day life is covered by a computer. If you
look at your day to day activities, then computer is ready to help you. To weak
up, we are using alarm of a mobile. If you go for a walk, it can measure how
much you burn your calories and what is your blood sugar and heart bits.
Artificial intelligence is an area where a computer is competing human being
and getting smarter every day. Off course, human natural brain is there in making
artificially strong computer. This chapter introduces you the basics of computer.

1.2 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER

“A machine that takes the input and process the data and produces the result
for solving our problem can be called as computer.”
Computer can be defined as “An electronic machine that takes data in a
particular format as input and performs some computations on it and produces
the output in required format is called as computer”.
“An electronic device that performs operations on data involved calculations
and produces the result. Operations based on instructions provided by a software Introduction to
Computer 11
 Fundamentals of or hardware program or by a user”. This machine is designed to execute
Information Technology applications and provides a variety of solutions by combining integrated
hardware and software components
NOTES According to Oxford dictionary a computer is defined as “An electronic
device for storing and processing data, typically in binary form, according to
instructions given to it in a variable program.”

1.3 BASICS OF COMPUTER

Computer system takes the input data by using input devices such as
keyboard, mouse etc. and process the data by using central processing unit called
as CPU. The output is send to output device like printer or display unit etc. before
and after processing the data, it uses the internal or external memory for storing
it input data and output. For processing computer requires some instructions or
set of instructions called as program is also stored in memory. As per these
instructions or program, it creates output.
These, devices used for input, processing, storing and output are called as
components of computer which are shown in figure 1.0.

Figure 1.0 Basic Diagram of Computer

The above diagram shows the devices connected to each other called as
computer. This system is called a stored-program computer. The important
feature of this computer that is very flexible in taking input through input device
and from storage and performs the output and it can store it in memory.

Introduction to
12 Computer
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
NOTES
Characteristics of a Computer: computer can be compared with a human
being to understand its characteristics. The computer performs the operations
that human being performs like listening, answering and commutating etc.
computer accepts the input is similar to listening, once the input is correct it can
process the data and gives the result similar to answering etc. the main difference
between computer and human being is that human being is having natural
intelligence and computer is having artificial intelligence. But computer can
perform the operation very fast and accurately. Thus, the characteristics of a
computer are as follows.
1. Speed
Computer can perform any operation very quickly and fast. Computer
requires only few microseconds to perform a operation where a human
being may takes hours to complete a task. The speed of a computer is
determined in terms of microseconds (i.e.10-6 of a second) or
nanoseconds (i.e. 10-9 of a second). Thus, we can imagine how fast a
computer can perform a task.

2. Accuracy
Computer can produce the result very accurately. The degree of
accuracy of a computer is very high and each and every calculation is
performed with the same accuracy. This accuracy is also measured on
the basis of design of a computer. If the input data is wrong then result
or output may be wrong. This wrong output is only because of wrong
input and not because of computer. Computer always gives accurate
result.

3. Diligence
Even if human being is having natural intelligence, he can become
tired of doing similar work after few hours but this is not the case with
computer. A computer is free from tiredness, fatigue and lack of
concentration. Computer can work together for hours without fail and
errors. Even if there are thousands and millions of operations to be
performed, it can perform every calculation with the same accuracy
and speed. This is one of the reasons that computers are being used
for tedious and complicated tasks.

4. Versatility
Computer can perform various types of operations simultaneously and
parallel. One user can input the data at the same time other user may Introduction to
Computer 13
 Fundamentals of be taking printout of sales report, whereas third user may be making a
Information Technology online payment.

5. Memory
NOTES
These characteristics can also be known as power of remembering.
Computer can store any amount of data or information. Once the data
is stored into the computer’s memory it can be retrieved any time as
you want and this data can be stored for a long time. This memory is
of two types. One is primary memory which is having limited size and
is used for bringing data for immediate calculation. Other type of
memory is called as secondary memory where we can store any
amount of data on disks etc.

6. No Intelligent quotient
Computer is a machine which cannot do anything on its own. It
requires instructions to be given by the user and then it will execute
these instructions. Once the instructions are given, it can execute these
instructions without any error. As it has no Intelligence, it cannot take
decision on its own.

7. No Feeling
Computer is not having any emotions, knowledge or feeling like
human beings. But computer cannot be tired like human being; it can
work with any complaint as it has no feeling.

1.5 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

In the early days our ancestor used fingers to count but it was very limited.
When the counting requires beyond 10, they used sticks or some symbols to count
further, thus our decimal number system came into existence. First man made
mechanical computer was made before 2300 BC called as Abacus. This Abacus
as shown figure 1.1 was the first mechanical computer used for counting.

Figure 1.1 Abacus instrument

Introduction to
14 Computer
 Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented a machine in 1642 called Fundamentals of
as Pascaline machine shown in figure 1.2 that could do addition and subtraction. Information Technology
Pascal’s machine consisted of a series of gears with 10 teeth each, representing
the numbers 0 to 9. As each gear made one turn it would trip the next gear up to NOTES
make 1/10 of a revolution. This principle remained the foundation of all
mechanical adding machines for centuries after his death. The Pascal
programming language was named in his honor.

Figure 1.2 Pascaline machine

In 1673, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented differential and integral
calculus known as Step Reckoner. It is shown in figure 1.3. It could add and
subtract, like Pascal’s machine, but it could also multiply and divide. It did this
by repeated additions or subtractions, the way mechanical adding machines of
the mid to late 20th century did. Leibniz also invented something essential to
modern computers — binary arithmetic.

Figure 1.3 Leibniz Step Reckoner

Charles Babbage is known as the Father of the modern computer. He first
designed the Automatic Difference Engine shown in figure 1.4. It was designed
to help in the construction of mathematical tables for navigation. Thus these
scientists made our life easy by contributing their machines to use for smart
counting. This evolution of computers can be noted as generations of computer.

Figure 1.4 Charles Babbage’s Automatic Difference Engine Introduction to

Computer 15
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
1.6 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER
NOTES
Computer is an electronic device that accepts the data as input and produces
meaningful information as an output. Data can be of any type means numeric,
alphanumeric or alphabetic. It can be a roll number, name, class, date of join,
fess paid, etc. of all the students.
Computer is a machine that accepts the data as an input and then process
the input data and produces the output. Before it produces the output the data is
required to be stored in memory. These activities of inputting, storing, processing
and outputting are called as functions of a computer. To carry out these functions,
we require a component for each function. So computer can be looked as an
assembly of different components that solves the problem of a user. This problem
can be solved in terms of a program or set of instructions.
When a program is stored in a computer’s memory, instructions are fetched
by CPU and execution of these instructions takes place one by one. Once the
execution is over, the output is send to output device.
Computer can be defined as a device that consists of input devices, output
devices, memory unit, control unit and arithmetic and logical unit. These three
units memory unit, control unit and arithmetic and logical unit are combines into
a single unit which is called as central processing unit (CPU). The block diagram
of a computer can be represented in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Block diagram of a computer/simple model of a computer

Introduction to
16 Computer
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
1.7 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
NOTES
The inventions of computer started from 16th century and present computer
is very surprisingly used in all aspects of our life due to fast development in
hardware and software technology. The hardware components used to make
computer was noted by generations of computer. Today there are two types of
generations known as hardware and software generations. Let us see first
hardware generations.
• First Generations computers (1945 - 1955)
Vacuum tubes very used to make computers in this period. Vacuum
tubes devices were only the advanced devices available in those days
which were used to make computers.
CPU and memory components of a computer are made up huge
number of vacuum tubes. These tubes were getting very hot and used
to produce huge amount of heat during its operation. Frequent
maintenance was also required to keep the computer operational and
this task was very expensive. This generation computers were not
affordable to all but only few big organizations.
These computers were used on batch processing method. Punched
cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape were used as Input & Output devices.
The languages used for this generation were assembly and machine
language.
Some of the machines developed in this period were
ENIAC - Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator
EDSAC – Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer
IBM 701

• Second Generations computers (1955 - 1965)

In the mid of 1950 a new device was invented called Transistor. These
transistors were smaller than vacuum tubes and also they are faster in
operation. Filament used in vacuum tubes were not used in transistor
therefore, these devices requires no heating. This transistor cost less
as compare to vacuum tubes. Thus size and cost got reduced.
Magnetic ferrite core memories were used as main memory which is
a random-access nonvolatile memory. Magnetic tapes and magnetic
disks were used as secondary memory. Hardware for floating point Introduction to
arithmetic operations was developed. Computer 17
 Fundamentals of High level languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL etc. were used –
Information Technology Compilers were developed to translate the high-level program into
corresponding assembly language program which was then translated
NOTES into machine language.
Separate input-output processors were developed that could operate
in parallel with CPU. Punched cards continued during this period also.
These computers were increasingly used in business, industry and
commercial organizations for preparation of payroll, inventory control,
marketing, production planning, research, scientific & engineering
analysis and design etc.
Following manufacturers had taken a lead in making computers of this
generation IBM 7030, Digital Data Corporation’s PDP 1/5/8
Honeywell 400

• Third Generations computers (1965 - 1975)

New hardware component called Integrated Circuits (ICs) were
introduced around 1964. Many transistors can be incorporated on a
single chip. The required transistors, registers and capacitors can be
built on a single silicon chip. Because of this single chip size of a
computer is reduced and cost of a computer was also reduced. So
computers of this type were small in size, low cost, having large
memory and high processing speed.
Due to development of ICs Small Scale Integration and Medium Scale
Integration technology were implemented in CPU, I/O processors etc.
these computers were smaller in size and better in performance.
In the beginning magnetic core memories were used. Later they were
replaced by semiconductor memories (RAM & ROM).
Microprogramming, parallel processing (pipelining, multiprocessor
system etc.), multiprogramming, multi-user system (time shared
system) etc. were introduced.
Operating system software were introduced (efficient sharing of a
computer system by several user programs). Cache and virtual
memories were introduced (Cache memory makes the main memory
appear faster than it really is. Virtual memory makes it appear larger)
High level languages were standardized by ANSI eg. ANSI
FORTRAN, ANSI COBOL etc. Database management, multi-user
application, online systems like closed loop process control, airline
reservation, interactive query systems, automatic industrial control etc.
emerged during this period.
System 360 Mainframe from IBM, PDP-8 Mini Computer from Digital
Introduction to Equipment Corporation was leading computers of this era.
18 Computer
• Fourth Generations computers (1975 - 1990) Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits were developed and about
5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits
developed on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers NOTES
of fourth generation. This generation computers were more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal
computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed
Operating System were used. All the Higher level languages like C
and C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.
Microprocessors were introduced as CPU– Complete processors and
large section of main memory could be implemented in a single chip.
CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed.
Semiconductor memory chips were used as the main memory.
Secondary memory was composed of hard disks – Floppy disks &
magnetic tapes were used for backup memory
LAN and WANS were developed (where desktop work stations
interconnected). C language and Unix OS, Graphical User Interface
were introduced in this generation.
Intel’s 8088,80286,80386,80486 .., Motorola’s 68000, 68030, 68040,
Apple II, CRAY I/2/X/MP etc. were developed during this period.

• Fifth Generations computers (1990 – Till date)

In this generation, VLSI technology had converted into ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration) technology. The productions of
microprocessor chips were having ten million electronic components.
This generation was based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means
and method of making computers think like human beings. All the
Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this
generation. Superscalar processors, Vector processors, SIMD
processors, 32 bit micro controllers and embedded processors, Digital
Signal Processors (DSP) etc. have been developed.
Memory chips up to 1 GB, hard disk drives up to 180 GB and optical
disks up to 27 GB were available. Object oriented language like JAVA
suitable for internet programming has been developed. Portable note
book computers introduced. Storage technology advanced – large main
memory and disk storage available
During this period World Wide Web and other existing applications
like e-mail, e Commerce, Virtual libraries/Classrooms, multimedia Introduction to
Computer 19
 Fundamentals of applications etc.) were introduced. New operating systems like
Information Technology Windows 95/98/XP/.., LINUX, etc. Were introduced. Plug and play
technology of hardware component replacement were introduced in
NOTES this era.
IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs-Pentium 1/2/3/4/Dual core/Quad core.
SUN work stations, Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM SP/2 etc. were
some of popular computers of this generations.

1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified in four ways

1.8.1 Mainframe Computers
1.8.2 Minicomputers
1.8.3 Microcomputers
1.8.4 Supercomputers

1.8.1. Mainframe Computers

This type of computers is very expensive and capacity of memory,
processing power, of this type of machines are very high. These computers as
shown in figure 1.7 can perform many tasks at a time and speed of the CPU is
very high. Many terminals are connected to this mainframe computer and are
located in different locations but these terminals are connected to mainframe
computer. Big organizations normally use this type of computer.

Figure 1.7: Mainframe Computer

1.8.2. Minicomputers
Minicomputers’ are smaller in size as compare to mainframe computers.
Introduction to The price of minicomputers is very less than mainframe. This type of computers
20 Computer
shown in figure 1.8 can also store huge amount of information and high speed Fundamentals of
processors but less amount of processing speed and storage as compare to Information Technology
mainframe computers. Small scale and medium scale industries use these type
of computers. NOTES

Figure 1.8 Minicomputers

1.8.3. Microcomputers
This type of microcomputers is very popular amongst the people around
the globe. This type of computers are having limited amount of processing speed
and storage as compare to mainframe and minicomputers. This type of computers
is used in small business, for personal use. These computers are very affordable;
therefore, today’s market is captured by microcomputers. Desktop and laptops
are two famous models of this type are shown in figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 Microcomputers

1.8.4 Super computers

Super computers are very fastest and made for special purpose. These
computers are very expensive and require specialized applications that require
immense amount of mathematical calculations. This type of computers are use
in whether forecasting, ordinations like Indian Space Research Organization use
supercomputers. Many research organizations like nuclear energy research
organization also use supercomputers. Super computer are shown in figure 1.10.

Introduction to
Computer 21
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 1.10 Super computer

1.9 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER

In today’s world computer is very popular world amongst people

irrespective of literate or illiterate people because everybody is using computer
directly indirectly. In every field today. Computer and its application is being
used. In the field of education, social, research, music, pharmacy, chemistry,
entertainment, artificial intelligence, we are enjoying the use of computers.

1. Applications of computer in Education

Computers are playing very important role in education. Educating the
student and train them how to use it is the first application. Then
getting knowledge by making use of computer will be another
application. Education is the source of information that can reach to
every field and it gives idea of how to use computer in the respective
field. In education field, computers can be used for training;
programming, software development, analysis of performance of a
student, online lectures, on-line examination etc. are some of the
examples of computer applications used in education sector.

2. Applications of computer in Business

All the business activities are handled by making use computer. Sales,
purchase, accounting, inventory management, human welfare, research
etc. are the main functions of business are handled by the computer.
in every department computer are working without any error and
generating accurate report and keeping records as a database which
can be used at any time.

Introduction to
22 Computer
3. Applications of computer in Marketing Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Due to advancement in technology digital marketing has become a
buss word today. A company can reach to the people on the web
showing their product and feature to attract them. Experts and NOTES
professionals in the field of marketing use ICT to plan, manage and
monitor campaigns. By analyzing and manipulating data on
computers, they can increase the precision of marketing campaigns,
personalize customer and prospect communications, and improve
customer relationship management. Marketing people are using
computer technology to launch their product on the web and target the
people at the same time they can use the data for market research to
make a decision policy about their product, quality, price and
comparative analysis of their product.

4. Applications of computer in Healthcare

Computers are being used to keep the records of patients and help
Doctors in diagnosing the patients. Also health management system
software’s used by administration people of the hospital for managing
the hospital requirement like billing, different machine procurement,
waste management, patient billing etc. Thus computer technology is
extensively used in the health care by doctors and hospitals to serve
patients in a better way.

5. Applications of computer in Engineering

Computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing
(CAM) are two important areas where computers are being used.
Computerized numerical controlled machines are used for
manufacturing product. Once the product is set and tested then any
number of products can be produced with any defect. So these
machines are used in mass production. Products can be designed by
using computers which requires very tedious way by human
interventions. Now days engineering activities can be carried out by
making use of computers with smoothly and without error. Car
companies today are using robots to manufacture car. Many
engineering companies are fully automated that requires only raw
material as input and finished product.

6. Applications of computer in Government

Many government use computers along with software to reach to the
people for getting information. Adhar card generation is one of the
important projects taken by government of India to gibe unique
identity to each citizen of India. Likewise many departments are using
computers and software to launch their schemes for poor people.
Introduction to
Computer 23
 Fundamentals of 7. Applications of computer in Banking
Information Technology
By making using of internet technology, it is very helpful to the bank
customer to access the banking services without going physically to
NOTES the bank. So the productivity of bank has increased tremendously
regarding services given to the customer.
8. Digital payment or electronic transfer of money called as web bases
banking is easily used by a customer. ATM machines or internet
banking is a solution offered by the bank to the customer.

9. Applications of computer in Communication

Due to internet, it is possible today to communicate anybody on this
globe within no time. Some of the popular application today likes use
of e-mail, websites, Facebook, social media, blogs, and video chat are
being used for successful and live communication. Traditional
communication methods like landline phone or postal services has
become obsolete.
10. Similarly, we can see the use computer technology is used in the areas
like. music, entertainment, military, food industry etc.

1.10 CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER

Let us see the capabilities of computer

A computer can process a data with faster rate than any machine with great
accuracy. Same amount of time is required to process the data when it is input
top it. Computer can perform the same operations or different operations with
confusion and creating errors provided the program and data input are correct.
Once the data and program is checked then it can executes it without fail and
without error. Depending on its program it can store, update, extract data and
information within no time. It won’t take any time think where the data and
information or output is kept unlike human being. Thus computer can be
• Capable of performing any given task repetitively without taking rest
• Capable of executing the task with same accuracy and speed.
• Computers can process information at extremely rapid rates.

Limitations of Computer
A computer, unlike a human being, has no brain or thinking power and intuition.
If you ask any question, a person can give answer after thinking but
computer cannot give unless and until it is instructed to do so. So computer can
Introduction to not do anything on its own.
24 Computer
 A computer, unlike a human being cannot understand the wrong statement Fundamentals of
or wrong input. Once the program is checked then it can produce out even if the Information Technology
input in wrong.
So limitations of computer can be listed as NOTES

• Cannot generate information on its own.

• Cannot correct wrong input data or instructions.
• Cannot come out with an original decision.

1.11.1 Short Answer Questions

1 What is a computer?
2 what is CPU?
3 Why computer is called as idiot box?
4 Why first generation computers are very big in size?

1.11.2 Long Answer Questions

1. What is basic model of a computer?
2. Explain characteristics of a computer.
3. Draw the block diagram of a computer and explain its components.
4. What are the generations of a computer?
5. Write down use of computers in different areas.
6. What are the capabilities and limitations of computer?

*****

Introduction to
Computer 25
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 2. Computer Arithmetic

NOTES

Objectives: after studying this topic students will understand

• Number system
• Binary, decimal, octal and hexadecimal numbers and its system
• How machine understands binary language
• Basic gates

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Idea of counting is driven by decimal numbers. Our ancestors were using

some small objects for counting where there were no numbers. An Indian scientist
Aryabhatta discovers zero and the world had got decimal number system and the
counting has revolutionary mark. The whole number system starts from zero to
infinity and the natural number starts from one to infinity. This natural numbers
are used to count the objects.
Due to electronic devices, the other number systems like binary, octal and
hexadecimal number systems are in use for computing and fetching data.
Electronic devices works on the basis of on and off modes which is considered
as binary numbers and the computer working is described by binary number
system. This chapter is explaining all these number systems and how coding is
done by using binary numbers.

2.2 BINARY NUMBER

A number is a symbol used to count any object or objects. A number is also

used to mark different objects of similar type. This marking differentiates objects
from each other. This marking finally gives idea of basic mathematical operation
like addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. Furthermore, there are
various other formulas have been framed on the basis of these basic operations.
Binary number is a number represented by either 0 or 1. Every binary
number is a combination of 0 and 1. For example 01001 is a binary number.
Computer can understand commands or instructions written in binary form. So
it is very interesting to learn the meaning of each binary number and its value.
We will study this concept in the next sections.
26 Computer Arithmetic
 If we take only single digit binary number then, we can represent only two Fundamentals of
possible values either 0 or 1. Information Technology
If we take two digit binary numbers (2 bits) then, there are four possible
values show in the table NOTES

Table 2.1 binary and decimal equivalent

If we take three digit binary number (3 bits) then, there are eight possible
values show in the table

Table 2.2 bit binary numbers and decimal equivalent

Four bit binary number represents 16 possible values

Table 2.3 bit binary numbers and decimal equivalent Computer Arithmetic 27
 Fundamentals of These numbers of bits are very important in coding the program and
Information Technology instructions. In the next section we will see how they are used.
Numbers of bits are used to form instruction given to computer for
NOTES execution. Speed of the computer depends on how many bits (binary digits) are
executed by CPU at a time. Now there are 64 bits instructions set available in
the market.
Therefore data is represented in binary form and the relation between bit
and byte can be seen as follows

Table 2.4 binary data representation

2.3 BINARY ARITHMETIC

In day to day life, we use decimal numbers for addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division. Same principles are applied to binary arithmetic. In
decimal number system the base of a number is 10, whereas, in binary numbers
the base is (two) 2. We have to consider this while doing any arithmetic operation
of binary number. This binary arithmetic is used by computer for computation
and therefore, we have to understand binary arithmetic.
2.3.1 Binary addition
Suppose we want add two decimal numbers like 43 and 65 then we do it as
follows

28 Computer Arithmetic
 In binary number addition there are four combinations of additions Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Table 2.5 binary addition

By using the above rule of addition. Let us see some examples of binary
addition.
Let us add two binary numbers 1100 and 0100 as follows.

Let us consider some other examples of binary addition

Computer Arithmetic 29
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

2.3.2 Binary Subtraction

Suppose we want subtract two decimal numbers 62 and 43

In binary number subtraction there are four combinations of subtraction

Table 2.6 binary subtraction

By using above rules of subtraction, let us see some examples of binary
subtraction.
Subtract binary number 101 from 1011

30 Computer Arithmetic
 Suppose we have subtract Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

One more example

2.3.3 Binary multiplication

Binary multiplication is similar to decimal multiplication. There are four
rules of binary multiplication

Table 2.7 binary multiplication

Let us see some examples.
First multiply two decimal numbers 43 and 65 then result will be

Computer Arithmetic 31
 Fundamentals of Similarly let us multiply two binary numbers.
Information Technology

NOTES

2.4 NUMBER SYSTEM:

Basically number system is discovered for counting of objects. The first

number system being used in decimal number system. Counting can be from zero
to infinity. This number system is very popular and common in the world. This
number system is a referred to as a basic number system for understanding.

2.4.1 Decimal Number System

The number system is defined on the basis of its base. The base is defined
by number of symbols used in it. The base of decimal number system is 10
because there are 10 symbols used in it, they are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Any digit in
this system is greater than 0 and less than 9.
The positional value in this system is unit place, the right most digits in the
number. Tenth place is second digit from right. Hundredth place is a third digit
from right. The position of each digit is expressed in terms of power of 10.
Let us represent decimal number 56879.

This number we call as fifty six thousand eight hundred seventy nine.

32 Computer Arithmetic
 Fractional part: Fraction numbers are also having weight with respect to Fundamentals of
the number system. each digit of the fraction is multiplied by its base starting Information Technology
with power -1. It can be explained in the following table
Let us represent decimal number 28.56 NOTES

Similarly other number system works with its base.

2.4.2 Binary number system

The base of this number system is 2. There are two symbols used in this
system are 0 and 1. Every digit in this system is expressed in terms of power of
2. Computer understands only on and off signal send to it. The off signal is
represented by 0 and on signal is represented by 1. Thus each and every
instruction or data send to computer is a combination of 0 and 1, computer
understands it and then produces the result according to instructions written in a
program.. Binary digit is also called as bit. So bit is either 0 or 1.
For example 11001 is a binary number and its value is

This number is actually 25 in the decimal number system. (11001)2 = (25) 10

The fraction part of binary number is converted as same shown in decimal
number system
Let us convert (101.11)2 number in decimal form as follows.

Therefore, (101.11)2 = (5.75)10 Computer Arithmetic 33

 Fundamentals of 2.4.3 Octal Number System
Information Technology
The base of octal number system is 8. There are eight symbols used in this
system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. Every digit in this system is expressed in terms of
NOTES power of 8. Every digit in octal number system is led than its base i.e. 8. For
representing an octal number we require 3 bits.
For example (237)8 is a octal number is its value is

Convert (47.26)8 in decimal form

Therefore, (47.26)8 = (88.34375)10

2.4.4 Hexadecimal Number System

The base of hexadecimal number system is 16. There are sixteen symbols
used in this system are 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. And after this hexadecimal number
used alphabetical characters as A for 10, B for 11, C for 12, D for 13, E for 14, F
for 15

Table 2.8 binary, octal and hexadecimal number representation

34 Computer Arithmetic
Identification of a number with number system. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Suppose we want to check whether 121 is a binary number then we have to
check each digit. The value of each digit must be less than its base. 121 is not a
binary number because second digit 2 is equal to its base. NOTES

Similarly identify the following numbers are from given number system or not

2.5 CONVERTING FROM ONE NUMBER SYSTEM TO

ANOTHER

2.5.1 Conversion of Binary number to Decimal Number

Suppose we have given a binary number (1101) then it can be converted
into decimal number as follows.
While converting, each digit is multiplied by power of the base from left to
right. The left most digit is multiplied by 20, next digit by 21 and so on.

Thus we can say (1101)2 = (13)10. Thirteen in decimal system.

Let us see more examples

Computer Arithmetic 35
 Fundamentals of Convert (010011)2 to decimal number.
Information Technology

NOTES

Convert (10111)2 to decimal number.

Convert (111011)2 to decimal number

2.5.2 Conversion of octal number into decimal number

Value of any octal number can be measured in terms of its value of each
digit and its weight. As the base of this system is 8, every digit is multiplied by
the power of 8 and can be converted into decimal number.
For Ex.1. 6524: we cannot call this number as usual in decimal form
because this number is in octal form. We have to convert this number in decimal
number as follows.
(6524)8 = 6 x 83 + 5 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 4 x 80
= 6 x 512 + 5 x 64 + 2 x 8 + 4 x 1
= 3072+320+16+4
= (3412)10

Ex.2. (2452)8 = 2 x 83 + 4 x 82 + 5 x 81 + 2 x 80
= 2 x 512 + 4 x 64 + 5 x 8 + 2 x 1
= 1024 + 256 + 40 +2
= (1322)10
36 Computer Arithmetic
2.5.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal number to Decimal number Fundamentals of
Information Technology
As the base of this hexadecimal number system is 16, every digit is
multiplied by the power of 16 and can be converted into decimal number.
NOTES
For Ex.1. 6524: we cannot call this number as usual in decimal form
because this number is in hexadecimal form. We have to convert this number in
decimal number as follows.
(6524)16 = 6 x 163 + 5 x 162 + 2 x 161 + 4 x 160
= 6 x 4096 + 5 x 256 + 2 x 16 +4x1
= 24576 + 1280 + 32 + 4
= (25892)10
Therefore, (6524)16 – (25892)10

Consider another example

(3B)16 = 3×161+ 11×160
= 48+11
= (59)10
Here equivalent of B is 11. Please see the basic conversion table of
hexadecimal number.
Let use consider more examples.
(E7A9)16 = 14×163+7×162+10×161+9×160 = 57344+1792+160+9
= 5930510
(0.8)16 = 0×160+8×16-1 = 0+0.5 = (0.5)10
While converting fractional number we have to multiply by the index -1, -
2, -3 and son on depending on number of digits in the fraction part.

2.5.4 Conversion of decimal to binary number

In order to convert a decimal number into binary, we have to express the
decimal integer as a sum of power of 2. The simple procedure of converting a
decimal into binary is as follows.
1. Take the decimal integer and start dividing it by 2. Write down the
remainder.
2. Continue the above procedure till the quotient becomes zero.
3. Write the remainders from latest to oldest remainders. These
combinations of remainders are converted binary number.

Computer Arithmetic 37
 Fundamentals of For Example: let us convert (25)10 into binary form. It can be done as
Information Technology follows.

NOTES

Thus, (25)10 = (11001) 2

Let us convert (43)10 into binary form. It can be done as follows

Thus, (43)10 = (101011)2

Let us convert (269)10 into binary form. It can be done as follows

Thus, (269)10 = (100001101)2

38 Computer Arithmetic
2.5.5 Conversion of octal number into binary number. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
To convert octal number to binary form, following steps are used.
1. Convert octal number into decimal number first.
2. Convert decimal number into binary number. NOTES

Let us convert (267)8 octal number into binary form.

Step 1. Convert octal number into decimal number
(267)8 = 2 x 82 + 6 x 81 + 7 x 80
= 2 x 64 + 6 x 8 + 7 x 1
= 128 + 48 + 7 = (183)10
Step 2. Now, convert decimal number resulted in step 1 to binary form.

Therefore, (267)8 = (10110111)2

Let us convert (7321)8 octal number into binary form.
Step 1. Convert octal number into decimal number
(7321)8 = 7 x 83 + 3 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 1 x 80
= 7 x 512 + 3 x 64 + 2 x 8 + 1 x 1
= 3584 + 192 + 16 + 1=(3793)10
Step 2. Now, convert decimal number resulted in step 1 to binary form.

Computer Arithmetic 39
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Therefore, (267)8 = (111011010001)2

2.5.6 Conversion of hexadecimal number into binary number

To convert hexadecimal number to binary form, following steps are used.
1. Convert hexadecimal number into decimal number first.
2. Convert decimal number into binary number.
Let us convert (3BA)16 hexadecimal number into binary form.
Step 1. Convert hexadecimal number into decimal number
(2BA)16 = 2 x 162 + B x 161 + A x 160
Value of A is 10 and B is 11
= 2 x 256 + 11 x 16 + 10 x 1
= 512+176+10 = (698)10
Step 2. Now, convert decimal number resulted in step 1 to binary form.

Therefore, (2BA)16 = (101011010)2

40 Computer Arithmetic
 Let us convert (7321)16 hexadecimal number into binary form. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Step 1. Convert hexadecimal number into decimal number
(7321)16 = 7x163 + 3x 162 + 2 x 161 + 1 x 160
NOTES
= 7 x 4096 + 3 x 256 + 2 x 16 + 1 x 1
= 28672+768+32+1= (29473)10
Step 2. Now, convert decimal number resulted in step 1 to binary form.

Therefore, (7321)16 = (111001100100001)2

2.6 1’S COMPLEMENTS AND 2’S COMPLEMENTS:

1’s Complement
1’s complement is a binary number obtained by changing binary digits 0 to
1 and 1 to 0.

For example

Computer Arithmetic 41
 Fundamentals of 2’s Complement
Information Technology
2’s complement is obtained by two steps.
Step 1. Make 1’s complement of a number.
NOTES
Step 2. Add 1 into 1’s complemented number.

For example

This 1’s complement operation is used instead of subtraction. Means

subtraction of a number from another number is obtained by making adding the
complement of the subtrahend to the minuend.
Let us see the example
When we subtract smaller number from larger number then 1’s complement
method says that remove the carry and add to the result this is called as end-
round-carry
Suppose we want to subtract 1010 from 1111 then normal subtraction is

The same subtraction can be obtained by using 1’s complement method

42 Computer Arithmetic
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

2’s complement of a binary number can be obtained by adding 1 to its 1’s

complement

For example
Direct subtraction

2’s complement method

Computer Arithmetic 43
 Fundamentals of Comparison between 1’s and 2’s complement
Information Technology

NOTES

2.7 COMPUTER CODES

Computer code is a combination of symbols called as instruction along with

data. For example a program written in c language will be written by using
structure of c language. Then correct written program is called as computer code.
One the program is written correctly then it is compiled and translated into
machine readable form and then gets executed.
Coding of a computer related program consist of a language into which the
code is written for example program written in c++ or C#. This computer code
or program written in c# or C++ is high language code and requires converting
into machine readable form i.e. in binary form. This code will be binary code.
Writing a computer code needs a language for writing a code. We must need
syntax and semantics of the language also. We must know the grammar of the
language also. Today there are plenty of user friendly languages. C. C++, C#,
Python, Java, HTML etc. are well known language available to write
computer code.

2.8 RULES AND LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra is a mathematical way of analyzing logical circuits. These

logical circuits are described by digital circuits to get the logic operations. So the
functions and theorems formed for performing a particular logic operation are
called as laws of Boolean algebra.
Boolean algebra is therefore a system of mathematics based on logic that
has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and reduce Boolean
expressions.

2.8.1 Following are rules in Boolean algebra

1. Any Boolean variable has two possible values either 0 or 1.

44 Computer Arithmetic
 2. Complement of a variable is represented by an overbar (-). Thus, Fundamentals of
complement of variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then = 1 Information Technology
and B = 1 then = 0.
3. OR operation - here + sign is not a normal addition but it is treated as NOTES
or operation.
For example, variables A, B, C etc., giving us a logical expression of
A + B = C, but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.
4. Logical AND operation is symbolically defined by dot or period. For
example, A . B is called logical and expression.

2.8.2 Boolean Laws

Total there are six Boolean laws

2.8.2.1 Commutative law

A commutative law is defined by the following expressions
(i) A. B = B . A (ii) A + B = B + A
Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does
not have any effect on the output of a logic circuit.

2.8.2.2 Associative law

Associate law states that the order in which the logic operations are
performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.
(i) (A.B).C = A.(B.C) and (ii) ( A+ B ) + C = A + ( B+ C)

2.8.2.3 Distributive law

Distributive law states the following condition.
A . (B + C ) = A . B + A .C

2.8.2.4 AND law

These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.
(i) A. 0 = 0 (ii) A.1=A (iii) A. A = A (iv) A. Ac = 1

2.8.2.5 OR law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.
(i) A+0=A (ii) A+1=1 (iii) A + A = A (iv) A + Ac = 1

2.8.2.6 INVERSION law

This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double
inversion of variable results in the original variable itself.

Computer Arithmetic 45
 Fundamentals of 2.9 Basic Gates
Information Technology
CPU unit of a computer performs the logical operations by using integrated
circuits and electronic circuits and software. These complex operations are
NOTES performed by implementation of Boolean logic gates.
A logic gate is a basic building block of a digital circuit that has two inputs
and one output. The relationship between the input and the output is based on a
certain logic. These gates are implemented using electronic switches like
transistors, But, in practice basic logic gates are built using CMOS technology,
FETS and MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET)s. Logic gates are used
in microprocessors, microcontrollers, and embedded system applications and in
electronic and electrical project circuits. The basic logic gates are categorized
into seven: AND, OR, XOR, NAND, NOR, XNOR and NOT.

Figure 2.9: basic diagram of Logic Gate

2.9.1 AND Gate

The AND get performs logical conjunction operation based on the
combinations of its inputs. The output of this gate is true only when all the inputs
are true. When one or more inputs of the AND gate’s are false, then only the
output of the AND gate is false. The symbol and truth table of an AND gate with
two inputs is shown below.

Figure 2.10: AND gate and its truth table

2.9.2 OR Gate
The OR gate performs a logical conjunction based on the combinations of
its inputs. The output of the OR gate is true only when one or more inputs are
true. If all the inputs of the gate are false, then only the output of the OR gate is
false. The symbol and truth table of an OR gate with two inputs is shown below.

Figure 2.11: AND gate and its truth table

46 Computer Arithmetic
2.9.3 NOT Gate Fundamentals of
Information Technology
The NOT gate is a digital logic gate with one input and one output that
operates an inverter operation of the input. The output of the NOT gate is the
reverse of the input. When the input of the NOT gate is true then the output will NOTES
be false and vice versa. The symbol and truth table of a NOT gate with one input
is shown below. By using this gate, we can implement NOR and NAND gates

Figure 2.12: NOT gate and its truth table

2.9.4 NAND Gate

The NAND gate performs the operation of the AND gate followed by the
operation of the NOT gate. NAND gate is designed by combining the AND and
NOT gates. If the input of the NAND gate high, then the output of the gate will
be low. The symbol and truth table of the NAND gate with two inputs is
shown below.

Figure 2.13: NAND gate and its truth table

2.9.5 NOR Gate

The NOR gate performs the operation of the OR gate followed by the NOT
gate. NOR gate is designed by combining the OR and NOT gate. When any one
of the inputs of the NOR gate is true, then the output of the NOR gate will be
false. The symbol and truth table of the NOR gate with truth table is shown below.

Figure 2.14: NOR gate and its truth table

Computer Arithmetic 47
 Fundamentals of 2.9.6 Exclusive-OR Gate
Information Technology
The Exclusive-OR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one
output. The short form of this gate is Ex-OR. It performs based on the operation
NOTES of OR gate. . If any one of the inputs of this gate is high, then the output of the
EX-OR gate will be high. The symbol and truth table of the EX-OR are
shown below.

Figure 2.15: NOR gate and its truth table

2.9.7 Exclusive-NOR Gate

The Exclusive-NOR gate is a digital logic gate with two inputs and one
output. The short form of this gate is Ex-NOR. It performs based on the operation
of NOR gate. When both the inputs of this gate are high, then the output of the
EX-NOR gate will be high. But, if any one of the inputs is high (but not both),
then the output will be low. The symbol and truth table of the EX-NOR are
shown below.

Figure 2.16: Excusive NOR gate and its truth table

2.9.8 Boolean Algebra Examples

Example No 1
Construct a Truth Table for the logical functions at points C, D and Q in the
following circuit and identify a single logic gate that can be used to replace the
whole circuit.

48 Computer Arithmetic
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 2.17: Ex OR Gate

First observations tell us that the circuit consists of a 2-input NAND gate,
a 2-input EX-OR gate and finally a 2-input EX-NOR gate at the output. As there
are only 2 inputs to the circuit labelled A and B, there can only be 4 possible
combinations of the input ( 22 ) and these are: 0-0, 0-1, 1-0 and finally 1-1.
Plotting the logical functions from each gate in tabular form will give us the
following truth table for the whole of the logic circuit below.

Table 2.18 NAND Gate Representation

From the truth table above, column C represents the output function
generated by the NAND gate, while column D represents the output function
from the Ex-OR gate. Both of these two output expressions then become the
input condition for the Ex-NOR gate at the output.
It can be seen from the truth table that an output at Q is present when any
of the two inputs A or B are at logic 1. The only truth table that satisfies this
condition is that of an OR Gate. Therefore, the whole of the above circuit can be
replaced by just one single 2-input OR Gate.

Boolean algebra Example No2

Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following system.

Figure 2.19: Problem Figure – 1

Computer Arithmetic 49
 Fundamentals of The system consists of an AND Gate, a NOR Gate and finally an OR Gate.
Information Technology The expression for the AND gate is A.B, and the expression for the NOR gate is
A+B. Both these expressions are also separate inputs to the OR gate which is
NOTES defined as A+B. Thus the final output expression is given as:

Figure 2.20: Problem Figure – 2

The output of the system is given as Q = (A.B) + (A+B), but the notation
A+B is the same as the De Morgan´s notation A.B, Then substituting A.B into
the output expression gives us a final output notation of Q = (A.B)+(A.B),
which is the Boolean notation for an Exclusive-NOR Gate as seen in the
previous section.

Table 2.21 Q = (A.B)+(A.B)

Then, the whole circuit above can be replaced by just one single Exclusive-
NOR Gate and indeed an Exclusive-NOR Gate is made up of these individual
gate functions.

2.10 QUESTIONS

2.10.1 Short Answer Questions

1. What is binary number?
2. What is the base of binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal number
systems?
3. Why computer codes are written in binary languages?
4. What is logic gates?
50 Computer Arithmetic 5. How data is measured?
2.10.2 Long answer questions? Fundamentals of
Information Technology
1. Explain each number system with its symbols and base. Also how
number is described using its base?
2. Explain how convert octal number into binary? Give example NOTES

3. What are the rules and laws of logic?

4. Explain basic gates used in Boolean logic.
5. Convert following binary numbers into decimal
a) 110011
b) 001100
c) 0101010
d) 1010101
e) 1100110011

*****

Computer Arithmetic 51
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 3 Input Output Devices

NOTES

Learning objectives
This chapter describes the various input output devices used for connecting
computer. After learning this chapter student will study
• What is input and output devices
• Role of input and output devices
• Various types of scanners, plotters, printers etc.
• Example of input and output devices

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The input and output devices are important component of a computer

system. In general, any system has three essential components to be called as a
system are 1) input 2) output and 3) processing unit. So input and output
components are required to take input from environment inside the computer and
then computer produces the result to the outside environment using output
components. These devices are also known as peripheral devices that interact
with CPU and memory unit of computer system. The input devices used for
inputting the data to the computer and getting it processed with the help of output
devices. The CPU plays intermediate role between different input and
output devices.

Role of Input and output devices in a computer system.

The basic role of input and output devices is to get the data from the outside
world and display the result. The data is input by using various different input
devices. It then passes to the processor ALU and memory unit of computer
(CPU). The processed data are to be displayed using output devices. The basic
role is to process the data using input devices and display onto the output devices
as shown figure 3.1.

Input
52 Output Devices
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure3.1 : Role of I/O devices

The basic role is shown in above figure. It gets the data from input, process
it through CPU and produce the result on output device.

3.2 INPUT UNITS

The traditional input device was keyboard for data input. As the technology
advances there are many input devices are available in the market. These devices
are plug and play just you have to connect it to the machine and have to install a
software called as driver to use it. Following are some of the examples of
input devices.

3.2.1 Keyboard
The keyboard is a device which is directly connected on to the motherboard
(system board). It allows data entry into computer system. A set of keys are
available in the form of small set of buttons. These buttons have a label indicating
the character. A typical structure is shown in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 keyboard

The keyboard is divided into following sections:
1. Typing area
2. Numeric keypad
3. Cursor and screen controls
4. Function keys

Input
Output Devices 53
 Fundamentals of The layout specifically QWERTY form. Now a day, there are different kinds
Information Technology of keyboards are available. It includes wireless, with wired, multimedia
keyboards etc. It commonly used in personal computers and workstations.
NOTES
3.2.2 Pointing Devices
A pointing device is used to point out a cursor on the screen. This device is
used to control the movement of a cursor on the screen. Following are some of
the examples of pointing devices.

3.2.2.1 Mouse
This mouse is simply an input device built to help the user to control the
movement of the cursor on the screen. The mouse pointer is as natural and
efficient way of pointing a cursor on the screen.

Figure 3.3 mouse as a pointing device

The pointer on the screen mimics the movements of your mouse. As you
move your mouse, a ball encased in the bottom of your mouse rolls on the desk
and in turn sends signals to the computer as to which direction to move the
pointer on the screen. Move the mouse side to side, or up and down, and the on-
screen pointer moves in a similar manner. Once you have the mouse positioned
to select the command or data you want to act on, you use the mouse buttons to
execute the command.
The Mouse as shown in figure 3.3 consists of different components as
follows.
• A housing that you hold in your hand and move around on your desktop.
• A roller ball that rotates as you move the mouse
• Several buttons to make selections.
• A cable for connecting mouse to the PC
• An interface connector to attach the mouse to the PC

3.2.2.2 Joystick
Joystick is commonly used for video games, flight simulators, training
simulators, and for controlling industrial robots. Joysticks device is shown in
figure 3.4 are basically sticks attached to a base unit that measures the distance
Input the stick is moved left, right, up, down, or diagonally.
54 Output Devices
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 3.4 joystick

Electronic sensors in the base unit translate those motions into motions that
are understood by the computer and software. Joysticks are almost exclusively
used with game software; they are not designed to replace a mouse.

3.2.2.3 Electronic Pen

In modern technology, a pen based pointing devices are available. Using
pen-based point user can easily interact with the system. It can be used to directly
point with it on the screen to select menu items or icons or directly draw graphics
on the screen. It can be used for writing purpose provided a writing area called
as pad. A typical pens are shown in figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Electronic pen

Some different tools are available on which electronic pen can be interacted
easily. It has a specific structure like as a pen. A button for performing clicking
operations and a point nib through which we can easily write down on a pad.

3.2.2.4 Scanners and its Types

A scanner is same as Xerox machine that allows you to capture information
like pictures and text. Scanners have become an important part of the home office
over the last few years. After capturing it convert it into a digital format that can
be edited on your computer. Following figure 3.6 represents one kind of
scanner device.

Figure 3.6 scanner Input

Output Devices 55
 Fundamentals of It acts as input device that enable direct data entry into a computer system
Information Technology from source documents. It improves data accuracy and also increase the
timeliness of the information processed while data entry.
NOTES Some data scanning devices are also capable of recognizing marks or
characters.

3.2.2.5 Image Scanner

The device that translates paper documents into an electronic format for
storage in a computer in the form of images. The Electronic format of a scanned
image is its bit map representation. The stored image can be altered or
manipulated with an image-processing software as shown in figure 3.7

3.7 Image scanner

3.2.2.6 Flatbed Scanner

This is the most popular type of scanner for home use is the flatbed, or
desktop, scanner. It makes it easy to scan papers, books and any other item that
you can flat between a glass bed (plate) and the scanner's top cover. Flatbed
scanner is shown in figure 3.8.

3.8 Flat-bed scanner

3.2.2.7 Sheet-fed scanners

It is similar to flatbed scanners except the document is moved and the scan
head is immobile. A sheet-fed scanner looks a lot like a small portable printer as
shown in figure 3.9

Input
56 Output Devices
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

3.9 sheet-fed scanner

3.2.2.8 Handheld scanners

It uses the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner. It relies on the user
to move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner typically does not
provide good image quality. It can be useful for quickly capturing text. It is
represented as figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10 handheld scanner

3.2.2.9 Optical Scanner

The Scanner equipped with character recognition software (called OCR
software) that converts the bit map images of characters to equivalent ASCII
codes. It enables a word processing of input text and also requires less storage
for storing the document as text rather than an image. OCR software is extremely
complex because it is difficult to make a computer recognize an unlimited
number of typefaces and fonts. The optical scanner is shown in figure 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Optical scanner

It uses an averaging process to determine what the shape of a character is
and match it to the correct letter or number.

Input
Output Devices 57
 Fundamentals of 3.2.2.10 OMR scanner
Information Technology
The Optical Mark Reader scanner as shown in figure 3.12 is capable of
recognizing a pre-specified type of mark by pencil or pen. It is very useful for
NOTES grading tests with objective type questions, or for any input data that is of a choice
or selection nature.

Figure 3.12 OMR scanner

The technique used for recognition of marks involves focusing a light on
the page being scanned and detecting the reflected light pattern from the marks

3.2.2.11 Bar Code Scanner

The Bar Code Scanner (shown in figure 3.13) used for reading (decoding)
bar-coded data. Bar codes represent alphanumeric data by a combination of
adjacent vertical lines (bars) by varying their width and the spacing between
them. The scanner uses laser-beam to stroke across pattern of bar code.

Figure 3.13 Bar Code scanner

The different patterns of bars reflect the beam in different ways sensed by
a light-sensitive detector. Universal Product Code (UPC) is the most widely
known bar coding system

3.2.2.12 MICR
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is used by banking industry
for faster processing of large volume of cheques. It includes Bank’s identification
code (name, branch, etc.), account number and cheque number are pre-printed
(encoded) using characters from a special character set on all cheques. The typical
scanner is shown in figure 3.14.

Input
58 Output Devices
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 3.14 MICR scanner

A Special ink is used that contains magnetizable particles of iron oxide. A
MICR reader-sorter reads data on cheques and sorts them for distribution to other
banks or for further processing.

3.2.2.13 Digitizer
It is an input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures, maps and
drawings into digital form for storage in computers. It commonly used in the area
of Computer Aided Design (CAD) by architects and engineers to design cars,
buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical parts, etc.

Figure 3.15 Digitizer

It sued in the area of Geographical Information System (GIS) for digitizing
maps available in paper form. The digitizer shown in figure 3.15

3.2.2.14 Voice Recognition System

The input device that allows a person to input data to a computer system by
speaking to it using mic. It is shown in figure 3.16. Speech recognition systems
are limited to accepting few words within a relatively small domain and can be
used to enter only limited kinds and quantities of data. The device is suitable to
dictate the long text messages and later we can easily edit and review. The
powerful authentication tool can be used. It will record our vice and can be used
in validating while login to the system. In some companies it can be used by the
individuals as well as who having physical disabilities. In market there are
different tool are available for voice recognition.

Input
Output Devices 59
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 3.16 Mike

Your computer may have come with a microphone. The microphone plugs
into the sound card and is used to record your voice or other sounds. Another
new use of a microphone is to make telephone-like conference calls over the
Internet. Like any conference call, when you speak into the mic, the person you
call hears you on his speakers.

3.3 VISION INPUT SYSTEM

3.3.1 Touch Screen

The most simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all input devices. It
enables users to choose from available options by simply touching with their
finger the desired icon or menu item displayed on the screen. It is similar to
television set as shown in figure 3.17

Figure 3.17 Touch Screen Monitor

It is most preferred human-computer interface used in information kiosks
(unattended interactive information systems such as automatic teller machine or
ATM). The touch screen enables the task of both mouse and keyboard.

3.4 OUTPUT UNITS

3.4.1 Monitors
Monitors are the most popular output devices used for producing soft-copy
Input output. It displays the output on a television like screen. Monitor associated with
60 Output Devices a keyboard is called a video display terminal (VDT). It is the most popular I/O
device as it displays what kind of input is being entered by the use using different Fundamentals of
input devices. There are two types of monitors one is CRT monitors and second Information Technology
is flat panel monitors. Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television
and are normally used with non-portable computer systems. The CRT Monitor NOTES
shown in figure 3.18

Figure 3.18 CRT Monitor

Flat-panel monitors are thinner (shown in figure 3.19) and lighter and are
commonly used with portable computer systems like notebook computers. Now
they are also used with nonportable desktop computer systems because they
occupy less table space.

Figure 3.19 Flat Monitor

3.4.2 Printers
The most common output devices for producing hard-copy output. Printer
is one of the most important peripheral components of the computer. There are
different types of printers classified basically on the printing technology. The
printers are evaluated on the basis of the following factors:
• Printer Resolution:-It is measured in dots per inch(dpi). It indicates the
number of vertical and horizontal dots that can be printed. Higher the
resolution better is the quality.
• Speed: It is the number of pages printed per minute.
• Graphics and printer-language support: It should support one or more
printer languages such as Adobe PostScript and Hewlett Packard’s
LaserJet Printer Control Language(PCL).
• Paper Capacity: The number of pages that can be accommodated in the
paper tray. The different sizes of pages that can be printed by the printer. Input
Output Devices 61
 Fundamentals of • Duty Cycle: It is the number of sheets of paper the printer is rated to
Information Technology print per month.
• Printer memory: It is used to store complex graphics and full color
NOTES images require larger amounts of memory.
• Cost of Paper: It indicates the cost of any special paper.
• Cost of Consumables: It indicates the total cost per page for printing.
There are two types of printers Impact and Non – Impact Printers.

3.4.2.1 Impact Printers

Impact printers have a mechanism that touches the paper in order to create
an image.
a) Dot Matrix Printer
It is one of the character printers that form characters and all kinds of
images as a pattern of dots. It prints many special characters, different
sizes of print and graphics such as charts and graphs. an impact printer
can be used for generating multiple copies by using carbon paper or
its equivalent. By the functionality it is somewhat slow, with speeds
usually ranging between 30 to 600 characters per second and cheaper
in both initial cost and cost of operation. The figure 3.20 shows dot
matrix printer.

Figure 3.20 Dot Matrix Printer

• It forms characters as raster images on paper by pressing pins
onto an inked ribbon, which then is pressed onto paper.
• Dot-matrix printers use an array of pins (commonly 9 or 24 pins)
that are made of stiff wire.
• The higher the number of pins, the more dots per square inch and
the higher the print quality.
• The pins are held in a print head that travels on a rail in front of
a roller that transports the paper.
• The pins are controlled by electromagnets; dots are created when
power is applied to selected electromagnets in the print head,
forcing the desired pin away from a magnet in the print head.
Input
62 Output Devices • The pins strike an inked ribbon, which then strikes the paper.
 • A character is formed as the individual dots are struck. Each Fundamentals of
character produced by the print head is made up of several rows Information Technology
and columns
of dots NOTES

b) Drum Printer
It is a line printer that print one line at a time. In technological it have
a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed on its surface in the
form of circular bands. It has a set of hammers mounted in front of the
drum in such a manner that an inked ribbon and paper can be placed
between the hammers and the drum. The drum printer shown in
figure 3.21

Figure 3.21 Drum Printer

It can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a predefined style
that is embossed on the drum. It is usually monochrome colour. The
printing speed typically in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per Minute

c) Laser Printer
It is a page printer that print one page at a time. The typical laser printer
is shown in figure 3.22. It consists of a laser beam source, a multi-
sided mirror, a photoconductive drum and toner (tiny particles of
oppositely charged ink). To print a page, the laser beam is focused on
the electro statically charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror.
The Toner sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has charged
the drum’s surface. Toner is then permanently fused on the paper with
heat and pressure to generate the printer output. Laser printers produce
very high quality output having resolutions in the range of 600 to 1200
dpi. It can print many special characters, different sizes of print, and
graphics such as charts and graphs. Most laser printers are
monochrome, but color laser printers are also available. It has low
speed laser printers can print 4 to 12 pages per minute. Very high-speed
laser printers can print 500 to 1000 pages per minute. Laser Printers
Input
are more expensive than other printers. Output Devices 63
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 3.22 Laser Printer

• They are Non-Impact printers which is used to print large volumes.
• Their basic principle of operation is the static electricity.
• Primary Components of a Laser Printer
• It basically comprises of mechanical and electronic components.
• Paper Transport - It is used to move the paper from a supplying to the
engine where the image is laid on the paper and fixed to it.
• Toner and Toner Cartridges
• Laser Printers use disposable cartridges and other parts that need periodic
replacement.
• The primary consumable is toner, a very fine plastic powder bonded to
iron particles.
• The printer cartridge also holds the toner cylinder, and often the
photosensitive drum.

3.4.2.2Non - Impact Printers

a) Inkjet Printers
It is a character printer that form characters and all kinds of images by
spraying small drops of ink on to the paper. The Print head contains up
to 64 tiny nozzles that can be selectively heated up in a few micro
seconds by an integrated circuit register. To print a character, the printer
selectively heats the appropriate set of nozzles as the print head moves
horizontally. Ink Jet Printer shown in figure 3.23. It can print many
special characters, different sizes of print, and graphics such as charts
and graphs. they cannot produce multiple copies of a document in a
single printing. It prints monochrome and colour printing. It is slower
than dot-matrix printers with speeds usually ranging between 40 to 300
characters per second and more expensive than a dot-matrix printer.

Input Figure 3.23 Ink-Jet Printer

64 Output Devices
 • Ink-jet printers spray ink onto paper to form images. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
• They produce good-quality printing and—compared to dot matrix
• they are relatively fast.
NOTES
• They also require little maintenance beyond cleaning and ink cartridge
replacement.
• Their ability to easily produce color as well as standard black-and-white
images makes them attractive.
• Ink-jet cartridges are usually more expensive
• While installing a new ink-jet cartridge, it must be properly pressurized,
and the sensors on the unit (small metal plates) must be lined up with
contacts on the cartridge transport.

b) Chain/Band Printers
This a Line printer that print one line at a time. It consists of a metallic
chain/band on which all characters of the character set supported by
the printer are embossed. It also has a set of hammers mounted in front
of the chain/band in such a manner that an inked ribbon and paper can
be placed between the hammers and the chain/band. It can only print
pre-defined sets of characters that are embossed on the chain/band used
with the printer. It doesn’t have a facility to print any shape of
characters, different sizes of print, and graphics such as charts
and graphs.

Figure 3.24 Chain Printer

These printers (shown in figure 3.24) can be used for generating multiple
copies by using carbon paper or its equivalent and are usually monochrome. The
typical speeds are in the range of 400 to 3000 lines per minute.

3.4.3 Plotters
Plotters are an ideal output device for architects, engineers, city planners,
and others who need to routinely generate high-precision, hard-copy graphic
output of widely varying sizes. The plotters having similar structure as shown in
figure 3.24 Input
Output Devices 65
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 3.24 Plotter

There are Drum plotter, in which the paper on which the design has to be
made is placed over a drum that can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise
directions and Flatbed plotter, in which the paper on which the design has to be
made is spread and fixed over a rectangular flatbed table.

3.5 SOUND CARDS

Sound is one of the favorite options on today's PCs. In fact, sound is a

standard feature of most new PCs. Everyone has their own uses for sound. You
may just want to play a few music CDs with your CD-ROM drive while you are
working, or you may use multimedia applications for presentations or educational
programs. To produce sound on your PC, you need a sound card and speakers as
shown in figure 3.25. The sound card is an expansion card that plugs into one of
the slots on your motherboard. This card processes all of the instructions that
have to do with sound, and then sends the sounds to the speakers to be played.
The speakers plug into the sound card and usually have a power plug as well.

Figure 3.25 Sound Card

Sound cards plug into an expansion slot in your PC. The card has a set of
connectors that are exposed on the back of the PC; you can plug a microphone
Input and speakers into the connectors. Some cards include an optional connector for
66 Output Devices
a line input, which is used to connect another input source such as the output Fundamentals of
from a tape player or portable CD player. Other optional connectors can include Information Technology
a joystick connector and a MIDI connector (for connecting a MIDI keyboard).
The card may include a volume control, which controls the volume of the NOTES
speakers and/or headphones.

Speakers
The built-in speakers in most PC cases are used just for making system
sounds, such as warning beeps and action indicators. To play more sophisticated
sounds on your PC, you need a set of external speakers. Usually speakers come
in pairs, and there is a plug that connects them to your sound card. Arrange the
speakers with one on the left and one on the right of your desk or work area to
get a stereo effect.

Figure 3.26 Speakers

Optionally, some speakers come with a subwoofer as shown in figure 3.26.
This improves the bass (low notes) sound. If you have a subwoofer with your
speakers, it should go on the floor under your desk.

Questions
Short Questions
1. What is input – output devices? Explain its role in processing.
2. Explain sound card. State its applications.
3. Describe plotter and its working.
4. Explain the functionality of non impact printers.
5. Explain the functionality of impact printers.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain different input output devices.
2. Explain different types of printers.
3. Explain various types of printers.
4. Describe in detail the different impact printers.
5. Describe in detail the different non impact printers.

***** Input
Output Devices 67
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 4. Storage Fundamentals

NOTES

Learning Objectives
This chapter describes about primary and secondary storage systems. The
main objectives of this chapter
• What is primary and secondary memory?
• What are data storage and retrieval methods?
• Types of primary and secondary storage devices

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A storage or memory of a computer is used to store the data. This data may
be numbers or programs or software like operating system and its utilities, word
processor, turbo c etc. to store this data and instructions before and after
processing requires space which is called as memory or storage. The smallest
unit of memory is cell. This cell has unique address and location inside the
memory. The address depends on the size of the memory.
The memory of a computer is similar to human brain where data is stores
in terms of neurons. We can recall the data to answer the question. Similarly,
computer’s memory works. The difference between human memory and
computer memory is that, human memory can be recalled depending on human
psychology (i.e. Tendency, nature, reaction etc.), but computers data can be
recalled with any problem provides storage is in good condition. Let us see
computers memory in detail.

4.2 COMPUTER STORAGE

Computer storage or memory is primarily of three types

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory

4.2.1 Cache Memory

Computers memory is having difference in cost, speed and size. The fastest
Storage
68 Fundamentals memory is having small amount of space. Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory. This memory is accessed by CPU for fetching the data Fundamentals of
and programs. The CPU is frequently using the data and programs which are Information Technology
kept in the cache memory. The required data and programs are transferred from
the secondary or primary storage to cache memory by the operating system, from NOTES
where the CPU can access them

Advantages of Cache Memory

Cache memory is fastest memory as compare to main memory.
1. It requires less access time as compared to main memory.
2. This memory is completely volatile and temporary. The data stored is
not permanent. When computer is off the data stores is also wiped out
automatically.

Disadvantages of Cache Memory

1. Storage capacity of Cache memory has limited as compared to primary
memory
2. It is very expensive.

4.2.2 Primary Storage/Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memories are used store and transfer the data and instructions to
CPU for current execution. The data from secondary storage is brought into
primary memory before execution. The size of the primary memory is
smaller than secondary memory and speed of this memory is greater than
secondary memory.
This memory (figure 4.1) is volatile means the data is wiped out when the
computer is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. This
primary memory is basically divided into two categories 1) RAM and 2) ROM

Figure 4.1 Memory Cards

Characteristics of Main Memory
• Primary memories semiconductor memories.
• Primary memory is also known as the main memory.
• This memory is called as volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory. Storage
Fundamentals 69
 Fundamentals of 4.2.2 Categories of Primary Storage
Information Technology
RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM

NOTES 4.2.2.1 RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) is known as internal memory of the CPU.
This memory is frequently sending data and instruction to CPU for execution
and also it keeps the result. This memory provides two basic operation read and
write. But this memory lost its data when machine is switched off. Now days this
RAM comes as a plug and play chips as shown in figure.
This memory is called as random access because access time is independent
of location. Each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other
locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed
randomly but it is very expensive.
This Radom Access memory has two types
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

4.2.2.2 Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static means the content of the memory do not change during its
operations. But when the power of computer gets off, content will be wiped out
because it is volatile. This static RAM (SRAM) chips use a matrix of 6-transistors
and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage; therefore,
SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix; hence SRAM uses more chips than
DRAM for the same amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs
higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of Static RAM
• It has Long life
• There is no need to refresh
• It is Faster
• It is used as cache memory
• It has Large size and expensive
• It requires high power consumption to work

4.2.2.3 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Dynamic RAM means content of the memory can be changes frequently. It
is requires to refresh the memory continually. There is a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several times per second. All DRAMs are composed of one
Storage capacitor and one transistor per cell.
70 Fundamentals
 Characteristics of Dynamic RAM Fundamentals of
Information Technology
• It has Short data lifetime
• It needs to be refreshed continuously
NOTES
• It is slower as compared to SRAM
• It is used as RAM
• It is smaller in size
• It is Less expensive
• It has less power consumption

4.2.2.4 Read Only Memory:

ROM (figure 4.2) is read only memory. Write operation is not possible on
ROM. This memory is not volatile, even if the power of computer switched off,
the content of the memory is not wiped out. This ROM is used by the
manufacturer to store the information permanently. This information is required
when the computer is started on. This operation of fetching the information from
ROM during booting of the system is called as bootstrap.
Now a days this ROM chips are used in the smart divides like mobile
phones, washing machines, refrigerator. Etc.

Figure 4.2: ROM

Let us see the various types of ROMs and their characteristics.

4.2.2.5 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

Programmable read only memory (PROM) can be modified but only once
by a use. The user can purchase a PROM and stores the required contents using
PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt
open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

4.2.2.6 EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

This memory is called as Erasable and programmable memory because,
content of this memory can be modified as and when required. Content of this
memory can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for duration up to 40 to
50 minutes. Once the content is written in the memory it can last for more than Storage
10 years. Fundamentals 71
 Fundamentals of 4.2.2.7 EEPROM
Information Technology
(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):
This is called as electrically erasable and programmable read only memory.
NOTES
But the content of this memory is erased electrically. The read and write operation
can done around ten thousand times. This erasing and programing take about 4
to 10 ms (millisecond). The erase operation can erase one byte at a time and thus
the process of erasing is slow but flexible.
Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows
• It is Non-volatile in nature
• It cannot be accidentally changed
• It is cheaper than RAMs
• It is easy to test
• It is more reliable than RAMs
• It is Static and do not require refreshing
• Contents are always known and can be verified

4.3 SECONDARY MEMORY

This type of memory (figure 4.3) is also known as external memory or non-
volatile. It is slower than the main memory. These are used for storing
data/information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories;
instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access
it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Figure 4.3: Secondary Memory

Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.

Storage • It is known as the backup memory.

72 Fundamentals
 • It is a non-volatile memory. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
NOTES
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.

4.3.1 Types of secondary Storage:

4.3.1.1 Disks

4.3.1.1.1 Magnetic/Hard Disks

Magnetic disk or hard disk (figure 4.4) is a most commonly used
device for data storage. This disk contains many rotating disks called
as platters. The surface of the disk is coated with metal oxide. The
read/write operations are carried out by electromagnetic recording
heads. There is one head for each surface, and all the heads are moving
together. The disk routes around 3600 rpm. The surface of a platter is
organized as a number of concentric tracks. Each track is divided into
sectors. The information held in one sector, a block, is the unit of
transfer between the disk and primary memory (typically 4K bytes or
so). The operating system determines where the blocks for each file
are placed.
The data access depends on the following terms
• Seek time - Time to move the heads to the right track
• The latency time - Time waiting for the sector to come round to
the head
• The block transfer time. Time to actually transfer the data –
All these times are of the order of tens of milliseconds. The seek time
and latency are obviously variable, depending on where the required
block is relative to the current position of the heads. Hard disks are
very rigid and made up of metallic platters that are staked Memory is
organized in terms of tracks, sectors and cylinders. The platter of the
hard disk is manufactured by using aluminum or Glass ceramic
compounds. In order to store the data the platter is coated with iron
oxide media or thin film media.
Hard disks are having large capacities varying from GB (Giga bytes)
to TB (tera bytes). There are two types of hard disks 1) Internal 2)
External Hard Disks. Hard disks are using read write head for read
write operation and to reach the location it has head arm and movement
is possible due to spindle motor.
Storage
Fundamentals 73
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 4.4: Magnetic Disk

Internal hard disks are built in to computer machine or laptop. External
drives can be physically removed and can be plugged in as and when
required. External hard disk drives are portable and mainly used to
take back up.
Internal disk drives are connected to the machine through an advances
technology. This five is directly connected to motherboard and allows
data to be transferred at a faster rate as compare to external drives.
External drives are connected through USB cable.

4.3.1.1.2 Optical Disks

An optical disk used optical storage technology to read and write data
on it. This disk stores the data digitally and uses laser beams to read
and write the data.
Optical disks are portable and can be used as secondary storage device.
This type of disks store more data as compare to magnetic disk storage
and it has longer lifespan also. There are three types of optical disks.
1. Compact Disks (CD)
2. Digital Versatile Disks (DVD)
3. Blue-ray disks.

Optical disks are used to

• Distribute software to customers
• Store large amounts of data such as music, images and videos
• Transfer data to different computers or devices
Storage • Back up data from a local machine
74 Fundamentals
Flash Drives Fundamentals of
Information Technology
A USB Flash Drive consists of a flash memory data storage device
integrated with a USB interface. These types of drives are removable and
rewriteable. USB flash drives can be plugged into a computer using USB ports NOTES
of computer. Computers identify the drive and assign the drive letter.

Figure 4.5: Flash Drive

Advantages of Flash Drives
1. Flash drives arm very small and light weight that can be carried easily
2. Flash drives are durable
3. It can be used to any device like Cell phones. PDAs, laptops, desktops,
cameras, printers, TVs, etc.

4.4 PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY STORAGE

Comparison of primary and secondary storage device is as follows

4.5 DATA STORAGE & RETRIEVAL METHODS

There is a significant difference in the data stored in previous days i.e. 15-
20 years before and today’s data. In computer field, it has becoming challenge
to organize and storing data. Data generated today is huge in amount and
therefore, collecting, storing and organizing data has become very critical. Before
2000, 80% of the data was in text format whereas todays data is in the form of
text, audio, video, graphics etc. Storage
Fundamentals 75
 Fundamentals of The process of collecting, storing, locating, searching the data as per
Information Technology requirement, is called data storage and retrieval. There are basically two types
of data stored 1) In the form of File (File Management System) and 2) in the
NOTES form of database (Data Base Management System).
In data stored in file management system as a file format and is very rigid
to retrieve and takes much time fetch the data. It is also difficult to organize the
data when size of the data is very big.
Today’s data is mostly stored and organized as a database management
system. The process of collecting, storing and retrieving the data is organized
way is called as database. This data stored in the form of database is very flexible,
simple to retrieve and in-depended application. The data in this form is more
secure than file format.

4.5.1 File Management System (FMS)

In the file management system, data is stored, organized and retrieved in
terms of files only. Program written for storing the data creates the file. There
are different types of files created in file oriented system.
1. Transaction File – A file is created when the data is being processed
by the application program.
2. Master File – This file is created when the relevant data is required to
be stored.
3. Output File – This file is created when the application program
produces output or some time the output is required to be used as a
input to be used to some other file.
4. Report File – A file is generated put present the output to its user.
5. Backup file – A file is created to keep a backup data as a precautionary
measure.

4.5.2 File Organization techniques.

Data is organized physically on the disk in the following manner. There are
basically three ways of it

4.5.2.1 Sequential Files

The records are stored in sequence i.e. one after the other in ascending or
descending order as per the key value. This is one of the simplest file access
method. This method is normally used by editors and compilers. Records are
stored in this method is similar to tape recorder. So access of the records are very
easy in sequential storage devices like tape. udent
For example consider the data of student records are to be stored then it will
Storage be as follows.
76 Fundamentals
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 4.6: Sequential file organization

4.5.2.2 Random of direct files

The required record is directly located on the basis of key value instead of
going from start. The records are retrieved at random or direct therefore, this
organization is called as direct to random access file organization. The location
of the record is called as address of the file. The records are directly read or
written to the address which is calculated by the mathematical function depending
on key value.

Figure 4.7: showing sequential and random access file record writing

4.5.2.3 Indexed Sequential Files

There are two file maintained for each and every data. The first file contains
all the data and other file contains the index of the records. This index of the
records are used for locating the records. This index is same as the index of the
book we use for locating the required chapter or point in the book. The same
concept is used in the indexed sequential file.

Storage
Figure 4.8: of Indexed Sequential file Fundamentals 77
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
4.6 QUESTIONS
NOTES

4.6.1 Short answer questions

1. What is memory? What are the different types?
2. What do you mean by RAM and ROM?
3. What is ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM?
4. Differentiate between static and dynamic RAM
5. What is the difference between sequential and Radom file organization?

4.6.2 Long answer questions

1. What are characteristics of primary and secondary memory?
2. What are the types of secondary storage and explain any one type in detail?
3. Differentiate Primary Memory Vs. Secondary memory.
4. Explain data storage and its retrieval methods.
5. What are the file organization techniques?

*****

Storage
78 Fundamentals
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 5. Software
NOTES

Learning objectives
The objectives of this chapter are
• To understand what is software
• To know what are types of software
• To know applications of software
• To know programming languages and its types
• To know flow chart and algorithms

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Software is a program or collection of programs written for specific purpose.

Computer is an idle machine or idiot box which cannot do anything on its own.
So it requires software to get work done. When we start computer, software that
helps the user to work with computer is called operating system. There are
various types of software that helps user to complete their task. So software like
Corel draw is useful for making graphical report. Other software’s like power
point, word etc. are useful for day to day work of creating documents. Let us see
this software in detail.

5.2 SOFTWARE AND ITS NEEDS

Software is needed to help user for completion of task. With software user
cannot use computer. There are different types of software which are executed
for some specific reason. This software’s are communicating with each other and
helps user. Following are the needs of software.
• For making computer ready for use
• For converting user language instructions to computer understandable
language.
• For making and using connected devices to computer.
• For helping user to complete their task of creating documentation or
making different types of reports.
Software 79
 Fundamentals of • Keeping financial or mathematical records using software like excel or
Information Technology ready made software’s available in market.
• For entreating people, software’s like video player etc.
NOTES
• For assisting doctors, engineers much software are available.
If we look any area then it is observed that there are plenty number of
software’s are available today

5.3 TYPES OF SOFTWARE

Basically, there are two types of software 1) system software and 2)

application software. Software that is used to work with hardware or peripherals
attached to the computer system is called as system software’s for example
operating system, device drivers are system software’s and the software that is
used directly by the user is known as application software. For example word
processor, spread sheet are application software.

5.3.1 System software

System software interact with hardware components and these software
works constantly to complete the task of the user. User only interacts in his own
language and gets the result on the screen in his language. But once the user gives
instruction, system software takes this responsibility of executing the instruction
in the form of command. These kinds of system software’s are operating system,
device drivers, utility programs, compiler, linker; loader, etc. are called as system
software.
Let us see the details of these system software’s

5.3.1.1 Operating systems

Operating System (OS) acts as an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. An operating system is software which performs all the basic
tasks like file management, memory management, process management,
handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives
and printers.
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
Without operating system computer is a mad box. So operating system makes
computer ready to use. The main functions of operating systems are

Computer resources management

• Memory management, processing, storage, and printers management.
• Monitor system performance
80 Software
 • Provide security Fundamentals of
Information Technology
• Start-up the computer
Provides user interface
NOTES
• Character-based interface
• Graphical user interface (GUI)

Runs applications
• Multitasking
• Foreground & background applications
In early days operating systems were character based means user had to
give each and every command at the command prompt. User had to remember
each command which was very difficult for user. Then experts developed
graphical user interface called as GUI to interact with computer. This GUI is very
famous today and is universally accepted. Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS,
Android are very famous operating systems today in the market.
There are basically three types of Operating systems
1. Stand Alone Operating system.
2. Embedded Operating Systems.
3. Network Operating Systems.

Stand-alone Operating System

Before networking of computers, there were stand-alone computer machines
were used and these machine are operated through operating system called as
stand-alone operating system.
In 1980, Microsoft windows operating system was very popular and this is
an example of stand-alone operating system. This operating system was called
as Disk Operating System (DOS). It offers command line interface. But due to
advancement in hardware technology, today we have graphical user interface.
This type of operating system provides its services and deals with just one
computer at a time even if it has a connection with other computers on the server.
Some examples of stand-alone systems are DOS (Disk Operating System),
Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows NT Workstation, Windows 98, Windows
2000 Professional, Windows Millennium Edition, Windows XP Home Edition,
Windows XP Professional Edition, Mac OS, OS/2 Warp Client.

Embedded Operating System:

Embedded Operating systems are dedicated and are built for operating
special purpose. Such special purpose devices are electronically operated. These
products are operating through operating system residing in it.
Software 81
 Fundamentals of Informally speaking, embedded operating system is a real-time computer
Information Technology system where a computer senses events from the outside world and reacts to
them; in such an environment, the timely availability of computation results is
NOTES as important as their correctness.
The major difference between general purpose and embedded computer
systems are cost, performance, and power consumption: often, embedded systems
are mass produced, thus reducing their unit cost is an important design goal; in
addition, mobile battery-powered embedded systems, such as cellular phones,
have severe power budget constraints to enhance their battery life
Examples of embedded operating systems are plenty in number today. We
are having smart devices available today in the market are operated by embedded
systems. These systems are specially designed computer system that essentially
contains software and hardware for performing specific tasks. Mobile Phones,
Washing Machines, Refrigerators, Cameras, Laptops, Cameras,
Washing Machines, ATMS, and traffic control system etc. are examples of
Embedded System.

Network Operating Systems:

Network Operating Systems (NOS) are stores on a machine called as a
server. Sometimes these types of operating systems are called as server based
operating system. Server machine controls other machines connected to it.
There are two basic types of Network Operating System 1) Peer-to-peer and
2) client/server operating systems.

Peer-to-Peer Operating System

In peer-to-peer operating systems (figure 5.0) allows users to share files and
resources located on their computers. Here there is no server who can control the
terminals connected to it. In peer-to-peer all computers are treated as equal and
there is no file server or centralized management controller. One machine that is
sending information or sharing resources id treated as server and other is treated
as client and vice versa.

82 Software Figure 5.0: Peer-to-peer operating system model.

Client/Server Network Operating System: Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Client Server Network Operating System (figure 5.1) runs on a server and
provides the server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network NOTES
operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple
computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network
or to other networks.
UNIX operating system was first network operating system where all the
dump terminals are controlled by UNIX operating system. Then dump terminals
are getting smarter and can also be controlled by the network operating systems.

Figure 5.1 Client Server Operating System model

Novell network operating systems, Windows NT, Linux Operating system
are some of the popular examples of Network Operating System.

5.3.1.2 Device drivers

A device attached to a computer is driven means being used by the software
is called as device driver.
Devices like keyboard, printer, monitor, or mouse needs device driver to be
installed in order to use it.
This device driver program is written by programmers who comprehend
the detailed knowledge of the device’s command language and characteristics
and contains the specific machine language necessary to perform the functions
requested by the application.
When a new hardware device is added or attached to the computer, such as
a CD-ROM drive, a printer, or a sound card, its driver must be installed in order
to run it. The operating system “calls” the driver, and the driver “drives” the
device.
Software 83
 Fundamentals of The driver is the link between the operating system and the peripheral
Information Technology device. If the peripheral device is changed, or if a bug is found in the driver, the
driver must also be changed. A new version of the driver is then written and
NOTES released by the manufacturer of the device. Updated drivers are usually made
available on the Web sites and/or bulletin boards of vendors.

5.3.1.3. Utility Programs

Software that performs a specific task, usually related to managing or
maintaining the computer system. Many utilities are built into operating systems
(for finding files, viewing images, backing up files, etc.). Utilities are also
available as stand-alone products and as suites.
Following are some examples of utility programs

File Management Utility Programs

This utility help the user to perform file management related tasks such as
• Finding out the contents of the storage medium.
• Copying, moving, renaming and deleting files and folders
File management program in Windows 8 is File Explorer

Search Tools
This utility is developed to search for documents and other files on the hard
disk drive. Third - party search tools are also available.
For example Windows 8 has Search charm to search for files, apps, and
Store items

Diagnostic and Disk Management Programs

Diagnostic utility programs checks the system and makes recommendations
for fixing errors found. Disk management programs diagnose and repair problems
related to your hard drive

Uninstall and Cleanup Utilities

Uninstall utilities remove programs from your hard drive without leaving
bits and pieces behind. Cleanup utility programs delete temporary files residing
recycle bin, internet files, installation files etc.

File Compression Utility Programs

File compression utility programs reduce the size of files to optimize storage
space and transmission time. This program does both zip and unzip files. WinZip
for windows users and Stuffit for Mac users are examples of such utility
programs.

84 Software
Backup and Recovery Utility Programs Fundamentals of
Information Technology
This utility program Make the backup and restoration process easier. It
creates a duplicate copy of important files as backup. This utility can use a
recordable or rewritable CD or DVD disc, a USB flash drive, or an external hard NOTES
drive.

Antivirus, Antispyware, Firewalls, and Other Security Programs

Antivirus software cleans the viruses infected inside the computer. Quick
Heal, Norton Antivirus utility programs are example of this type. Security
programs protect computers and users and it is essential that all computer users
protect themselves and their computers.

5.3.2 Application Software

Application software is a task oriented program and it helps the end user to
complete their task such as creating of documents, spreadsheets, creating graphics
reports, databases and publications, doing some research, sending mails, or
running businesses.
Following are some popular software with its purpose.
• create a word file using Word Processing software
• enter and work with data in Spread sheet software
• create a presentation using Presentation software
• design an image using a Drawing software
• list out the educational applications of word processing, spreadsheets,
presentation and drawing software
• create a PDF file using PDF Creator
• condense files using File Archiving
• convert various file formats to PDF file using a File Converter
• differentiate between hacking and cracking
• prevent computer being affected by virus
• differentiate between virus and spyware
• enumerate the misuse and abuse of ICT
• download and install antivirus and firewall to remove malware
• adopt safe practices to prevent computer being affected by malware

5.3.2.1 Word processing

Word processing software enables to create documents. It processes words,
paragraphs, pages, and entire papers. It is one of the earliest and the most popular
applications for the personal computer.
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 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Word processor software is a text editor is a type of program used for

editing plain text files. Text editors are provided with operating systems and
software development packages, and can be used to change configuration files,
documentation files and programming language source code.
Word processor documents are generally stored in a binary format to allow
for localization and formatted text, such as boldface, italics and multiple fonts,
and to be structured into columns and tables.
Word processing software is a computer software application that performs
the task of composition, editing, formatting, and sometimes printing of
documents. A word processor is a software program capable of creating, storing,
and printing documents. It allows you to create a document and make any
changes anywhere in the document, store it electronically on a disk, display it
on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from the keyboard,
and print it on a printer.
Web-based word processors, such as Office Web Apps or Google Docs,
have recently become popular. They allow creating, editing, and sharing of
documents synchronously online among many geographically remote users.

5.3.2.2 Spreadsheet Software

A spread sheet (figure 5.2) utility program is an interactive computer
application program for data management like organization, analysis and storage
of data in tabular form. A spread sheet simulates a paper accounting worksheets
that shows data in rows and columns.

Figure 5.2: Excel Sheet

86 Software
 Spreadsheet program It is used for capturing, displaying, and manipulating Fundamentals of
data arranged in rows and columns. A spread sheet is a document that stores data Information Technology
in a grid of horizontal rows and vertical columns. Rows are typically labelled
using numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.), while columns are labelled with letters (A, B, C, NOTES
etc). For example, each row of a spread sheet may store information about a
student. Each column may store a different aspect of the student's information,
such as the name, address, age, gender, marks scored, etc.

Web based spread sheets

Since the advent of web apps, office suites now also exist in web app form.
Advanced web technologies such as Ajax circa 2005, offer online spreadsheets.
Some of them are Office Online, ZOHO, Google Spreadsheets, EditGrid,
Smartsheet or ZK Spreadsheet. They also have strong multi-user collaboration
features and offer real time updates from remote sources.

5.3.2.3 Presentation Software

Presentation software (figure 5.3) is an application program that supports
presentation of information by creating sequences of words and pictures.
Presentation software is a tool used to create and display visual presentations
which are usually delivered in the form of a slide show. The programs make it
possible to combine text and graphic elements to convey information. It can be
used to teach a new or complex concept to a group of students, or for presenting
a proposal to a group. It has three major functions: an editor that allows text to
be inserted and formatted, inserting and manipulating graphic images, and a slide-
show system to display the content.

Figure 5.3: Power Point Presentation

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 Fundamentals of Presentation software includes multimedia authoring tools which enable
Information Technology you to create a more sophisticated presentation that includes audio and video
sequences. Some very popular presentation software, are Microsoft's PowerPoint
NOTES and Lotus's Freelance Graphics. Other popular products include Adobe
Persuasion, Astound, Asymetrix Compel, Corel Presentations, and Harvard
Graphics. Among the most popular multimedia authoring tools are Macromedia
Director and Asymetrix's Multimedia Tool book. Recent new presentation tool
are: Web browser and the tools for creating Web pages, such as Microsoft's
FrontPage and Adobe's Page Mill.
Many presentation programs come with pre-designed images (clip art)
and/or have the ability to import graphic images, such as Visio and Edraw Max.
Some tools also have the ability to search and import images from Flickr or
Google directly from the tool. Custom graphics can also be created in other
programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Illustrator and then exported.
With the growth of digital photography and video, many programs that
handle these types of media also include presentation functions for displaying
them in a similar "slide show" format. For example, Apple's iPhoto allows groups
of digital photos to be displayed in a slide show with options such as selecting
transitions, choosing whether or not the show stops at the end or continues to
loop, and including music to accompany the photos.

5.3.2.4 Graphics Software

A graphics package is an application that can be used to create and
manipulate images on a computer.
There are two main types of graphics package:
• painting packages
• drawing packages

Figure 5.4: Paint

Drawing software (figure 5.4) is defined as a computer program for creating
art on the computer. It is a graphics program used for creating illustrations. An
example of drawing software is the Paint program on many computers.
88 Software
 It is a graphics program that enables you to draw pictures, then store the Fundamentals of
images in files, merge them into documents, and print them. Unlike paint Information Technology
programs, which represent images as bit maps, draw programs use vector
graphics, which makes it easy to scale images to different sizes. In addition, NOTES
graphics produced with a draw program have no inherent resolution. Rather, they
can be represented at any resolution, which makes them ideal for high-resolution
output. Examples of popular drawing programs are Adobe Illustrator, CorelDraw
and Macromedia Freehand.
Paint programs also give provisions to draw common shapes such as straight
lines, rectangles, circles, and ovals. Sophisticated paint applications are often
called image editing programs.
These applications support many of the features of draw programs, such as
the ability to work with objects. MS Paint is a simple computer graphics program
that has been included with all versions of Microsoft Windows.
Nonetheless, "painting" and "drawing" elements are often used together to
create a finished graphic. With a "drawing" program, one normally creates images
by establishing points that are connected by straight or curved lines, resulting in
shapes such as a rectangle or an oval. The shapes can then be filled with colors
resulting in, for example, a red heart or a green leaf. . For instance, all versions
of Windows come with a program called PaintBrush which can be accessed by
going to Start>Programs>Accessories>Paint.

5.3.2.5 DBMS S/W

Database management system is used to organize the data in systematic
way. There are maybe software today being used to handle the data effectively.
Oracle DBMS, Microsoft SQL Server, IBM DB2, Teradata, MySql, PostgreSQL,
Monody, Sybase, Microsoft access, and Informix are some of the popular
database systems used today, these database software are useful to create, update,
manipulate data items of a database.
Now days, data is growing tremendously in every filed, data handled by
Facebook and Google is
around 500 petabytes. To handle this data s good database management
software is used. facebook, Google, LinkedIn, and Twitter all use MySQL for at
least some of their data management. Due to very large of data required to be
handled, companies prefer efficient database management software to handle
their data.

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 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
5.4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
NOTES
Program is a group of sequential instructions written for a particular task.
These instructions are written in a language so that computer can accept and
executes is called programming languages. Basically there are three types of
programming languages 1) High Level Language 2) Assembly Language and 3)
Machine language.
Computer only understands machine language therefore; any program
written in any high level language is required to convert into machine language.
User can write a program in high level language like c++, C#, Java or Dotnet, it
is required to convert into assembly and then in machine language. So a student
of computer field must learn these types of languages.
A language has its own grammar and rule of writing a statement called as
syntax and also is has semantics. In order to learn anu language we have to learn
its grammar, syntax and semantics.

5.4.1 Machine Language

A machine language is also called as low level language and intructions of
this language is a combination of 0 and 1. This language is also called as binary
language. The instructions of this language are directly executed by
microprocessor of a machine. Command of this language gives instructions to
processor to perform arithmetic and logical operation and also ask to fetch and
store the values to and from memory and registers. Processor can also take
decision on Boolean expressions.
All the instructions are capable of doing all the mathematical, relational and
Boolean operations by interacting with hardware components. Fetching,
extracting, storing and calculating are the important functions carried out through
machine language,
Instruction set of this language depends on the architecture of a processor.
For a processor or set of similar processor, well defined set of instruction has
designed for execution. The instruction set is specific to processor.
As the instruction in machine code is written in binary format, it is very
difficult to read. Therefore, Assembly language provides mnemonics for machine
instructions for better readability. Mnemonic codes to refer to the different
machine code instructions, instead of using the patterns of bits. For example, it
is much easier to remember that “AND” refers to an instruction that performs
logic “and” operation, instead of memorizing a code “100001”.
Let us see 32 bit machine instruction.
90 Software
 Now there are three instruction formats, as shown below Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

R-format: basic arithmetical-logical instructions

I-format: load/store/conditional branch instructions
J-format: jump/unconditional branch instructions
Here,
op is operation code
rs is first source register
rt is second source register
rd destination register
shamt – shift amount
funct – opcode variant selector

Now consider one machine instruction

For arithmetic-logical instructions, both the op field and the funct field are
used to
Specify the particular operation that is to be performed.
Similarly let see the data transfer instructions by using R-format

Let us consider instruction in R-format

But writing programs in machine languages are very difficult; therefore
experts have developed high level languages so that they can write a program in
high level language.

Software 91
 Fundamentals of Advantages of Machine Language –
Information Technology
1. Execution of the instruction of machine languages are done very fast
because they are directly executed by the machine.
NOTES 2. Efficient use of primary memory.
Disadvantages of Machine Language –
1. Architecture designs of computers are different and therefore, machine
language is also differing from computer to computer.
2. Programs of machine languages are very difficult to write
3. It is difficult to correct or modify machine language programs.
Checking machine instructions to locate errors is very difficult and
time consuming
4. A programmer needs to remember the operation codes (opcode), and
must keep track of the storage locations of data and instructions for
writing machine language programs. Hence, it becomes very difficult
for him/her to concentrate fully on the logic of the problem. This
frequently results in programming errors.

5.4.2 Assembly Language

Each computer or its processor understands only instructions of binary or
machine language instructions, which are strings of 1's and 0's. However,
machine language is too difficult and complex for using in software development.
So, the low-level assembly language is designed for a specific family of
processors that represents various instructions in symbolic code and a more
understandable form.
Programs written in assembly language are executed by assembler. Every
assemble has desigbed for one specific microprocessor family.
As machine language programs are very difficult to read and write for
normal user, it is made easy for the programmer for having mnemonics for some
part of the machine instructions. The main disadvantage of this assembly
language is that it is not portable because it is tied up with specific architecture.
That is why the high level programming languages are popular amongst the
programmer.
For example suppose we want to write a program of displaying Hello
World! Written for 32 bit Intel processor then it can be
global _main
extern _printf
section .text
_main:
push message
call _printf
add esp, 4
ret
message:
db 'Hello, World!', 10, 0
92 Software
 This program can be run on windows 10. Fundamentals of
Information Technology
If we write the same program in high level language then it will be very easy.
Same program written in c programming language will be studied in the
next section. NOTES

Advantages of Assembly language

1. Programs of assembly language are easier to understand and save a lot
of time and effort.
2. It is easier to modify and correct program instruction as compare to
machine language.
3. It has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language

Disadvantages of Assembly language

Assembly language is machine dependent. A program written for one
computer might not run in other computers with different hardware configuration.

5.4.3 High Level Language

A high level programming language (HLL) is very easy way of writing
programs as compare to assembly and machine language. The programs written
in high level languages are also independent of particular architecture of a
computer. These languages are very close to human language and therefore easy
for the programmer to write programs.
so the program written in high level language is required to be converted
into assembly language and then to machine language to be executed by the
machine.it can be shown diagrammatically

Figure 5.5: Language Hierarchy

Advantages of High Level Languages

1. Faster Program development. Programs written in a high-level
language are relatively small and easier to code and debug.
2. Programs written in a high-level language are easier to maintain.
Programs written in a high-level language are easier to understand and,
when good programming practices are followed, easier to maintain.
Software 93
 Fundamentals of 3. Programs written in a high-level language are portable. A program of
Information Technology high level languages is independent of machine and requires very few
modifications on different systems.
NOTES
Disadvantages of High Level Languages
1. Programs of high level languages are slower as compare to programs
op low level. Because high level programs are required to convert into
low level for execution.
2. High level programs require compilers/interpreters to translate
instructions to machine language. So It take additional translation
times to translate the source to machine code.
3. As compare to low level programs, they are generally less memory
efficient
4. High level language programs cannot communicate directly with the
hardware.

5.5 ALGORITHMS AND FLOWCHART

5.5.1 Algorithms
An algorithm is a finite set of instructions, sometimes called a procedure
or a function that is used to perform a certain task. For each and every task we
can write an algorithm. Problem may be very simple or difficult.
Algorithms must be very efficient in terms of the resources they use.
Efficiency of the algorithm depends on less use or efficient use of resources like
memory and time for execution. If algorithms are poorly written then it may take
more time to execute.
Some of the important points about algorithms are
1. Algorithms have effectively computable operations
2. Algorithms produce a output
3. Algorithms halt in a finite amount of time
Let us see some of the example of algorithms
1. Suppose we have to write a algorithms of finding result of a student
on getting four different subjects. If average is less than 50 then student
is declared as fail and pass otherwise. Then algorithm of the above is
Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
Step 2: Average <---- (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if Average is less than 50 (Avrage < 50)
94 Software
 then Fundamentals of
print “Fail” Information Technology
else
print “Pass” NOTES
endif
Step 4: Stop

2. Write an algorithm to find sum of 10 given numbers.

Step 1: Initialize Sum = 0
Step 2: For 10 numbers repeat the step no 3 and 4
Step 3: Read the number
Step 4: add the number to Sum
Step 5: check the counter reaches to 10. If not go to step 3 otherwise
go to step 6
Step 6: print “Sum of 10 numbers is equal to”, Sum.

3. Write an algorithm for traffic control.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: look at the color of traffic light
Step 3: if the color is Red then Stop (Do go ahead)
Step 4: if the color is Yellow then Wait.
Step 5: if the color is Green then go.
Step 6: Stop
This is how we can write an algorithm for any problem.

5.5.2 Flowchart
Flowchart is a pictorial representation of algorithm. Once we draw flowchart,
it is very easy to write a program. The flow chart is drawn by using symbols.

Figure 5.6: Flow chart symbols Software 95

 Fundamentals of Let us see how to draw a flow chart with some examples
Information Technology
1. Let us draw a flowchart of addition of two numbers.

NOTES

Figure 5.7: flow Chart – Addition of Numbers

2. Let us draw a flowchart by using decision symbols. Draw a flow chart
of maximum of three numbers

Figure 5.8: flow Chart – Condition Statement

2. Let us draw a flowchart using loops. Draw a flow chart of addition of
first 100 natural numbers.
96 Software
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 5.9: flow Chart – Iterative Statement

3. Draw a flowchart of finding out whether a given number is prime or not.

Figure 5.10: Flow Chart – Statement Illustration

Thus flow can be drawn once we understand the logic of it. Software 97
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
5.6 QUESTIONS
NOTES

5.6.1 Short answer questions

1. Define software and give examples of utility software.
2. Define programming language, machine language and assembly
language.
3. Define algorithms and flowcharts
4. What is the need of the software
5. What is the difference between algorithm and flowchart?

5.6.2 Long answer questions.

1. Differentiate between application software and system software.
2. What are examples of applications software?
3. What are the examples of system software?
4. Write an algorithm and draw a flow chart to print the sum of odd and
even numbers between 1 and 100.
5. Write an algorithm and draw a flowchart to find the sum of digits of
a number.

*****

98 Software
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

Chapter 6 Data communication

NOTES

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter student will learn
• What is data communication and requirement of it?
• What are the data communication modes and medium?
• What are types of networks and topologies?
• What is protocol and different types of protocols?
• What is internet, brewers and servers
• What if business data processing?

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Data is nothing but information transferred from one place to another place
without human existence. This type of data transfer is very old method and in
the ancient age it was transferred by using pigeon. Some centuries ago, there was
some special person appointed to transfer the information from one person to
another. In the 18th century, the technology was being used to data transfer
through telegraph machine in 1838. After some years, alexander Graham Bell
invented telephone machine to transfer the data in voice format which was
revolutionary experiment. Due to advancement in technology, today we are
having network technology, where we can transfer any amount of data from any
place to any place within no time. Network technology has given us the
opportunity of transferring the data with having barrier of size of data and
location. Let us study, how this data communication is being taken place in
today’s world.

6.2 COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Today’s data is known as digital data and the data transferred from one
location to the other is called digital data transfer. The data when transferred
successfully from one digital device known as sender device to another digital
device known as receiver device is called as data commination. The process of
transferring the data between two devices is known as communication process.
Data communication 99
 Fundamentals of The data transfer takes place when the communication between two devices is
Information Technology established. This communication is possible today because of network.
Networking is the convenient way of making information accessible to
NOTES anyone, anytime & anywhere. Data can be in the form of graphics, sound, video
or in the form of animation
In order to transfer the data at least two devices must be ready to
communicate and then following points are required to transfer the data
• A Transmission Medium
• A set of Rules & Procedure for proper communication (Protocol)
• Standard Data Representation
• Transmission of bits either Serial or Parallel
• Bit synchronization using Start/stop bits in case of Asynchronous
Transmission
• In Synchronous Transmission the agreed pattern of Flag
• Signal encoding rules viz. NRZ or RZ
• Other higher layer protocol
We will see the how these communication processes work in detail.

6.3 DATA TRANSMISSION SPEED

When data is transferred, means actually bits (binary digits) are transferred
between two devices over a transmission medium where these devices are
connected. There are two basic data transmission methods 1) Parallel
transmission and 2) serial transmission.
The number of bits transferred in one second is called as bit rate or
transmission speed. Today’s networks speed is measures as 32 Mbps, 64 Mbps
etc. 32 Mbps is 32 Megabytes data is transferred in one second. This data
transmission is called as bandwidth.
We actually enter the data through keyboard; each character is encoded into
an equivalent binary coded pattern, using one of the standard coding schemes
that are used for the interchange of information. To represent all characters of
the keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or 8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits
means that 128 different elements can be represented, while 8 bits can represent
256 elements. A similar procedure is followed at the receiver that decodes every
received binary pattern into the corresponding character. This encoding and
decoding of data is very important for successful data communication.
All the required characters are coded by using two types of codes like
100 Data communication
Extended Binary Coded Decimal (EBCDIC) and the American Standard Code Fundamentals of
for Information Interchange codes (ASCII). Both coding schemes cater to all the Information Technology
normal alphabetic, numeric, and punctuation characters, collectively referred to
as printable characters and a range of additional control characters, known as NOTES
non-printable characters.
DATA FLOW:
Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex

6.4 TYPES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

There are two basic data transmission types parallel and serial. In parallel
data is transferred simultaneously and in serial transmission data is transferred
bit by bit. We will see these types of transmission in detail.

6.4.1 Parallel transmission

Definition: when two devices are physically connected with a very short
distance then we can have connection with separate number of wires and each
wire can be used to transfer a bit of data. So if we want to transfer 8 bit of data
then we require 8 wires. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and
data is exchanged using a parallel transfer mode. There is no delay in
transmission due to multiple wires.
Following points are very important for parallel data transmission.
• Data is transmitted simultaneously on separate communication lines
(wires).
• Each bit is transmitted through a separate wire/line. So, to transmit n bits,
n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• The bits transmitted between two devices, that is sender and receiver, are
with the same speed. This speed is observed in clock pulse of the
microprocessor.
• Data transmission is used for short distance communication.
The following figure 6.0 shows how data is transmitted between sender and
receiver using eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to
receiver.

Data communication 101

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.0 parallel data transmission.

6.4.2 Serial Transmission

Definition: when two devices are physically connected with a very long
distance more than few kilometers then we can have connection with single pair
of wires can be used to transfer a bit by bit of data. Data is transmitted as a single
bit at a time using a fixed time interval. This mode of transmission is known as
serial transmission. This type of data transmission is economical. In serial
transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially
if the separation is more than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more
economical to use a single pair of lines.
Following points are very important for parallel data transmission.
• It requires only one communication line to transmit data from sender to
receiver.
• Data transmission is in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination.
Then least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other
bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single
communication line.
Following figure 6.1 shows how data is transmitted between sender and
receiver using single wire.

Figure 6.1: Transmission between Sender and Receiver

This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are
transmitted serially one after the other.
102 Data communication
 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
6.5 TYPES OF SERIAL TRANSMISSION
NOTES
Serial data transmission has two types.
1. Asynchronous transmission
2. Synchronous transmission
These transmissions are called as 'Bit synchronization', because they use bit
by bit for transmission.
In Bit Synchronization it is required to determine when the beginning and
end of the data transmission occurs. It helps the receiving devices to know when
the data begin and end during transmission process.

6.5.1 Asynchronous Transmission

• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a
character is either a letter of the alphabet or number or control character
i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit
and stop bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the
arrival of new group of bits. A start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning
of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is
finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte.
These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.
Figure 6.2 shows Start – Stop Bit in synchronization process.

Figure 6.2: Start – Stop Bit Representation

• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more
bandwidth is consumed in asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This
idle time is also known as Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called
Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be Data communication 103
 Fundamentals of synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with
Information Technology the incoming bit stream.

NOTES Application of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission (shown in figure 6.3) is well suited for
keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices. The advantage of this
method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or
the computer as transmission takes place character by character.

Figure 6.3: Asynchronous Transmission

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which
information is transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is
used by modems.

Advantages of Asynchronous transmission

1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to
synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous transmission is better,
because line cost would be low and idle time will not be expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself,
therefore if character is corrupted during transmission, its successor
and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted
becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission

1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission
due to the overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the
start bits. These bits can be missed or corrupted.

6.5.2 Synchronous Transmission

• Synchronous transmission as shown in figure 6.4 does not use start and
stop bits.
104 Data communication
 • In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain Fundamentals of
multiple bytes. Information Technology

• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

NOTES

Figure 6.4: Synchronous Transmission

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established
between sender & receiver by 'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the
responsibility of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes so as to
reconstruct the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at
the same clock frequency.

Application of Synchronous transmission

• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between
computers.

Advantage of Synchronous transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no
extra bits (start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the
individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local
buffer storage at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also
requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to
increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency.
This requires proper synchronization which makes the system
complicated.
This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for
example, coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.)

Data communication 105

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
6.5 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIAS
NOTES
Transmission media is a physical way between sender (transmitter) and
receiver. There are mainly two type of transmission media 1) Guided Media and
2) Unguided media. In guide media, electromagnetic waves are passed through
solid medium, such as copper coaxial cable, copper twisted cable, and optical
fiber. For unguided media, wireless transmission goes through air, water, water
and vacuum.
The quality of data transmission depends upon quality of medium and
signal. For guided media, quality of medium is important whereas, in unguided
media, the quality of transmitting signal called as bandwidth through antenna is
important.
Data transmission is also depends upon data rate and distance. If the data
rate is grater then transmission may be successful with any interruption even if
the distance is large. Thus successful transmission depends upon data rate and
distance. Following terms are essential to know for transmission.
1. Bandwidth: is a range within a band of frequencies or wavelengths.
Bandwidth is defined as the amount of data transmitted in a fixed
amount of time. It is usually expressed in bits per seconds or bytes per
seconds.
2. Transmission impairments: Analog signals travel through
transmission media tends to deteriorate the quality of analog signal.
This imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that received
signal is not same as the signal that was send. Attenuation – It means
loss of energy. For guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more
impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn suffers more than optical
fiber.
3. Interference: overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a
signal causing interference.
4. Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a
point-to- point link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In
multiple link, some attenuation and distortion on the line may occur,
that limits the distance or data rate.

6.5.1 Guided Transmission Media

In this type of guided media, transmission capacity of data rate depends on
the distance and the type of medium that is point to point or multipoint. Let us
see, twisted pair cable, Coaxial cable, and Optical fibers are examples of guided
transmission media.

106 Data communication

Twisted Pair Fundamentals of
Information Technology
It consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix. Pair
of insulated wires twisted together to reduce susceptibility to interference (two
straight parallel wires tend to act as an antenna and pick up extraneous signals). NOTES
It is quite highly susceptible to noise & interference.
Twisted pair (shown in figure 6.5) is most common transmission media for
both analog and digital signals. The twisted pair is used in the building or
apartment for telephone network. It is also used for used within a building for
local area networks supporting personal computers. Data rates for such products
are typically in the neighborhood of 10 Mbps to 1 Gb.

Figure 6.5: Twisted Pair

ADVANTAGES
1. It has low weight.
2. It is very inexpensive.
3. It is easy to install and maintain.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Because of high attenuation (weakening of signal), it is incapable
carrying a signal over long distances without the use of repeaters.
2. It has low bandwidth (data carrying capacity) capabilities.

Coaxial Cable
There are two conductors namely center conductor and outer conductor with
an insulating material between the two. Basically, coaxial cables are used for the
transmission of Radio Frequency energy. The system offers tight control over
electrical impedance.
The coaxial cable (shown in figure 6.6) is commonly used in WAN/LAN.
Coaxial cable for interconnecting equipment’s of LAN and WAN. Entertainment
equipment such as monitors, TVs, cameras, recording equipment and broadcast
equipment are interconnected using coaxial cables.

Data communication 107

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.6 Coaxial cable

ADVANTAGES
1. It provides higher bandwidths as compared to twisted pair cable.
2. The data transmission characteristics of coaxial cables are considerably
better than those of twisted pair cables.
3. The coaxial cables can be used for broadband transmission.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Expensive compared to twister pair cables.
2. The coaxial cables are not compatible with twisted pair cables.

Optical Fiber
This fiber optic cable (figure 6.7) is made up of a glass or silica core. The
core of the optical fiber is surrounded by glass or silica, called as cladding. The
refractive index of core will be always higher than the refractive index of
cladding.
Optical fiber is constructed for light propagation through transparent wire.
This cable is constructed because of the reason that light wave cannot traverse
long distance in air without any losses

Figure 6.7: Fiber Optics

ADVANTAGES
1. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e., noise in any
form because the information is travelling on a modulated light beam.
2. It guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission
capacity.
3. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
108 Data communication
 DISADVANTAGES Fundamentals of
Information Technology
1. Optical fibers are quite fragile and may need special care in installation.
2. Because of noise immunity, optical fibers are virtually impossible to tap.
NOTES
3. They are the most expensive of all the cables

6.5.2 Unguided Transmission Media

MICROWAVE
Microwave transmission (figure 6.8) occurs when wireless signal are
transmitted in the air between sender and receiver. The transmission depends on
the height of the antenna. The antennas are mounted on the tower. The height of
the towers is also important. If the height of tower on which antenna mounted is
high then transmission will be at higher range.

Figure 6.8: Microwave

Advantages
1. This transmission media proves cheaper than digging trenches for
laying cables.
2. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

Disadvantages
1. Microwave communication is an insecure communication.
2. Microwave signals is susceptible to weather effects like rains,
thunderstorms etc.

RADIO WAVE
Radio wave transmission (figure 6.9) occurs when information is
transmitted by using radio frequencies continuously in the form of sine waves.
Here sender or transmitter takes a message in the form of voice, pictures,
and encodes it into a sine wave and transmits as radio waves. The receiver
decodes the message from the sine wave.
Both sender and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio
signal.

Data communication 109

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.9: Radio Waves

Advantages
1. This transmission media proves cheaper than digging trenches for
laying cables.
2. It offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.

Disadvantages
1. Radio wave communication is an insecure communication.
2. Radio wave signals is susceptible to weather effects like rains,
thunderstorms etc.

SATELLITE
Satellite transmission (figure 6.10) is based on microwave relay system.
Satellite sends the waves to the earth station consisting of satellite dish works as
an antenna and communication equipment to transmit and receive data from
satellites

Figure 6.10 Satellite communication

Advantages
1. The area coverage through satellite transmission is quite large.
2. The laying and maintenance of intercontinental cable is difficult and
expensive and this is where the satellite proves to be the best
alternative.

Disadvantages
1. The costs associated with satellites are significantly high.
110 Data communication
MODEM AND ITS WORKING Fundamentals of
Information Technology
A modem is called as modulator and demodulator device connected to a
computer for making successful communication with other computers via
telephone lines. NOTES

How Modem works

If we want to send the data from one computer to the other then telephone
lines is a solution. But telephone lines can carry analog signals and therefore, we
need a device which can convert the digital data signals into analog signals from
sender computer and receiver computer will have the another device that converts
received analog signals into digital signals and making successful
communication.
So modem (figure 6.11) takes the digital signal from sender computer and
converts it into analog signals and sends it over the telephone lines this process
is called as modulation. At the receiver end these signal are converted from
analog into digital form. This process is called as demodulation.

Figure 6.11: working of modem

There are two types of modem 1) Internal modem and 2) External modems.
Internal modem is fixed inside the CPU and the external modem can be attached
from outside of the computer.

6.6 TYPES OF NETWORK

Computer network is a connection between two or more computers for

exchanging data and information and sharing resources like printers, servers.
Computers are connected to each other through coaxial cables, optical fiber,
telephone lines, radio lines, or satellite links.
The first world’s computer network was designed by ‘Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)’ by the United States Department of
Defense. Today computers are networked and are identified as
Data communication 111
 Fundamentals of 1. Local Area Network (LAN)
Information Technology
2. Wide Area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
NOTES
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
Let us see this one by one

6.6.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (figure 6.12) is limited to small physical area i.e. small
building or office, school, or apartment. Computers are connected within a very
short distance and therefore computers are connected with twisted pair, coaxial
cable or optical fiber. But now days these computers are connected by wireless
devices also.
As the computers are closely located, data transfer speeds are higher than
other networks like WAN and MAN. The speed ranges between 10.00 Mbps to
10.00 Gbps. This network is also known as Ethernet network. Wireless LANs
use wireless Wi-Fi with the IEEE 802.11 standard.
LAN network include Bus, Ring or Star topology which is described in the
next section.

Figure 6.12: Local Area Network

6.6.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network (figure 6.13) defines the computer connected relatively
larger geographical area such as city, village, district, state. All the department
or offices located geographically with the country can communicate with each
other for exchanging the data and sharing resources.
In this type computers are commented telephone lines, fiber optic cables,
satellite links or leased lines. Wide area networks are used by private companies
to connect their office located in the different cities.
WANs are mostly private and are built for a particular organization by
‘Internet Service Providers (ISPs)’ which connects the LAN of the organization
112 Data communication
to the internet. For low cost solutions, WAP is also built using a ‘circuit Fundamentals of
switching’ or ‘packet switching’ methods. Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.13: Wide Area Network

6.6.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A network that connects two or more computers, communicating devices
or networks in a single network that has geographic area larger than that covered
by even a large ‘Local Area Network’ but smaller than the region covered by a
‘Wide Area Network’. MANs (figure 6.14) are mostly built for cities or towns to
provide a high data connection and usually owned by a single large organization.
Group of LANs are backbone to be connected within area of city or state
and provides services similar to internet service provider (ISP). The technologies
used in MAN are ‘Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)’, ‘Fiber Distributed Data
Interface (FDDI)’ and ‘Switched Multi-megabit Data Service (SMDS, a
connectionless service)’. In most of the areas, these technologies are used to
replace the simple ‘Ethernet’ based connections. MANs can bridge Local Area
Networks without any cables by using microwave, radio wireless communication
or infra-red laser which transmits data wirelessly.

Figure 6.14: Metro Politian City

6.6.4 Personal Area Network (PAN)

In Personal Area Network computers are connected in close proximity of
around a few meters within a room. PAN’s can be wired or wireless
Data communication 113
 Fundamentals of A personal area network (PAN) shown in figure 6.15 is a computer network
Information Technology used for communication among computer devices, including telephones and
personal digital assistants, in proximity to an Individual’s body.
NOTES

Figure 6.15: Personal Area Network

6.7 TYPES OF NETWORKS

A group of two or more computers connected together is called as computer

network. Computer networks are mainly used to exchange of data and
information. Computer networks are described by physical and logical
arrangement of the network nodes. The physical topology of a network described
by configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
Network topologies describe the ways in which the elements of a network
are mapped There are two types of architecture in computer networking.

1. Peer-to-peer network.
In this architecture one computer will send data and information to the other.
There is no server computer to control the other.

2. Client-server network.
In client-server architecture as shown in figure 6.16, Server machine is
having total control of exchanging data and information. Any machine can send
data and information to the other but under the control of server machine.

114 Data communication Figure 6.16: Client-server and peer-to-peer network.

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
6.8 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
NOTES
A network topology is arrangement of nodes. How the server, clients and
network devices are connected. Some of the well-known topologies are ring, star,
bus, tree, mesh, and ad-hoc.

6.8.1 Ring Topology

In a ring topology (figure 6.17), all the nodes are connected in a circular
way. One computer is connected by only one computer and the data and
information can be transferred in only one direction.
Each node in this ring topology is working as host and relay. As a host, each
node will send data to other nodes and will receive data addressed to it. As a
relay, each node forward data addressed to other nodes to the next node.
Reliability is the main concern of the ring topology. If a single link is
broken, the communication between certain nodes is impeded. Dual ring
solutions, where communication is possible both clockwise and anticlockwise,
have been proposed to improve reliability through redundancy. The increase in
redundancy comes with higher deployment and maintenance costs.

Figure 6.17: Ring Topology

6.8.2 Star Topology

In star topology (figure 6.18), there is a central device known as network
hub or switch or router is positioned and all other computer nodes are connected
to this central component.
This topology is robust in nature. If a certain link fails, only the hosts using
those links will be disconnected from the network, while all the other hosts will
not experience any disruptions in communications. The negative aspects of a star
topology include the existence of a single point of failure and increased
deployment costs. The latter has been mitigated with the latest advancements in
wireless networking.

Data communication 115

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.18: Star Topology

6.8.3 Bus Topology

In a Bus topology (figure 6.19), there is a common line used to connect all
the nodes in the network. The host will compete for accessing the common link
or line for data transmission. This common link is only a communication
medium.
When a host wants to send the data, it gains access to the medium, then
sends data messages which are then received by all other nodes connected to the
same line. However, only the host to which the messages are addressed will react
to these messages, while the rest of the hosts will discard them.
This was very popular topology, but it performs good for a less number of
nodes connected. Their efficiency is affected severely when a large number of
stations require network access. Bus topologies are less popular nowadays, in
the context of the increasing demand for network connectivity and large growth
of data traffic.

Figure 6.19: Bus topology

6.8.4 Tree Topology

The tree topology (figure 6.20) is a combination of star and bus topology.
the hosts are connected to a network hub which is further connected to other hubs
in a tree-like structure. Each hub acts as a root and router for a tree of hosts.
In this topology, host sends a message over a tree and the message travels
through a tree and reached a destination host. This topology is more efficient as
compare to bus and ring topologies.
116 Data communication
 Only the maintenance cost of the tree topology might be higher than others. Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.20: Tree Topology

6.8.5 Mesh Topology

Each host in or network device id directly connected to any other device or
host within a network. Mesh topology (figure 6.21) us very expensive but more
efficient. However, mesh topologies are most popular for wireless networks, as
wireless links can be easily and cost effectively established and maintained. Full
mesh topologies are also used for backbone networks.
As each host is connected to each other, there are multiple paths available
in down time of some path and therefore a message can be transferred from a
available path. If data traffic is more then also message can be transferred through
some other path. This is advantage of mesh topology.

Figure 6.21: Mesh topology

6.8.6 Ad-hoc Topology

Ad-hoc topology (figure 6.22) does not have any infrastructure. There is
remote hosts communicate over dynamically formed paths based on links
established between neighboring nodes. The messages travel over multiple links
in a multi-hop manner in order to reach their destination.
The main advantage of this type of network is its ease of deployment, low
cost, and flexibility. As there is no previously deployed infrastructure, the Data communication 117
 Fundamentals of network is formed on the go, as mobile hosts come and go. As each host in the
Information Technology network also acts as a router, the network range is also variable, adding scalability
to the list of advantages.
NOTES

Figure 6.22: Ad-hoc network

6.9 COMPUTER PROTOCOLS, CONCEPTS RELATING

TO NETWORKING:

6.9.1 OSI reference model

In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was
approved as an international standard for communications architecture. This is
primary architecture model for computer communication. It ensures greater
compatibility and interoperability between various types of network technologies.
This model shows how application of one computer transfer to the other
through network medium. This model divides the data or application to be
transferred into seven layers. Each layer performs specific network function.
The process of breaking the data or information into seven layers reduces
the complexity of the process. The OSI Reference Model (figure 6.23) is
composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. Each
layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on
other computers. The 4 layers at the bottom i.e. Physical, Data link, network and
transport are concerned with how data is being transferred over network. The
layers at the top i.e. application, presentation and session layers are designed
towards services to the applications.

118 Data communication

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology

NOTES

Figure 6.23: ISO/OSI Model

6.9.2 Application Layer

The application layer top most layer and is close to the user. This layer is
used to provide the services to the user’s applications. For example applications
such as spreadsheet programs, word processing programs.
The Application Layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly
needed by users. One widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser
wants a web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server using
HTTP. The server then sends the page back.
Functions of Application Layer
1. This layer has standard mechanism for acceding files. They cab also
retrieve files from a remote computer.
2. User can log on to a remote host.
3. This layer provides forwarding and storing E-mails.
4. This layer provides access for global information about various
services.

6.9.2 Presentation Layer

This layer ensures that information of application layer sends in a readable
format by the application layer of another machine. If necessary, the presentation
layer translates between multiple data formats by using a common format. This
layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand
the information (data) and will be able to use the data. Languages (syntax) can
be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition presentation
layer plays a role translator. This layer executes the functions of translation,
encryption and compression.

Data communication 119

 Fundamentals of Functions of Presentation Layer
Information Technology
1. Information is converted into bit streams. The presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between encoding methods as different
NOTES computers use different encoding methods.
2. It carries out encryption at the transmitter and decryption at
the receiver.
3. It carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data to
be transmitted. The primary role of Data compression is to reduce the
number of bits to be transmitted. It is important in transmitting
multimedia such as audio, video, text etc.

6.9.3 Session Layer

This layer allows users on different machines to establish active
communication sessions between them. Its main aim is to establish, maintain and
synchronize the interaction between communicating systems. Session layer
manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
In Session layer, streams of data are marked and are resynchronized properly, so
that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Functions of Session Layer

1. This layer allows two systems to start communication with each other
in half-duplex or full-duplex.
2. This layer prevents two parties from attempting the same critical
operation at the same time.
3. This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered
as synchronization points into stream of data.

6.9.4 Transport Layer

Transport layer accepts data from the layer above, split it up into smaller
units, and pass these data units to the Network layer, and ensure that all the pieces
arrive correctly at the other end. All this must be done efficiently and in a way
that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware
technology.
This layer determines what type of service to provide to the Session layer,
and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The Transport layer is a true end-to-
end layer, all the way from the source to the destination. In other words, a
program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program
on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages.

Functions of Transport Layer

1. Transport Layer header includes service point address which is port
address. This layer gets the message to the correct process on the
120 Data communication
 computer unlike Network Layer, which gets each packet to the correct Fundamentals of
computer. Information Technology

2. Message are broken into numbered segments and reassembled

correctly at the receiver end. Lost packets are merged into it and the NOTES
correct message is transmitted.
3. In transport layer flow of message is controlled by both sender and
receiver nachine.
4. All the messages are received or not are also checked at both the end.
If error occurs then error correction is controlled through
retransmission of meddages

6.9.5 Network Layer

Network layer deliver packets from sender to receiver across multiple
network lines. If two computers are connected on the same line, then there is no
need of this layer. It routed the signal through different channels to the other end
acts as a network controller.
It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming
packets into messages for higher levels. In broadcast networks, the routing
problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even non-existent.

Functions of Network Layer

1. Translation of logical network address into physical address is carried
out by this layer. This layer concerned with circuit, or packet
switching.
2. Network layer is responsible form routing packets to final destination.
3. Network layer can breaks the large packets into smaller one for
transmission
4. Network layer is responsible for error control and packet sequence
control.

6.9.6 Data Link Layer

Data link performs the delivery of data. The data is framed in terms of
packets that received from network layer and transmits physical layer. This layer
also detects the errors and corrects it.
Data link layer accomplishes the task of framing the data into data frames(a
few hundred or few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If the
service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by send
back an acknowledgement frame.

Functions carried out by the data link layers

1. Data link layer makes the manageable frames of bits out of
received data. Data communication 121
 Fundamentals of 2. A header containing physical address of the sender or receiver is added
Information Technology to the frame
3. Data link layer controls the flow of speed of transmission of bits
NOTES between sender and receiver.
4. Data link error also controls the error in the transmission by adding a
trailer at the end of the frame. It also has a mechanism of prevention
of duplication of frames.
5. Data link layer has access control mechanism to decide which of the
device can access the information

6.9.7 Physical Layer

This is the lowest layer of the model. It is responsible for transferring of
bits from one machine to another over network. This layer is not concerned with
the meaning of the bits and deals with the setup of physical connection to the
network and with transmission and reception of signals.

Functions carried out by this layer

1. Data required to be sent must be encoded into signals for transmission.
It defines the type of encoding i.e. how 0's and 1's are changed to
signal.
2. it defines data transmission rate means the number of bits per second.
3. It deals the synchronization of data between sender and receiver.
4. It defines the transmission interface and medium between devices.
5. This layer connects devices with the medium: Point to Point
configuration and Multipoint configuration.
6. Devices must be connected using the following topologies: Mesh, Star,
Ring and Bus.
7. This Layer defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex.
8. Deals with baseband and broadband transmission.

6.9.8 Protocols
A protocol is means for successful communication between two or more
devices. A successful communication requires some common language, syntax
and semantics. So a protocol defines the rules that govern the communication
between two computers. A protocol consists of format of a statement (syntax)
and meaning of the command or instruction (semantics).
Network protocols when transfer the message must look at
• Message format

122 Data communication • How the networking devices share information with other networks
• How to handle the errors occurred during communication Fundamentals of
Information Technology
• How to terminate the data transfer session
Following are very popular protocols used in networking.
NOTES
1. HTTP protocol for communication between web browsers and servers.
This is also called as application protocol.

Figure 6.24: HTTP protocol

2. TCP protocol for Transmission control protocol (TCP) is a network
communication protocol designed to send data packets over the
Internet.

Figure 6.25: TCP protocol

3. Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal set (or communications protocol)
of digital message formats and rules for exchanging messages between
computers across a single network or a series of interconnected
networks, using the Internet Protocol Suite (often referred to as
TCP/IP). Messages are exchanged as datagrams, also known as data
packets or just packets.

Figure 6.26: IP Protocol

4. Network Access Protocol is the lowest layer protocol of the TCP/IP
protocol hierarchy. Data communication 123
 Fundamentals of This protocol provides the means for the system to deliver the data to
Information Technology the other device which are directly connected on the network. Network
layer protocol must know the underlying structure of the network i.e.
NOTES its packet structure, addressing, etc. in order so send the data to
other device.

6.9.10 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol (figure 6.27) holds the functions of four layers of the
OSI reference model. TCP/IP model was designed by DARPA (Defense
Advanced Research Projects Agency).

Application Layer
The Application Layer of the TCP/IP Model consists of various protocols
that perform all the functions of the OSI model’s Application, Presentation and
Session layers. This includes interaction with the application, data translation
and encoding, dialogue control and communication coordination between
systems.
HTTP – This protocol id used to transfer web pages from web/HTTP server
to web/HTTP client. Web browsers from client side are used to request pages
from server.
FTP – This protocol transfers file between two hosts. Out of this two hosts,
one host is FTP server and other is FTP client. Client host requires authentication
before connected to server for accessing file structure. After successful
authentication, file operation can be performed be client host.
Telnet – this protocol is used to access the resources of a remote host, telnet
server runs a telnet server application receives a connection from a remote client.
This protocol provides text based command line interface. Both the client and
server hosts use this facility available as a telnet application.
SMTP – This is special protocol for sending e-mails. Client’s mail is acting
as SMTP client and at server end it is SMTP server. Mails can be send between
two servers using SMTP.
DNS – Domain Name server protocol maps the name of the web site with
IP address. This IP address is numeric combination of 32 bits like 172.17.224.16
whereas this IP address has the web site name such as www.bvdumca.edu.in.
When you give web site name in browser DNS maps the website with IP address.
Once this is done HTTP session is established.

Transport Layer
There is no difference between the transport layer of ISO/OSI and four
model of TCP/IP protocol suite. These network layers take the user data and add
a header and then pass it down to the transport layer. And transport layer sends
this user data across the network to destination node.
124 Data communication
 The two protocols named TCP and UDP are available in this protocol. TCP Fundamentals of
is reliable for connection established between two nodes to control the flow of Information Technology
data in segments. The protocol names UDP then, transfers the data without fail.
NOTES
Network Layer
Network layer of the ISO/OSI model is Internet layer of the TCP/IP four
layer model. This layer provides logical addressing, path determination and
forwarding of data.

Following sub protocols

IP protocol
This is most common protocol called as routing protocol that sends the
message across the network.

IGMP protocol
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) is a communication protocol
used by host computer and adjacent routers on IPv4 network to establish
multicast group membership.

ICMP Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) that is used to send error
messages across at this layer.

Network Interface Layer

This layer is equivalent to two layers of ISO/OSI model. Physical layer and
Data link layers define the protocol and hardware requirement to connect a host
to a physical network and to deliver the data across it.
Ethernet protocol is used to transfer the data in LAN environment whereas
point-to-point protocol is used to transfer data in WAN environment.

Figure 6.27: TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Data communication 125

 Fundamentals of
Information Technology
6.10 INTERNET
NOTES
Internet (figure 6.28) is a way of connecting computers in the world through
a devices called as routers, switches, hubs. Now a days many electronic devices
are part of the internet. When two computers are connected on internet, they can
transfer the data in the form of audio, video, graphics and text data.
As we have studied transmission media like cables or wireless devices are
used to carry out this data over internet.
The internet is group of LANs, WANs, MANs, and PANs connected through
transmission lines and having some bandwidth. There is no owner of the internet;
there are two nodes who are sharing the data and information. One is sender and
other is receiver.

Figure 6.28: Internet

6.10.1 Web Browsers

A program to access the content of web pages of various websites is called
a browser.
There are many types of browser available in the market today. Internet
Explorer, Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, is some of the common browser
programs.
These browser programs are used to navigate the webpages forward or
backward. The web sites are accessed by using URL. Each website is having
URL. for example if we give command in the browser like www.bvdu.edu.in
then browser access the web page and opens it for the user to read or enter the
data depending the type of the website or content displayed.

6.10.2 Web servers

Web server is a machine that stores the information and it shares this
information to its intended user over internet. Web servers are accessed by using
URL through browser by the user. There are many types of web servers. Web
server allows HTTP to success the web pages over the internet.
126 Data communication Following are the basic types of webservers
6.10.2.1 File Servers Fundamentals of
Information Technology
File servers are responsible for management of accessing, protecting and
securing the files as per the user’s request.
Files servers are of two types 1) LAN file servers 2) Internet file servers. NOTES
LAN file servers are not web servers because the file management is not on the
basis of internet. Only files are accessed by the user from servers connected on
Local area network. LAN servers are using SMB, NFS protocol to transfer the
files. Whereas the Internet file servers are truly web server because the pages are
dynamic and accessed through FTP and HTTP protocol.

6.10.2.2 Application Servers

Applications servers allows user to access to certain type of software. This
readymade software’s can be accessed and used by the user through registration
process. For example, suppose a girl or a boy want to play a chess game on the
internet then he/she must need to register her/his account which is managed by
the piece of software. Once this identification process is over, he/she is free to
access the game software from application server. Similarly we are accessing the
mail server of goggle by login process and then we read or write a mail.
There are plenty examples of this server like java, .net, games, mail, mobile
application and open source servers available.

6.10.2.3 Database Servers

Database servers are used to access the database management software
through internet. There are Oracle server, SQL server and many more servers are
accessed online by user today.

6.10.2.4 Mail Servers

Mail servers are very famous today. Users are keeping informed to other
people in their group by sending and receiving messages by using many mail
software’s provided by goggle, rediffmail or yahoo. Mails are set up with the
expressed idea of it controlling and handling emails only. It sends, receives, and
stores your emails.

6.11 BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING

The word data processing is used when the raw data is processed and the
meaningful information is produced and provided to the intended user. When
this processing is used in the business purpose then it is called business data
processing. Now a day’s people use on line software for creating their document
by using word, or spreadsheet software and they use utility like graphics to
display the results. This graphics utility programs take the data as input, process
it and displays the result on the screen.
So the data processing does the three basic steps 1) input data 2) processing
of data and 3) display or print output of data. Data communication 127
 Fundamentals of 6.11.1 Data storage hierarchy
Information Technology
Data is stored and accessed in the form of bits. So the binary digit called as
bit will be at the bottom of data storage hierarchy. Bits are combined onto number
NOTES of bytes to be transferred from one location to the other which is next level. These
bytes are required to create a record. A record is a combination of attributes or
fields. The record may be having students detail consisting of student name,
program, gender, birth date, admission date etc. this record structure is the third
level in storage hierarchy. These records are stored in a file called as database
file which is the fourth level. The files are stored as a database which is
fifth level.
Thus data storage hierarchy is shown in the following table

128 Data communication

6.11.1 Method of organizing data Fundamentals of
Information Technology
Data is required to be organized in order to store, modify, delete, access
very efficiently. The data in data processing is stored into two ways.
NOTES
1) Data is stored in terms of Files.
In this method the application program requires great efforts to sort,
merge and manipulate the data as per users’ requirement. This method
is old and hardly used in data processing.
2) Data is stored as data base files
This method of data organization is very popular due to its flexibility.
Ease for storing, merging, integrating various database files by the user.
Method of organizing data, File Types, File Organization, File Utilities.

6.12 QUESTIONS

6.12. Short answer questions

1. What is communication process in network?
2. What is data transmission speed?
3. What are the levels of OSI/OSI model?
4. What is protocol?
5. What is LAN, WAN, MAN?

6.12.2 Long answer questions

1. What are data transmission modes?
2. What are the data transmission media?
3. What is protocol? Explain TCP/IP protocol in detail
4. What are the webservers? Write examples of each.
5. What is business data processing? What is data storage hierarchy?

*****

Data communication 129