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Thermal Food Engineering
Operations
 Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Bioprocessing in Food Science

Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD

Scope: Bioprocessing in Food Science will comprise a series of volumes covering the entirety of
food science, unit operations in food processing, nutrition, food chemistry, microbiology, biotech-
nology, physics and engineering during harvesting, processing, packaging, food safety, and storage
and supply chain of food. The main objectives of this series are to disseminate knowledge pertaining
to recent technologies developed in the field of food science and food process engineering to students,
researchers and industry people. This will enable them to make crucial decisions regarding adoption,
implementation, economics and constraints of the different technologies.

As the demand of healthy food is increasing in the current global scenario, so manufacturers are
searching for new possibilities for occupying a major share in a rapidly changing food market.
Compiled reports and knowledge on bioprocessing and food products is a must for industry people.
In the current scenario, academia, researchers and food industries are working in a scattered manner
and different technologies developed at each level are not implemented for the benefits of different
stake holders. However, the advancements in bioprocesses are required at all levels for betterment
of food industries and consumers.

The volumes in this series will be comprehensive compilations of all the research that has been
carried out so far, their practical applications and the future scope of research and development in
the food bioprocessing industry. The novel technologies employed for processing different types of
foods, encompassing the background, principles, classification, applications, equipment, effect on
foods, legislative issue, technology implementation, constraints, and food and human safety
concerns will be covered in this series in an orderly fashion. These volumes will comprehensively
meet the knowledge requirements for the curriculum of undergraduate, postgraduate and research
students for learning the concepts of bioprocessing in food engineering. Undergraduate, post
graduate students and academicians, researchers in academics and in the industry, large- and small-
scale manufacturers, national research laboratories, all working in the field of food science, agri-
processing and food biotechnology will benefit.

Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Thermal Food Engineering
Operations

Edited by
Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
and
M. K. Garg
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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wise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title
is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Wiley Global Headquarters

111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA

For details of our global editorial offices, customer services, and more information about Wiley prod-
ucts visit us at www.wiley.com.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

While the publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this work, they make no rep­
resentations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and
specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation any implied warranties of merchant-­
ability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representa­
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN 9781119775591

Cover image: Wikimedia Commons and the editors

Cover design by Russell Richardson

Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines

Printed in the USA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xvii
1 Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects 1
Amrita Preetam, Vipasha, Sushree Titikshya, Vivek Kumar,
K.K. Pant and S. N. Naik
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends 3
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies 6
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing 8
1.2.3 Preservation Process 9
1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies 11
1.3.1 Infrared Heating 12
1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism 12
1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating 13
1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating 14
1.3.2 Microwave Heating 14
1.3.2.1 Principal and Mechanism 14
1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry 17
1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing
Technologies 19
1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating 24
1.3.3.1 Principal and Mechanism 24
1.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 26
1.3.3.3 Applications 27
1.3.4 Ohmic Heating 28
1.3.4.1 Principal and Mechanism 28
1.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 31
1.3.4.3 Applications 33
1.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies 36
1.5 Conclusion 36
References 37

v
vi Contents

2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45

Sushree Titikshya, Monalisa Sahoo, Vivek Kumar and S.N. Naik
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation 47
2.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism 48
2.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets 49
2.4 Environmental Stress Adaption 50
2.4.1 Sublethal Injury 50
2.5 Resistance of Stress 51
2.5.1 Oxidative Stress 51
2.5.2 Osmotic Stress 52
2.5.3 Pressure 52
2.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation 52
2.6.1 Infrared Heating 52
2.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism 52
2.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 53
2.6.2 Microwave Heating 57
2.6.2.1 Principle and Mechanism 57
2.6.2.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 58
2.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating 59
2.6.3.1 Principle and Mechanism 59
2.6.3.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 60
2.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 60
2.6.4.1 Principle and Mechanism 60
2.6.4.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 61
2.6.5 Ohmic Heating 62
2.6.5.1 Principle and Mechanism 62
2.6.5.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 63
2.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices
in Food Industry 64
2.8 Conclusion 65
References 66
3 Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles
and Applications 75
Monalisa Sahoo, Sushree Titikshya, Pramod Aradwad,
Vivek Kumar and S. N. Naik
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism 76
3.2.1 Types of Blanching 76
3.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching 76
 Contents vii

3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80

3.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement
Blanching (HHAIB) 81
3.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching 81
3.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching 85
3.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching 86
3.2.2 Application of Blanching 89
3.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes 89
3.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality
and Dehydration 90
3.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal 90
3.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load 90
3.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning
Reaction 91
3.2.2.6 Peeling 91
3.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal 91
3.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction
Efficiency 91
3.2.2.9 Other Applications 92
3.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism 92
3.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization 92
3.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization 93
3.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization 93
3.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization 94
3.3.5 Application of Pasteurization 98
3.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types
of Sterilization 98
3.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods 99
3.4.2 Advanced Retorting 100
3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 101
3.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 103
3.5 Conclusions 104
References 104
4 Aseptic Processing 117
Malathi Nanjegowda, Bhaveshkumar Jani and Bansee Devani
4.1 Introduction 118
4.2 Aseptic Processing 118
4.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization 121
4.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes 123
viii Contents

4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients

and Quality 123
4.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking
Index (C0) 124
4.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions
in Food 124
4.4 Components of Aseptic Processing 124
4.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing 124
4.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger 125
4.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger 126
4.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH) 126
4.5 Aseptic Packaging 127
4.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic
Processing 127
4.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination
of Packaging Materials 128
4.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 128
4.6.1 Milk Processing 133
4.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing 135
4.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 136
4.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 137
4.9 Conclusion 137
References 138
5 Spray Drying: Principles and Applications 141
Sukirti Joshi, Asutosh Mohapatra, Lavika Singh
and Jatindra K Sahu
5.1 Introduction 142
5.2 Concentration of Feed Solution 142
5.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed 143
5.3.1 Principle of Atomization 143
5.3.2 Classification of Atomizers 143
5.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers 144
5.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer 144
5.3.2.3 Two‐Fluid Nozzle Atomizer 145
5.4 Droplet‐Hot Air Contact 145
5.5 Drying of Droplets 146
5.6 Particle Separation 148
5.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality 148
5.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization 150
5.7.2 Parameters of Spray‐Air Contact and Evaporation 151
 Contents ix

5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151

5.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate 151
5.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature 151
5.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature 152
5.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 152
5.7.2.6 Residence Time 153
5.8 Classification of Spray Dryer 153
5.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer 153
5.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.3 Semi‐Closed Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.4 Single‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.5 Two‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.6 Short‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.8.7 Tall‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried
Particles 155
5.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods 156
5.11 Wall Materials 157
5.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials 158
5.11.1.1 Starch 158
5.11.1.2 Modified Starch 158
5.11.1.3 Maltodextrins 158
5.11.2 Cyclodextrins 159
5.11.3 Gum Arabic 159
5.11.4 Inulin 159
5.11.5 Pectin 160
5.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan 160
5.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials 160
5.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate 161
5.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder 161
5.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 161
5.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics 162
5.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain 162
5.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses 163
5.12.3 Growth Conditions 164
5.12.4 Effect of pH 164
5.12.5 Harvesting Technique 165
5.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate 165
5.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins 165
5.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds 166
5.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory 166
x Contents

5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170

References 170
6 Solar Drying: Principles and Applications 179
Baher M. A. Amer
6.1 Introduction 179
6.2 Principle of Solar Drying 180
6.3 Construction of Solar Dryer 181
6.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems 182
6.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying 185
6.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System 186
6.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer 188
6.8 Solar Drying Economy 188
6.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying 190
References 192
7 Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications 197
Praveen Saini, Nitin Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Anil Panghal
7.1 Introduction 197
7.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized
Bed Dryer 198
7.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer 201
7.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer 202
7.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques 205
7.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD 205
7.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD 206
7.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD 207
7.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD 207
7.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity 208
7.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed 208
7.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed 209
7.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed 210
7.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying 211
7.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality 212
7.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying 215
7.7 Concluding Remarks 215
References 215
8 Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments 221
Vaishali Wankhade, Vaishali Pande, Monalisa Sahoo
and Chirasmita Panigrahi
8.1 Introduction 221
8.2 Absorbent Air Dryer 222
 Contents xi

8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223

8.2.2 Design Considerations and Components
of the Absorbent Air Drier 223
8.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System 223
8.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air
Dryer System 226
8.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No
Temperature Control and Air Circulation
System 227
8.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air
Circulation and Temperature Control 228
8.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 228
8.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 229
8.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 231
8.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers
in Agriculture and Food Processing 233
8.5 Concluding Remarks 234
References 234
9 Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications 237
Peter Waboi Mwaurah, Modiri Dirisca Setlhoka
and Tanu Malik
9.1 Introduction 238
9.2 Refractance Window Drying System 239
9.2.1 History and Origin 239
9.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer 240
9.2.3 Principle of Operation 242
9.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics 244
9.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate 245
9.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying 245
9.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water 245
9.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness 246
9.4.3 Effect of Residence Time 247
9.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature
(Air Convection) 247
9.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer
with Other Types of Dryers 247
9.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality
of Food Products 248
xii Contents

9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249

9.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds 250
9.6.2.1 Carotene Retention 251
9.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention 252
9.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention 252
9.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food
and Agriculture 253
9.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive
Compounds 253
9.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
on Food Safety 254
9.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer 255
9.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying 255
9.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 256
References 257
10 Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications 261
Sourav Misra, Shubham Mandliya and Chirasmita Panigrahi
10.1 Introduction 261
10.2 Basic Principles 263
10.3 Process Parameters 265
10.3.1 Electrical Conductivity 265
10.3.2 Electrical Field Strength 266
10.3.3 Frequency and Waveform 267
10.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity 267
10.3.5 Particle Concentration 267
10.3.6 Ionic Concentration 267
10.3.7 Electrodes 268
10.4 Equipment Design 268
10.5 Application 270
10.5.1 Blanching 276
10.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization 276
10.5.3 Extraction 277
10.5.4 Dehydration 278
10.5.5 Fermentation 279
10.5.6 Ohmic Thawing 280
10.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics
of Food Products 280
10.6.1 Starch and Flours 280
 Contents xiii

10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI)

and Water Solubility Index (WSI) 280
10.6.1.2 Pasting Properties 280
10.6.1.3 Thermal Properties 281
10.6.2 Meat Products 282
10.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products 282
10.6.3.1 Electrical Properties 282
10.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity 282
10.6.3.3 Vitamins 283
10.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds 284
10.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 284
10.6.3.6 Colour Properties 284
10.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content 285
10.6.3.8 Textural Properties 285
10.6.3.9 Sensory Properties 286
10.6.4 Dairy Products 286
10.6.5 Seafoods 290
10.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating 290
10.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating 291
10.9 Conclusions 291
References 292
11 Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications 301
Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha
11.1 Introduction 301
11.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 302
11.2.1 Nature of Microwaves 302
11.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves
in Free Space 302
11.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter 306
11.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating 309
11.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material 309
11.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions 312
11.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave
in a Material 316
11.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power 316
11.2.3.2 Penetration Depths 317
11.2.3.3 Power Dissipation 319
11.3 Applications 320
11.3.1 Microwave Baking 320
xiv Contents

11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323

11.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing 326
11.3.4 Microwave Drying 328
11.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying 329
11.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying 330
11.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying 330
11.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization 331
References 334
12 Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications
in Food Processing 349
Puneet Kumar, Subir Kumar Chakraborty and Lalita
12.1 Introduction 350
12.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 351
12.2.1 Principles of IR Heating 351
12.2.1.1 Planck’s Law 352
12.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 352
12.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law 352
12.2.2 Source of IR Radiations 353
12.2.2.1 Natural Source 354
12.2.2.2 Artificial Sources 354
12.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy 356
12.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials 357
12.3.1.1 Composition 357
12.3.1.2 Layer Thickness 357
12.3.2 IR Parameters 357
12.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays 358
12.3.2.2 IR Intensity 358
12.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration 358
12.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over
Conventional Heating Methods 359
12.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing 359
12.4.1 Drying 360
12.4.2 Peeling 361
12.4.3 Blanching 363
12.4.4 Microbial Decontamination 364
12.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies 366
12.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying 366
12.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating 367
 Contents xv

12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368

12.6 Conclusion 368
References 369
13 Radiofrequency Heating 375
Chirasmita Panigrahi, Monalisha Sahoo, Vaishali Wankhade
and Siddharth Vishwakarma
13.1 Introduction 376
13.2 History of RF Heating 377
13.3 Principles and Equipment 378
13.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating 378
13.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Radiofrequency Heating 379
13.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Microwave Heating 380
13.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance
of RF Processing 380
13.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor 380
13.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth 381
13.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection 382
13.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods 383
13.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale
of RF Equipment 385
13.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Lab Scale 386
13.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Industrial Scale 387
13.4 Applications in Food Processing 388
13.4.1 Drying 388
13.4.2 Thawing 393
13.4.3 Roasting 394
13.4.4 Baking 394
13.4.5 Disinfestation 395
13.4.6 Blanching 395
13.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization 396
13.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards,
and Safety Aspects 399
13.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends 402
13.7 Conclusions 404
References 404
xvi Contents

14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415

Nartaj Singh and Prashant Bagade
14.1 Introduction 416
14.1.1 Food Quality 417
14.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food
Processing 419
14.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality 421
14.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards
and its Requirements 423
14.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Quality Within the Industry 440
14.1.1.5 Regulations and their Requirements 444
14.1.2 Food Safety 445
14.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary
Food Production 445
14.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety 446
14.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards
and its Requirements 447
14.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Safety Within Industry 450
14.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety 451
14.3 Conclusion 453
References 453
Index 455
 Preface

Thermal processing is a significant component of the undergraduate and

postgraduate degrees in agriculture engineering, food engineering and
food science technology throughout the world. Thermal food engineering
operations are considered one of the core competencies for these programs
and in industries as well. Researchers will be able to use the informa-
tion as a guide in establishing the direction of future research on thermo-
physical properties and food processing. The audience for this volume will be
the student preparing for a career as a food engineer, practicing engineers in
the food and related industries, and scientists and technologists seeking infor-
mation about processes and the information needed in design and develop-
ment of thermal food engineering processes and operations. Simultaneously,
improving food quality and food safety are continue to be critical issues
during thermal processing. So, quality, food safety and role of technology in
food industry are discussed to cover these areas of food industry.
A great variety of topics is covered, with the emphasis on the most
recent development in thermal operations in food industry. The chapters
presented in this volume throw light on a number of research subjects that
have provided critical information on different thermal processes, their
impact on different food components, and their feasibility in food indus-
try. Each chapter also provides background information of the changes in
different thermal operations which changed drastically over the years. The
authors emphasis on newer thermal technologies which are making a great
impact on the industry and the resulting finished products. The adoption
of modern technology has increased efficiency and productivity within
the factory. Most importantly, utilizing the newer thermal operations has
greatly improved product quality. All chapters are supported with a wealth
of useful references that should prove to be an invaluable source for the
reader. Self-explanatory illustrations and tables have been incorporated in
each chapter complimentary to the main text.
Thanks are due to all authors for contributing their knowledgeable chap-
ters in this volume and helping us to complete the book. We also thank the

xvii
xviii Preface

authorities of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,

Hisar for their help and support. Finally, we also express indebtedness and
thankfulness to Scrivener Publishing and Wiley team for their unfailing
guidance and helpful assistance.

Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
M.K. Garg
 1
Novel Thermal Technologies:
Trends and Prospects
Amrita Preetam1*, Vipasha1, Sushree Titikshya1, Vivek Kumar1, K.K. Pant2
and S. N. Naik1
1
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India

Abstract
Heating is possibly the most traditional way of processing foods. The technologies
involved in heating have been continuously developing for the past many years as
per consumer need, satisfaction and demand. Techniques such as dielectric heat-
ing, ohmic heating, and infrared heating are evolving and can substitute for the
conventional heating methods for improving quality and shelf life, and providing a
faster production rate. The conventional technologies are primarily based on con-
vective, conductive, and radiative heat transfer. But the new novel thermal meth-
ods are mainly relying on the electromagnetic field or electrical conductivity and
are having cleaner environmental impacts such as energy saving, water savings,
improved efficiencies, fewer emissions, and eventually decreasing dependency
on non-renewable resources. The chapter discusses novel thermal technologies.
Definitions, basic principles, environmental impacts, current trends, and future
perspectives are described along with the mechanism and advantages of the novel
thermal technologies. The novel thermal technologies are continuously emerging
and evolving as per consumer requirements and need.
Keywords: Novel thermal technologies, infrared heating, ohmic heating,
microwave heating, radiofrequency heating

1.1 Introduction
The primary goal for food processors is quality and safety assurance. To
ensure microbiological food safety, the use of heat by thermal operation

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Nitin Kumar, Anil Panghal and M. K. Garg (eds.) Thermal Food Engineering Operations, (1–44)
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

involving drying, sterilization, evaporation, and other methods are com-

mon practices. The conventional heating methods rely on principles such
as convection, radiation, and conduction [36] that primarily rely on heat
generation exterior of the product to be warmed up. But there are limita-
tions attached to it. These conventional ways of processing, due to the
decrease in efficiency of heat transfer, by excessive heating because of time
reach the thermal center of foods for conducting sufficient heat or losses
because of the heat on the surface of equipment and installation. Some of
these problems can be resolved by technical solutions such as heat recy-
cling or advanced designing and installation methods but at high expense.
Therefore research has been made for raising the quality and safety and
economic aspects of food through technological development. The novel
thermal technologies in which the main processing factor is temperature
change as the main parameter responsible for food processing can be con-
sidered as the promising alternative in food processing as compared to the
traditional process. Unlike traditional technologies, novel thermal tech-
nologies are based on electromagnet field (EMI) or electric conductivity.
Novel thermal technologies are based on the heat generations directly
inside the food. The novel thermal technologies have successfully helped
in enhancing the effectiveness of heat processing along with ensuring food
safety and maintaining nutritional food properties. Infrared heating has
also evolved for the processing of food. The thermal technologies involve
the equipment plotted to heat the food to process it, whereas in non-­
thermal techniques the food is virtually processed without the involvement
of food. The general definition of common technologies involved in novel
thermal techniques and their basic differences are discussed below.
Ohmic heating is also called Joule heating, electrical residence heating. It
is a method of heating the food by the passage of an electric current, so heat
is generated due to the electrical current. It is a direct method, as the heat
energy is directly dissipated into the food. It is primarily used to preserve
food. Electric energy is dissipated into heat, which results in quick and uni-
form heating followed by maintaining the nutritional value and color. The
key variable in electrical conductivity is designing of an effective ohmic
meter. Ohmic heating uses a normal electrical supply frequency which is
of 50-60Hz. Ohmic heating instantly penetrates directly into the food. The
applications of ohmic heating include UHT sterilization, pasteurization,
and others.
Dielectric heating is another novel process that provides volumetric
heating, for uniform sterilization or preserving of food. It is also a direct
method and is based on the process of heating the material by caus-
ing dielectric motion in its molecule using alternating electric fields,
 Novel Thermal Technologies 3

microwave electromagnetic radiation, or radio wave. The intensity of the

electric field and the dielectric properties of the product regulate the volu-
metric power and absorption and the rate of heat generation. Both micro-
wave heating and radiofrequency belong to this category and follow the
principle of dielectric heating. The depth of penetration is directly related
to frequency in the case of dielectric heating. The thermal conductivity is
not so important in dielectric heating. The few application of microwave
and radiofrequency are in freeze-drying, baking, sterilization, rendering,
frying, and many others.
Infrared heating is mainly utilized to modify the eating characteristics
of food by varying its color, texture, flavor, and odor. Radiant heat is less
managed and has a broader range of frequencies. The thermal conduc-
tivity is a limiting factor in infrared heating. It acts as an indirect method
of heating. Infrared is simply absorbed and converted into heat. It has
limited penetration depth in food. It has several advantages over conven-
tional methods such as decreased heating time, reduce quality loss, and
uniform heating, versatility, easy to operate and compact equipment, and
many others. It also has a vast area of application includes drying, frying,
baking, cooking, freeze-drying, pasteurization, sterilization, blanching,
and many others.
The other technique is non-thermal heating technologies which are
based on pulsed light, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, and gamma radi-
ation, and others, where the temperature may change also but is not the
prime parameter for food processing. The purpose of this chapter is to
deliver a general outlook of novel thermal technologies in the food pro-
cessing sector along with their environmental impact, current trends, and
future perspective.

1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status

and Trends
The most common approach for food processing in the last 50 years is ther-
mal processing because a huge amount of microorganisms are removed at
elevated temperatures by killing them. Thermal processing protects food
by pasteurization, hot air drying, and others, induces variations to improve
food quality by baking, blanching, roasting, frying, and cooking. Time and
temperature used are the key variable depending on the application used.
In the case of thermal processing, sometimes the high temperature may
lead to loss of nutrients or bioactive compounds which results in low-­
processed food and low-grade food.
4 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

So in such a situation, novel thermal techniques or with the combina-

tion of traditional technologies are used to modify the quality and shelf
life while decreasing the change in sensory properties. The food indus-
try is continuously developing in order to fulfill customer demand for
food nutrition, natural flavors, food quality, and taste. Innovation and
research are continuously growing all over the world to maintain and
improve standards. Currently, consumers demand food with the least or
no chemical additives and should be minimally processed [37]. These
developing technologies are called ‘novel’ technologies because they are
successfully fulfilling the needs of consumers and are an improvement
of conventional technologies. Depending upon the principle used, it can
be thermal or non-thermal. Techniques such as microwave, ultrasound,
and pulsed electric field can be an alternative proved by many research-
ers to develop nutritious and safe food [10, 15, 16]. Such techniques are
being used broadly by many innovative food companies [6]. As compared
to traditional technologies these new emerging technologies have many
benefits over traditional techniques such as more heat and mass trans-
fer, improved product quality, short process and residence time, better
functionality, enhanced preservation, and others. The processing of the
food is important for taste, nutritional content, texture, and appearance
[36]. The benefits of novel processing technologies over traditional tech-
niques are improved functional characteristics and retention of sensory
attributes by using the promising next-generation food [62]. The devel-
opment, research, and large-scale set-up of these novel technologies are
taking place internationally. It is evident from the number of publications
on the benefits of novel thermal technologies in food processing in vari-
ous food and agriculture processing research journals [51].

Microwave: The most popular and extensive technology studied world-

wide both domestically and industrially is microwave processing due to
its various advantages such as easy operation, lower maintenance require-
ment, and cleaner environment [77]. But despite all the advantages,
microwave is facing two main hurdles, i.e., irregular distribution of tem-
perature within the food product and high cost of energy regarding this
technique [6]. Furthermore, the set-up operated at 2450 MHz may give
rise to serious boundary and surface overheating of the food to outstretch
the desired elevated temperature in cold spots. For those cases, continuous
microwave systems have been used to provide uniform temperatures for
the heating of foods. Some authors have suggested fusion with water as the
heating medium, pulsed microwave [24, 51]. The most common technol-
ogy is microwave-assisted thermal sterilization system (MATS™) based on
 Novel Thermal Technologies 5

915MHz single-mode cavities using a shallow bed with water food immer-
sion; it penetrates deeper in food and water offers to reduce the edge heat-
ing. It got approval in 2009 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
[72].

Infrared heating: Proved by many researchers, Infrared heating (IRH)

is an efficient process for the purification of pathogenic microorgan-
isms in food. Many operational variables such as food temperature, size
and kind of food materials, IR power intensity, IR power intensity, and
others are necessary for microbial inactivation. At a commercial scale,
IRH had been found as the replacement or substitute to decrease non-­
uniform temperature distribution which occurs in microwave heating
[6]. Internationally, IRH is used for blanching, drying, baking, roasting,
and peeling. At the industrial level IRH has considerable advantages such
as a large heat delivery rate, no medium required, high energy efficiency,
low environmental footprint, and others [39]. But because of less pene-
tration depth, this technology is not successful at the commercial level;
for example, it cannot be utilized in in-packaging food processing. The
major successful large-scale (commercial) applications of IRH is drying
of low-moisture foods (grains, pasta, tea, etc.), also the applications in
baking (e.g., pizzas, biscuits, and others) and in the oven for roasting of
cereals, coffee, etc.

Radiofrequency: Another thermal technology is Radiofrequency heating

(RFH), used from the 1940s. Earlier applications were to warm bread, dry
up and blanch vegetables and others. RFH has a greater industrial interest
because of its unique properties such as deeper penetration due to its lesser
frequencies, uniform electric field distribution, and longer wavelength.
Major applications are in the food-drying sectors for pasta, snacks, and
crackers and sterilization or pasteurization process, treatment of seeds and
disinfection of product [19]. As compared to microwave heating, RF has
the potential to reduce surface overheating and can also give better results
at a commercial scale [81]. On a commercial scale, such as for treating
bulk materials, sterilization of packaged foods is successful because they
are simple to construct, have a more uniform heating pattern, and have
greater penetration depth. Drawbacks of this technology include, at indus-
trial scale, the design equipment is complicated, there is a high investment
cost and technical issues such as dielectric failure and thermal runaway
heating that can damage package and product [1]. Another common ther-
mal technique is ohmic heating (OH) where internal heat generation takes
place by passing a current into the materials.
6 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

Ohmic heating (OH): Compared to other technologies, ohmic heating has

advantages such as larger temperature in particles than in liquid, decreased
fouling, energy-efficient, uniform heating (achieved by thermal, physical,
and rheological properties), and lower cost [64]. The drawbacks include
the requirement of aseptic packing after OH heating, the possibility of cor-
rosion, direct exposure of the electrode with food.
Major utilization of OH are blanching, sterilization, evaporation, dehy-
dration, extraction, and evaporation. The basic procedure involved in OH
of microbial inactivation is thermal harm and in some cases by electropo-
ration. In comparison to traditional heating, OH heating can attain lesser
heating times, can keep away from hot surfaces, and can decrease the tem-
perature gradients.
Since the 1990s, OH is now utilized in developing countries and all over
the world. Almost a hundred processing plants have been placed all over
the world. The market is in the developing stage and evolving constantly.
OH equipment is installed all over the world such as in Italy, France, Spain,
Greece, and Mexico [54]. The application of OH is not much commercial-
ized for solid food products. For liquids, viscous liquids, and pumpable
multiphase products, the installed set-ups perform the sterilization and
pasteurization of numerous food products with great characteristics with
main applications in vegetables and fruit areas.
Overall, the major issue involved in commercialization of electromagnetic
techniques for numerous food applications is the lack of heat uniformity,
which has a major impact on key variables of food processing and safety. To
avoid this downside, hybrid systems are proposed, i.e., the combination of
traditional and volumetric heating [54, 63]. The hybrid system offers advan-
tages such as safety, improved process efficiency, and product properties.
Successful hybrid techniques are IR-convective drying, a combination of
IRH, IR-heat pump drying, and microwave heating, and many others are
still in progress because of the magnified energy throughput.

1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies

The emergence of novel thermal technologies and non-thermal processes
in food processing industries is capable of producing high-quality and stan-
dardized products. Both of them are environmentally sound and efficient
in nature as compared to conventional technologies. Here we will consider
more on the environmental footprints of novel thermal technologies. The
primary objective in the food industry is food safety which requires high
energy consumption, but novel thermal technologies are successfully able
to balance energy saving and energy consumption.
 Novel Thermal Technologies 7

The high value of hygiene and safety of food requires large use of water
in both hot and cold cycles in production which consequently increases the
environmental footprint. Processes such as cooking, sterilization, drying,
and pasteurization require various types of energy. Novel thermal technol-
ogies are promising, attractive, and efficient in nature. They are capable of
providing improved quality and reduced environmental effects which will
eventually reduce environmental footprints. Novel thermal technologies
can reduce processing costs followed by improving and maintaining the
value-added products. Overall the primary types of energy used based on
conventional thermal processing techniques are fossil fuel and electricity,
majorly utilized in refrigeration and mechanical power in pumps. A heat
exchanger is commonly used in the pasteurization of beverages where the
pathogens are killed when heated to a particular residence time. During
thermal treatment, convection and conduction play a major role to trans-
fer heat to the products. For viscous fluids, directing heating process is
applied, e.g., steam injection and steam infusion are utilized for thermal
treatments. In the food and beverages industry, regarding the distribution
of energy in 2002, Denmark suggests that total consumption of energy
(TJ/Year) is 135,200 including the amount of heating and power. Adapted
from [58].
This concludes that major heat is used in frying, evaporation, drying,
and heating for thermal processes. Until the present moment, this trend
is still functioning. Novel thermal technologies such as radio frequency,
ohmic heating, microwave, etc., for food processing being continuously
evolving. These novel thermal technologies have reduced emissions, reli-
ability, improved productivity, high product quality, energy saving, water
saving and consequently have less impact on the environment; [45] inves-
tigated that for Orange juice and cookies manufacturing, radio frequency
drying (RF) can range up to 0 to 73.8 TJ per year in terms of primary
energy saving. The major kinds of gas emissions from food industries are
linked to power and heat production particulate matter and gases such as
SO2, CO2, NO, from combustion processes. The particulate matter and vol-
atile organic compounds (VOCs) and other chemical emissions are from
methods such as size reduction, heating, refrigeration system, and cooking
methods.
Conventionally 33% of the overall energy consumed in food processing
corresponds to the production of steam. The steam is commonly used in
drying, concentrating liquids, cooking, sterilizing, etc., in the processing of
food processes. The generation of steam used in food industries involves
the utilization of boilers. To remove the dissolved solid from the boiler
system a large quantity of water is periodically drained from the bottom,
8 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

which is called a blow-down. Inadequate blow-down may lead to the gath-

ering of dirt which reduces the heat transfer rates and increases the loss
of energy. Irregular boiler maintenance can decrease the efficiency of the
boiler up to 20-30%. The efficiency of a boiler is affected by losses of heat by
convection and radiation [58]. Improper boiler maintenance can also emit
large emissions of CO2 and loss of energy. [58] also mentions the losses that
occurred of a boiler or steam generation system composed of: gases from
the combustion of air, or incomplete combustion, radiation losses, boiler
blow-down water, heat convection, and fouling of heat transfer surfaces
from hot boiler surface. Many attempts have been made to evolve a sus-
tainable sector for lowering the emission of gases, e.g., CO2 and enhance
the energy efficiency of devices and methods using renewable energy is
now the main concern for every method. Therefore, using electricity in
food powering systems may show an environmental benefit as compared
to conventional techniques used. Overall novel technologies are consid-
ered sustainable, once they reduce the consumption of boilers or steam
generation systems and eventually decrease the waste-water, heat loss and
increase energy-saving and water-saving as well. Furthermore, the electricity
is produced by an eco-friendly source of renewable energy; after that these
methods will efficiently contribute to decreasing the pollution, assisting
them to protect the environment. [82] shows the balancing by ohmic heat-
ing decreased the extent of solid leaching irrespective of the dimensions of
the product. It is concluded by [65], OH blanching offers benefit in aspects
such as water-saving by maintaining the quality of the processed products.
Novel thermal can efficiently accelerate the drying processes when related
to traditionally heat pre-treated samples allowing exact control of the pro-
cess temperature and eventually it can decrease costs of energy, reduce the
gas consumption and lower combustion-related emissions [53].
So we can conclude that novel thermal technologies are one of the most
novel techniques in food preservation processes. Novel thermal tech-
nologies are quite efficient in all aspects such as the efficiency of energy,
saving of water, and reduced emissions. Most of the processes involved
in novel thermal technologies are green and hence more environmentally
friendly, having the least environmental impact as compared to conven-
tional technologies.

1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing

The major purpose of thermal processing is to maintain certain quality
standards, to reduce enzymatic activities, reduce microbial activities to
enhance its shelf life, increase digestibility, and maintain certain physical
 Novel Thermal Technologies 9

and chemical variations to ensure its characteristic and safety of food. The
objective also includes adding values such as maintaining its texture, flavor,
color, etc., and make varieties of new products; it should also be needed
by the specific section of the population. Over the past several years, con-
sumer demands have improved standard, convenient and varied food
which required the modification and development in existing traditional
process for the new food preservation technologies. For that, the new novel
thermal technologies evolved. Novel thermal technologies are better not
only in terms of their quality improvements of food and heating efficiency
but also in other important aspects such as water-saving, energy-saving,
and reduced emissions. Most of these technologies are green and have less
environmental impact and improve the added value of foods.

1.2.3 Preservation Process

The basic definition of food indicates that food is the materials, formulated
or processed which are consumed orally by living organisms for develop-
ment, pleasure, needs, and fulfillment. The chemical composition of food
includes majorly water, fats, lipids, and carbohydrates with less amount
of minerals and compounds containing organics. The different catego-
ries of food are perishable, synthetic, non-perishable, fresh, medical food,
harvested, manufactured, preserved, and others. The preservation of food
majorly depends on the type of food required to be produced and formu-
lated. Preservation of food is defined as maintaining its properties at the
desired level for long as possible. Safety with sustainability and innova-
tion are the major aspects and priorities to ensure the preservation of food.
In the modern era, the preservation of and processing of food not only
includes the safety of the foods but also maintains sustainable innovation,
economic feasibility, customer satisfaction, nutritional aspects, absence of
chemical preservative, and should be environmental sound [62].
Food preservation is necessary for ensuring desired quality level, con-
sumer satisfaction, to maintain preservation length and also to focus on
the group for whom the products are to be preserved [10]. The reason
for preservation also includes to form the value-added products, provide
modifications in diet, and most importantly to overcome the improper
planning in agricultural sectors. Preservation loss not only results in minor
deterioration of food but also results in the transformation of the food to
a severely toxic state.
After a certain period of time, the quality and characteristics of
food may get deteriorated and become undesirable for consumption
so it becomes the prime factor to study the rate of variations of quality
10 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

attributes which indicates its shelf life; this is a very important param-
eter to consider. The quality of products can rely on appearance, yield,
eating characteristics, microbial characteristics, and the consumer’s
overall experience. The deterioration of food depends upon mechanical,
chemical, physical, and microbial reactions. The quality of the product
was maintained at every stage of food production and overall processing
chains such as manufacture, storage, distribution, and sale. Additionally,
the need for preservation must depend on its purpose and use, and
consider the population for whom the preservation is to be done as the
nutritional requirement and food restriction apply differently to different
sections of groups.
There are many measures for food preservation; inhibition, inactivation,
and avoiding recontamination are the common ones. Each method con-
tains several processes of preservation such as inhibition, which includes
a decrease of oxygen, adding preservatives, control of pH, freezing, drying,
surface coating, gas removal, fermentation, and many others. Inactivation
includes irradiation, sterilization, extrusion, and others; avoiding contam-
ination involves packaging, hygienic processing, aseptic processing, and
others.
Thermal technology has been the backbone of food production and pres-
ervation for many years. In this technology, the temperature is assumed
to be the major parameter for preservation and processing mechanism to
make food commercially sterile, i.e., to get rid of pathogens and microor-
ganisms which usually grow in the normal shelf life of the food product.
Thermally processing the food provides real importance to the food by
increasing and preserving its shelf life longer than the chilled food process-
ing technologies.
In novel thermal technologies, preservation is done by the use of elec-
tricity. Various forms of electrical energy are utilized for food preservation
such as ohmic heating, high intensity pulsed electric field, high-voltage arc
discharge, microwave heating, and low electric field stimulation. Ohmic
heating is the most common and is based on volumetric heating which
prevents the overheating of food, provides uniform and quick heating; it
depends on the principle that generation of heat in the food is an outcome
of electrical residence when an electric current is moved through the food
product. Furthermore, ohmic heating prevents thermal damage and pro-
motes the efficiency of energy. Similarly, microwave heating is also very
common and utilized in almost every household and the food industry
but its low penetration depth of microwave into solid provides ther-
mal non-uniformity. The other available methods utilizing electric energy
are also very versatile, useful, and efficient for the preservation of food.
 Novel Thermal Technologies 11

The current electro heating can be used to produce to form new and up-to-
date products with diversified functionality.

1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies

Thermal processings are perhaps most essential in the food sector which
has been used for the past many years; it has been discovered to increase
the quality and shelf life of food with heat treatments. Thermal processing
is the heating of foods at a particular temperature for a specified period
of time. There are several techniques available in thermal technologies
such as radiofrequency heating, ohmic heating, blanching, drying, frying,
chilling, infrared heating, freezing and microwave heating, and extrusion.
Combined high-pressure thermal treatment of food is also a very efficient
prospect for the processing and preservation of food. The most common
among them are microwave heating, ohmic heating, combined micro-
wave vacuum-drying, radiofrequency processing, and new hybrid drying
technologies.
Hybrid technologies are the recent development in engineering in the
operation and design of the dryers to attain dried products with desired
characteristics. In hybrid technologies, the drying technologies are com-
bined with the new drying techniques to achieve a new age drying pro-
cess to reduce energy consumption and enhance product quality. New age
drying technologies would be very helpful for the bioproducts in agricul-
tural sectors for all economic, environmental, and product quality aspects.
Instant infusion is another new process for the heat treatment of food,
depending upon the product requirement providing mild pasteurization
and sterilization. For effective and efficient pasteurization and sterilization,
the following are the needs: rapid and small heating time, accurate, and
small residence time at sterilizing temperature, and rapid cooling time.
For examining the food when it goes under thermal process, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can
be used as they possess some unique properties for the same. Both of them
can be used to investigate variation in the food during processing. Both of
them are non-invasive and able to detect water mobility. NMR is the most
versatile analytical technique used in modern times. It is capable of reveal-
ing complicated multivariate information inside the optically opaque and
complex food matrix, also the thermal transformation in liquid, suspen-
sion, and gels regarding food samples. NMR and MRI are based on the
magnetic properties of atomic nuclei and many elements have isotopes
with such properties. Both of them are superior to any other instrumental
12 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

methods because both are non-invasive, non-destructive, both measure

volumes instead of surfaces, and are able to extract both physical and chem-
ical information. By both techniques, it can extract knowledge about diffu-
sion, flow, water distribution, and others. Furthermore, processes such as
heating, freezing, hydration, dehydration, and salting can be detected and
monitored non-invasively.

1.3.1 Infrared Heating

1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism
Infrared was discovered by William Herschel in the 1800s. Infrared
depicted below red (infra: below); red is the longest wavelength of visible
light. IR heating is the transmission of thermal energy in the form of elec-
tromagnetic waves. Wavelength between 0.7 and 1000 micrometer, wave-
length larger than visible light but smaller than those of radio waves are the
infrared waves. Three major types of infrared waves are [39]:

1. Short waves 0.76-2 μm (near IR waves), temperature above

1000°C
2. Medium waves: 2-4 μm (medium IR waves), when the tem-
perature is above 400 - 1000°C
3. Long waves: 4-1000 μm (far IR waves), when the tempera-
ture is below 400°C

The working principle of infrared waves includes: IR energy is electro-

magnetic radiation emitted by hot objects (quartz lamb, quartz tubes, or
metal body) by vibrations and rotation of molecules. When it is absorbed,
the radiation provides up its energy to heat materials. An object is a “black-
body”, if it absorbs (or emits) 100% of incident IR radiation. The quantity
of heat emitted from a perfect radiator (blackbody) is expressed by Stefan-
Boltzmann law equation:
Q = σSB .A.T4
Where Q is defined as the rate of heat emission, σSB is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, T is defined as the absolute temperature, and A is
defined as the surface area.
When radiant heaters and food products are not perfect absorbers, the
Stefan-Boltzmann equation was modified and the concept of “grey body”
was found:

Q = σSB .ɛ.A.T4
 Novel Thermal Technologies 13

Where ɛ defined as the emissivity of the grey body (ranging from 0 to 1).
This property changes with the wavelength of emitted radiation and
temperature of the grey body.
The heating level depends on the absorbed energy, which then rely on
the composition of food and the radiation frequency.
Mathematically, the transfer of heat rate to food is expressed as,

Q SB . .A. (T 41 T 4 )2

Where T1 depicts the temperature of the emitter and T2 depicts the tem-
perature of the absorber. Heat transfer rate relies on:

1. Surface temperatures of heating and receiving bodies or

materials,
2. Surface characteristics of both bodies or materials,
3. Shapes of the emitting and receiving materials.

Quantities indicate infrared radiations are the perfect source of energy

for heating purposes. They indicate the factors such as larger heat trans-
fer capacity, heat penetration directly into the product, no heating of sur-
rounding air, and fast process control. A perfect balance required for
optimal heating between the body and surface heating is attained with IR.
The parameters that are important to control to achieve optimal heating
results are radiator temperature, infrared penetration characteristics, radi-
ator efficiency, and infrared reflection or absorption properties.

1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating

There are several advantages of IR over traditional heating techniques: [1].
Instant heat: Electric IR system forms heat instantly so there is no need
for heat build-up.
Reduced operating costs: The energy can reach 50%, depending upon
the insulation, types of construction, and other factors. Furthermore,
operations maintenance is limited to the cleaning of reflectors and heat
source changing.
Clean and safe: Operating IR is a low-risk task and there is no produc-
tion of by-products.
Zone control: The IR energy is absorbed only where it is directed and
does not propagate. Other advantages of IR are as follows:

1. Quick heating rate

2. Shorter residence time
14 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

3. Uniform drying temperature

4. A high degree of process control
5. Higher thermal efficiency
6. Cleaner work environment
7. Alternate source of energy

The utilization of IR technique in the food sector is still developing; many

attempts are continuously growing for the development of IR technologies
and the future research is focusing on process control and equipment design
development, expanding the areas of applications of IR heating and under-
standing the interaction between heating process and product characteristics.

1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating

There are wide applications for IR (infrared radiation) which include medical,
paper industries dye, automobile, and others. Table 1.1 discusses the several
application of IR heating [1]. In industrial applications, medium to long-range
wavelengths seem to be beneficial, for all materials to be heated or dried give
the largest absorption in the 3-10 mm region. Moreover, the applications in
short waves are continuously evolving. Applications of IR are mostly within the
area of food for drying and many other processes during the period from the
1950s to the 1970s from the Soviet Union, the United States, and the Eastern
European countries. During the 1970s, much research was performed about
industrial frying or meat products cooking and the utilization of near-infrared
(NIR) techniques is initiated [28, 43]. In the 1970s and 1980s, several types of
research were carried out to apply this technique in the sector of food, mostly at
[Swedish Institute of Food and Biotechnology] and gained a set of knowledge.
Recent work is experimental in nature and performed in Japan, Taiwan, and
several other countries. Applications are mostly from areas such as dehydration,
drying of vegetables, fish, rice, roasting of coffee, cocoa, and cereals, heating of
floor, frying of meat, baking of pizza, biscuits, and bread, enzymes, and patho-
gens inactivation. Also, for thawing, blanching, sterilization, pasteurization of
packing materials, and surface pasteurization, these techniques have been used.
The major effects on food involve the quick heating of food surfaces
sealed in moisture and aroma compounds. Variation to components of
food surfaces is equivalent to those that happen during baking.

1.3.2 Microwave Heating

1.3.2.1 Principal and Mechanism
With the increasing demand for healthy foods, there is a repeated effort
given to enhance and optimize different processing techniques in food,
 Novel Thermal Technologies 15

Table 1.1 Applications of Infrared heating: [1].

Industry Methods
Agriculture Incubation and warming
Bottling Drying
Glass Drying, curing the varnish or paint on
back—mirrors and tempering layers
Medical- Incubation and warming
applications
Environmental Heating
chambers
Food Toasting, cooking, food warming,
drying, broiling, and melting
Pharmaceutical Drying water from powder—tablets
Metal treatment Preheating—aluminum; steel
Paper Laminating Calendaring—rolls
Adhesive—labels
Drying water from—towels
Paint Primer, topcoat alkyd, acrylic—steel
panels, Drying—bicycles, vehicles
bodies, aluminium
bodies
Textiles Moisture elimination—carpets Latex and
PVC backing
Moisture elimination from dyes
Plastics Laminating Annealing Forming
Embossing

to meet the expectations of consumers. With the advancement of emerg-

ing technologies, microwave energy has become an indispensable part of
every household system. The use of microwave has expanded from heat-
ing and defrosting to thawing, blanching, sterilization, drying, etc., in food
industries [20, 69]. Microwave is electromagnetic waves with a frequency
which ranges from 300 Mhz to 300 GHz. Frequency of microwave used
16 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

for domestic purposes is 2.45 GHz, whereas the frequency for industrial
purposes is 915 MHz [8].
Microwave is a varying magnetic field that generates heat on interaction
with, and absorption by, certain dielectric materials, and with the position-
ing of the direction of the electric field, the native thermal motion of the
polarity molecule changes [26]. Water, the dominant polar molecule, con-
sists of separated molecules of an oxygen atom with a negative charge and
hydrogen atom with a positive charge which combinedly structure into an
electric dipole. When these dipoles fluctuate swiftly back and forth from
positive to negative in the direction of the electric field numerous times per
second, these express reversals produce frictional heat. This implies that
the polar molecules in food play a vital role in the heating performance of
food in the microwave system. Due to this frictional rise in the temperature
of the water, food components get heated up by convection and conduc-
tion. The loss factor dielectric constant of the food determines the depth
of penetration of both microwaves and RF energy [49]. This also relies on
the varying temperature and moisture concentration of the sample mate-
rial plus the frequency of the electric field. Overall, with lesser frequency
and loss factors, we get more depth of penetration. Energy distribution var-
ies with food samples which also governs the depth of penetration of the
microwave inside the food. As the food material to be heated in the micro-
wave matches with the wavelength of the material, it becomes difficult to
manage the heat uniformity of microwave heating which can be taken as a
crucial constraint for industrial application of microwave heating. Thus, a
central obligation for microwave energy application and microwave equip-
ment in the food industry is the potential to accurately regulate heating
uniformity. Microorganisms are not affected as a result of microwave radi-
ation but are susceptible to the heat generated because of the radiation.
Microwaves are likely to be a channel through ceramics, thermoplastics,
and glass whereas they are absorbed by carbon and water; reflected by met-
als but conceivably transmitted using metal hollow tubes and on transiting
amongst diverse materials get refracted like the visible light. Microwaves
can also be focused on a beam [77].
The microwave energy is transferred to food through the contactless
transmission of the wave. This system ensures the uniform heating of food
samples during the operation. The equipment comprises a magnetron
which is the generator, guide waves which are the aluminium tubes, and for
a continuous operation, it has a tunnel attached with a conveyor or a metal
compartment for batch operation. These chambers and tunnels are sealed
by absorbers or traps to prevent the microwave from escaping and causing
injury to the operator [11].
 Novel Thermal Technologies 17

In the microwave system, the two oscillating perpendicular fields, i.e.,

electric and magnetic, act directly on the heating material, converting the
part of absorbed energy to thermal energy. The interaction of the micro-
wave radiation with chemically bound water present in the food material
generates high pressure and temperature due to the absorption of the char-
acteristic photonic energy of electromagnetic waves. This process causes
moisture evaporation, resulting in pressure exertion on the plant material
to cellular and subcellular level leading to swell up and rupture eventually
[44].
Microwaves are defined by two mechanisms:

(a) Ionic polarisation: ions present in the solution, when suspended to the
electric field, orient themselves, experiencing acceleration and an upsurged
kinetic energy. When ions collide with each other it gets converted into
heat. This frequent collision increases the density or the concentration of
the solution which is also known as the ionic polarization effect [3], whereas
in gases the collision becomes difficult due to the spacing between the mol-
ecules. In food material, cations are generated by the presence of salts of
sodium, potassium, or calcium whilst chlorine produces anions.
(b) Dipole rotation: When the polar molecule strives to situate itself into
the fluctuating electric field caused by the microwave, the dipole rotation
is created, where the oscillation of the dipolar species leads to the collision
with the surrounding producing heat [80]. With the increase in tempera-
ture, the dipole movement decreases, whereas ionic conduction increases
hence, food samples with both the compounds when heated by the micro-
wave, first governed by the dipole rotation and then with the increase in
temperature governed by ionic conduction. The comparative involvement
of these methods of heating hinges on the concentration and flexibility of
sample ions, plus on the sample’s relaxation time [36].

1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry

Microwaves have the capacity of penetrating deep into the food materi-
als which offers a remarkable advantage of the reduction of the process-
ing time for varied different processes like sterilization, drying, etc. (Table
1.2). Microwave heating also provides unvarying temperature gradients,
avoiding charring of surfaces of the food; and when utilized for drying,
the probability of giving case hardening is less during microwave heating
[4]. It could operate both in the continuous and batch process because
of the integration of the microwave energy with the convection process.
Microwave aids in the general energy conservation which is created from
18 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

Table 1.2 List of some techniques combined with microwave technology.

Mode Applications Benefits Drawbacks Reference
Ultrasound Enzyme activity Precise - [38]
Drying electronic
Extraction control.
Competent
energy
savings.
Cold Sterilization of Maintained Inappropriate [35]
Plasma microorganisms product for
quality. impenetrable
peels.
Probability
of getting
slenderize.
Infrared Tempering Refining Probability [55]
Heating Baking Drying rehydration of escalating
Properties compactness
and quality. and
Reduced slenderness
processing standards.
time by Manufacturing
95%. constrained
by the
equipment
size and
operating
cost.
Freeze Dehydration Quick energy Tough to control [30]
Drying dissipation. quality at
Energy high MRP.
savings up Lengthier
to 40%. drying time
Advanced at low power.
volatiles
retention
level.
Convective Dehydration Reduce Induces slight [68]
Drying overheating. discoloration
reactions.
 Novel Thermal Technologies 19

the entire plant volume. Microwave heating is also the predominant per-
tinent to food processing since it has the aptitude to evade the charring of
­temperature-sensitive resources. A key shortcoming can be the equipment’s
capital rate and consequently most expected to be utilized for top-quality
products [47].

1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies

The food processing industry utilizes microwaving immensely for different
purposes like cooking, preservation, drying, sterilization, and heating of
foods [26]. These particular applications have several advantages, such as
microwave drying offers lower bulk density and lower shrinkage along with
overhead rehydration ratio and saves power when compared to customary
drying [27]. Similarly, the antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds,
as well as the striking colors of different fruits and vegetables cooked with
or without water, could also be maintained through microwave cooking or
heating. It can also minimize antinutritional aspects, temporarily upsurge
in digestibility of in-vitro protein. And when it comes to microwave steril-
ization, it ensures not only food safety, but also reduces the potential risk
of any microbes’ attack on the food, inactivating enzymes to preserve the
nourishment of food. This section reviews various reports on different
applications of the microwave, their advantages, and effects onthe quality
parameter of food materials.

Microwave Drying
Drying is a complex volumetric heating process that involves heat and
mass transfer [13]. The strong microwave radiation when penetrates inside
the food item generates vapor and a pressure gradient that heats the food
from the inside and outside at the same time with a simultaneous increase
of temperature.
Microwave drying improves the quality of some food products with
minimum drying time. A microwave uses high-frequency electromag-
netic energy and converts it into heat. Wet products manage the energy
absorption strength which carefully heats the interior parts of food sam-
ples selectively. The moisture present in the food vigorously evaporates
and travels towards the surface without affecting the exterior parts of
the sample [41]. The microwave drying process goes through two suc-
cessive stages, i.e., liquid evaporation [26], and three phases of drying
include heating, constant rate, and falling rate [5]. Limiting diffusion
rate during the falling rate drying period results in shrinkage of the
20 Thermal Food Engineering Operations

structure of the food. Nevertheless, drying in the microwave generates

vapor inside and develops a core pressure gradient outside the product,
prevents the shrinkage to food material, and therefore, the drying in the
falling rate period is appraised to be very beneficial in microwave dry-
ing. Microwave drying when combined with various other methods for
example microwave-­convection, hot air microwave, vacuum-microwave,
and microwave-freeze, microwave-infrared gives more efficient results in
terms of quality of the food products which is not achieved by only micro-
wave drying and other conventional methods [8].

Microwave-assisted Freeze Drying

Heat sensitive foods like tomatoes or berries undergo the freeze-drying
(FD) method for moisture removal which promotes easy rehydration and
prevents chemical decomposition. However, FD takes longer drying time
as well as being expensive, which ultimately leads to excessive energy cost
and lower productivity [18, 29]. Therefore, combining FD with radiation
significantly eases the limitations of FD with shorter processing time,
higher energy saving plus efficient drying in the falling rate period as com-
pared to the convention freezing process [18]. Dehydration of Fuji apple
was stated by [41] using FD merged with Microwave-Vacuum, the study
reported that time for drying is reduced by 40% with nil nutritional change
using this double-step technique.

Microwave-assisted Vacuum Drying

In recent years, with the rapid accepted growth and popularity, this
method comes with the combination of volumetric heating and vacuum
drying. The advantages this combination provides are express mois-
ture evaporation and minimum structural and chemical changes of the
final dried products [7]. The final results revealed that a combination of
both the techniques at 90°C restored the anthocyanins and augmented
antioxidant activity when related to supplementary approaches enlisted
[84].

Microwave-assisted Infrared Drying

IR drying has been utilized in the past years for a varied range of agricul-
tural products due to its acceptance as an alternative technique. However,
because of its low penetrating power into the food material, it is combined
with microwave energy, and their synergistic effect was observed and cor-
related by [57] on the drying attributes of kiwifruit and banana. For both
the samples, they reported a good amount of moisture loss with reduced
drying time up to 98% when related to traditional drying. Similarly, an
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joka mieluummin tahtoi kuolla kuin uhrata miehensä, saattoi olla niin
tyyni ja uljas…»

»Pyhä isä», sanoi kapusiinilainen, »kun pyysitte tuota nuorta

naista syyttämään Davido Rossia, ajattelitte tätä ainoastaan kirkon ja
sen päämiehen vihollisena, jonka tarkoitus on molempien
hävittäminen ja järjestetyn yhteiskunnan tuhoaminen — eikö niin?»

Paavi nyökkäsi.

»Pyhä isä, jos… jos olisitte tiennyt, että hän oli jotakin muuta…
jotakin lähempää… esimerkiksi… jonkun papin sukulainen, olisitteko
vaatinut hänen syyttämistään kumminkin?»

Vanha kapusiinilainen oli vaivoin lausunut sanansa, mutta paavi

vastasi lujalla äänellä: »Se ei olisi muuttanut asiaa, poikani. Pyhä
raamattu ei peitä Juudaksen syntiä. Pitäisikö siis meidän peittää
niiden synnit, jotka kuuluvat oman perheemme piiriin?»

»Pyhä isä», sanoi kapusiinilainen, »jos teille olisi sanottu, että hän
on sukua teidän omaan ympäristöönne kuuluvalle papille…»

Hän vaikeni ja paavi vastasi hiukan vapisevalla äänellä: »Se ei

sittenkään olisi muuttanut asiaa. Kaikkivaltiaan viholliset vartioivat
yöt ja päivät, ja tulisiko pyhää kirkkoa alentaa hänen palvelijainsa
heikkouden tähden?»

»Pyhä isä, jos… jos teille olisi kerrottu… että hän oli kardinaalin
sukulainen?»

Paavi koetti hillitä itseään. »Sittenkään ei asia olisi muuttunut.

Olen vanha ja heikko, mutta Jumala olisi vahvistanut minua, ja
vaikka minun olisi pitänyt uhrata oikea käteni tai antaa ruumiini
poltettavaksi, niin…»

Hänen äänensä vapisi ja sammui. Syntyi hetken äänettömyys.

»Pyhä isä», sanoi kapusiinilainen kääntäen katseensa pois, »jos

olisi sanottu, että hän on mitä läheisintä sukua itselleen paaville…»

Paavin risti putosi, hän vapisi ja nousi istuimeltaan. »Silloin…

silloinkin… ei olisi… mutta tapahtukoon Jumalan tahto», virkkoi hän,
mutta ei voinut sanoa sen enempää.

Samassa pääsiäiskellot alkoivat soida. Pietarin-kirkon syvä-

ääninen kello kajahti ensin iloisesti kajahtaen ja sitten muut kellot
kaupungin kirkoissa yhtyivät riemusoittoon. Katedraalissa oli esirippu
alttarin edessä reväisty kahtia, ja laulettiin Gloria in Excelsis.

Silloin valkopukuinen pappi astui paavin huoneeseen ja sanoi

polvistuen keskelle lattiaa: »Pyhä isä, ilmoitan teille suuren ilon.
Halleluja! Herra on noussut kuolleista.»

Paavi koetti nousta istuimeltaan, mutta ei voinut. »Auttakaa minua,

monsignor», sanoi hän heikosti, ja pappi nosti hänet seisomaan.
Sitten hän nojautuen papin olkapäähän astui yksityisen kappelinsa
ovelle. Tultuaan sinne kääntyi hän isä Pifferiin, joka aikoi hiljaa
poistua huoneesta.

»Hyvästi, carissimo», sanoi hän surkealla äänellä, mutta

kapusiinilainen ei voinut vastata.

Hetken kuluttua paavi oli yksin. Pienen kappelin kaari-ikkunoiden

edessä riippui punaiset uutimet, mutta kellojen kaiku, urkujen hyminä
ja laulavan kansan äänet, kun suurta Hallelujaa veisattiin, kuuluivat
tuohon pimeään huoneeseen asti. Mutta yli kaikkien äänien alttarin
portailla makaava paavi kuuli yhden ainoan äänen, joka sanoi:
»Sinä, Jeesuksen Kristuksen edustaja! Sinä, kallio, jolle Vapahtaja
rakensi kirkkonsa! Sinä, Jumalan ääni! Sinä erehtymätön! Sinä, joka
istut maailman ylimmällä istuimella — muista, että olet maan tomua
vain!»
XXIII.

»Acqua Acetosa!» »Roba Vecchia!» »Rannocchie!»

Huudot kaduilla kaikuivat Navonan läpi, piazza oli täynnä väkeä, ja

tuntemattomatkin tervehtivät toisiaan kulkiessaan kaduilla, kun
Roma astui kotiinsa. Vanha garibaldilainen toivotti hänelle hyvää
pääsiäistä, ja asunnon ovella seurakunnan pappi, joka oli
pääsiäiskäynnillään talossa ja ruiskutti vihkivettä huoneisiin, hymyili
hänelle ja antoi hänelle siunauksensa. Vanha Francesca asetti
kakkuja, makkaroita ja munia pöydälle ja piilotti sitten kätensä
selkänsä taakse huudahtaen:

»Arvatkaapa signora, mitä minä annan teille!»

Se oli kirje, ja vanha vaimo loisti pelkästä ilosta ja onnesta

antaessaan sen Romalle.

»Trinità dei Montin portinvartia toi sen», sanoi hän, »ja hän kertoi
minulle, että luostarissa nyt on Angelica-niminen maallikkosisar,
sekä pelkäsi, että seuraavat kirjeet ehkä joutuvat hukkaan… Ettekö
ole iloinen kirjeestänne, signora? Minä luulin signoran vallan
kuolevan ilosta ja annoin miehelle kuusi soldia.»
 Roma käänteli kirjettä käsissään ajatellen, kuinka hän ennen oli
iloinnut saadessaan kirjeen Rossilta ja miettien, voisiko hän
ollenkaan avata tätä.

»Niin minäkin tein siihen aikaan, kun Tommaso oli sodassa. Mutta
nyt on pääsiäinen, signora, eikä Pyhä Neitsyt anna teille pahoja
uutisia tänään. Kuulkaa! Tuolla kaikuu Gloria. Minä kuulen aina
kirkonkellot pääsiäislauantaina. Kun tulin kuuroksi, oli Giuseppe pieni
lapsi, ja minä otin kääreet pois hänen jaloistaan, ja hän käveli ensi
kerran. Voi minun pientä raukkaani… Mutta minä saatan signoran
itkemään.»

Kirje oli Zürichistä ja sisälsi seuraavaa:

»Rakas Romani! — Sinun kirjeesi näyttävät juoksevan kilpaa

minun kanssani, jossa kilpajuoksussa minä nähtävästi voitan.
Minun täytyi lähteä Berliinistä, ennenkuin kauan viipynyt postini
ennätti saapua Lontoosta, ja nyt näyttää varmalta, että minun pitää
lähteä Zürichistä ennenkuin kirjeeni saapuvat Berliinistä. Siitä
syystä en ole kuullut sinusta viikkokausiin — en sitten kun kirjoitit
ystävästäsi, muistathan — ja minä olen levoton tietämään mitä
sinulle on tapahtunut sill'aikaa.

Tulin Sveitsiin toissapäivänä, koska asiat ovat käyneet hyvin

kiireellisiksi. Täällä meillä on viimeinen kansainvälisen
johtokuntamme kokous ennenkuin palaan Italiaan. Kokous on
huomenna,
perjantaina, ja lauantaiaamuna lähden Roomaan.

Kuinka toisenlainen palaamisen! on oleva kuin pakoni muutamia

viikkoja
sitten! Silloin olin epätoivon vallassa, nyt olen täynnä toivoa.
Silloin sieluni oli epäilysten raatelema, nyt se on täynnä varmuutta.
Silloin aatteeni oli unelma, nyt se on todellisuus!

Oi Roma, minun Romani, kuinka suloista on elää. Maailma ei ole

mikään Getsemane, ja kun miehen omaksi on annettu niin suloinen
olento kuin sinä, annettakoon hänelle anteeksi, jos hän unohtaa
kaikki pelkoa kuiskaavat äänet. Joskus olen kuunnellut niitä tämän
pitkän ja kiduttavan vaitiolon aikana ja silloin olen tehnyt itselleni
kamalia kysymyksiä. Mitä tapahtuu armaalleni siellä vihollisten
keskellä? Mitä hän saa kärsiä minun tähteni? Hän on uljas ja
kestää kaikki, mutta menettelinkö oikein, kun jätin hänet sinne?
Bruno kuoli ennemmin kuin petti minut, ja armaani on valmis
tekemään enemmän — tuhat kertaa enemmän hänen silmissään
— hän näkisi ennemmin minun kuolevan kuin panisi
vaaranalaiseksi asian, joka on minulle monta kertaa kalliimpi kuin
elämäni.

Älä säikähdä tällaista puhetta, armas. Sydämeni syvyydessä

tunnen, ettei mitään kauheata ole tapahtuva. En ole koskaan ollut
niin varma tulevaisuudesta. Mitä ajanmerkkejä näen kaikkialla!
Englannissa, huolimatta väliaikaisesta taantumisesta, Ranskassa,
huolimatta armeijan voimasta, Saksassa, huolimatta vanhoillisesta,
ahdasmielisestä hallinnosta, ja itse Venäjälläkin, tuossa
despotismin vanhassa linnoituksessa, huolimatta heikontuneen
tsaarikunnan suonenvetoisista kouristuksista ja meidän omassa,
armaassa Italiassamme, huolimatta Vatikaanin jyrinästä ja
Kvirinaalin salamoista!

Addio, carissima! Säilytä minut sydämessäsi, sillä lempi on

vahva kuin kuolema. Jos rakkautemme voisi kasvaa, kasvaisi se
tällaisten koettelemusten jälkeen. Voi hyvin, armas! Hoida hyvin
sitä kallista elämää, jota ilman minä en voi elää. Muistatko, että
helmikuun 2 p:nä erosimme pimeässä kirkon ovella, ja nyt on
pääsiäinen ja ylihuomenna saamme kuulla pääsiäiskellojen soittoa!
Kevät on tullut, ja luonnon muuttumattomassa muuttuvaisuudessa
näen ihmiskunnan ylösnousemuksen ja kuuntelen Jumalan
ylistystä.

Et voi vastata tähän kirjeeseen, rakas, sillä minä olen jo matkalla

Roomaan, kun se saapuu sinulle, mutta sinä voit sähköttää minulle
Chiassoon. Tee niin! Minä haen sähkösanomapojan heti, kun juna
seisahtuu asemalla. Kerro, että olet onnellinen ja voit hyvin sekä
odotat minua, niin luulen näkeväni suloisten huuliesi hymyn ja
silmiesi säihkyn isänmaani kynnyksellä.

Junani saapuu Roomaan sunnuntaiaamuna kello seitsemän.

Ehkä olisin voinut saapua jo lauantai-iltana, mutta eräästä syystä
en tahtonut. Saanko kuiskata sen? En olisi voinut mennä hotelliin,
kun sinä olet niin lähellä — se ei olisi ollut inhimillistä, vai mitä? —
enkä olisi tahtonut mennä Navonalle ennenkuin olemme lopullisesti
vihityt Capitolissa, koska meidän oli pakko siirtää tuo toimitus
tuonnemmaksi. Epäilen hiukan, onko kirkollisella vihkimisellämme
laillista voimaa, koska toinen meistä on kastamaton. Tule vastaani
siis asemalle sunnuntaiaamuna ja anna minun ensimmäiseksi
nähdä sinun kasvosi tullessani Roomaan. Sitten… anna minun
kuulla äänesi ja anna sydämesi riemuita.

D.R.»

Roma oli käynyt yhä kalpeammaksi lukiessaan tuota kirjettä.

Rossin rakkaus ja luottamus masensi hänet. Kyyneleitä kertyi hänen
silmiinsä ja ne alkoivat valua poskille. Mutta hänen sielunsa, joka oli
ollut masennuksissa ja herpautunut, elpyi ja kohosi.
KAHDEKSAS OSA.

KUNINGAS.
I.

Keskellä Eurooppaa, sen vapaimman maan rajalla, vuorien

ympäröimänä, mutta kumminkin kooten keskipisteeseensä kaikista
maista tulevia teitä pyörän puolapuita yhdistävän akselin tavoin, on
pienoinen kaupunki, joka jo kauan aikaa on ollut vapauden kehtona
ja yhä vielä on maanpakolaisten turvapaikkana. Tämä kaupunki on
Zürich, kaupanhistoriassa tunnettu silkistään, mutta valtiollisessa
historiassa aatteistaan, taistelusuunnitelmistaan, salaliitoistaan ja
salaisista rikoksista, jotka ovat järkähyttäneet maailman
valtaistuimia.

Pitkänperjantain iltana istui noin pari-, kolmekymmentä miestä

pienessä ravintolassa järven rannalla illallisella Davido Rossin
palaamisen kunniaksi.

Seurue oli herkkä ja iloinen. Siinä oli vallankumouksen sotilaita ja

unelmien uneksijoita, ja tuskin oli ainoatakaan heidän joukossaan,
joka ei olisi viettänyt osaa elämästään vankilassa. Siellä oli
runoilijoita ja profeettoja, kaikki olivat köyhiä, muutamilla ei ollut
penniäkään, mutta he näkivät loistavia linnoja siellä, missä muut
näkivät vain kurjia majoja. Siellä oli lasallelaisia, marxisteja,
guesdisteja, possibilisteja, boulangisteja ja taivas tiesi mitä kaikkia,
kaikki suurten aatteiden palvelijoita, aatteiden, joiden hyväksi he
elivät, kärsivät ja olivat valmiit kuolemaankin, tuntuivatpa ne sitten
vaikka kuinka toivottomilta ja mielettömiltä käytännöllisistä ihmisistä.
Ja hyvän mielen laupias hengetär oli noitten huomispäivän lapsien
parissa. He söivät saksalaista sianlihaa ja joivat Baselin olutta ja
nauroivat kuin koulusta päässeet pojat.

Sitten seurasi puheita, kiihkeätä yhteiskunnallisen järjestyksen

tuomitsemista ja innokkaita kansainvälisiä ennustuksia.
Ensimmäinen puhuja oli pitkä ja hoikka ranskalainen, jolla oli pitkä,
harmaa tukka ja riippuvat kiinalaiset viikset, päässä leveälierinen,
pehmeä hattu ja yllään väljä viitta, koko ulkomuoto muistuttaen
kuljeksivaa trubaduuria. Hän harrasti ylipäänsä vallankumousta ja
erittäin kuninkaitten hävittämistä.

»Euroopan kruunatut päät pitävät hirveätä melua, kun joku heidän

joukostaan surmataan», sanoi ranskalainen, »mutta mitä sanotaan
niistä tuhansista köyhistä ja sotilaista, joita he yhtämittaa
surmaavat?»

Seuraava puhuja oli Zürichissä asuva italialainen,

hehkuvasilmäinen mies, jolla oli ylöspäin kierretyt viikset ja silmille
vedetty hattu aivan kuin markkinateatterien rosvoilla. Hän tahtoi
hävittää paavin. Hallitsijat, Jumalan kiitos, hävittivät itse itsensä sekä
ruumiillisesti että siveellisesti sukulais-avioliittojensa avulla, joita
turmeltunut kirkko sallii sillä muka ylläpitääkseen Tridentin
kokouksen päätöstä. Mutta paavi, joka tahtoo ikuistuttaa
klerikalismin iankaikkisen tyrannian, koettaa saada valtaansa
ihmisten sielun ja ruumiin, omantunnon ja maalliset tavarat.

»Ilmoittakaamme hänelle, ettei hän voi sitä tehdä», sanoi

italialainen. »Hänen jyrisemisensä Ihmisten Tasavaltaa vastaan on
ainoastaan kuumalla raudalla tanssivan miehen kiljuntaa. Maailma ei
tarvitse paavia, joka ennen aikaan oli vanha mies, mutta josta nyt on
tullut vanha akka.»

Sitten astui esiin iso, pullea saksalainen, pörröpäinen ja parrakas,

isonenäinen ja leukava, mutta silmät ystävälliset ja iloiset. Hän
taisteli ylipäänsä kristinuskoa vastaan ja oli vapauden ja edistyksen
ystävä. Evankeliumi on vanhentunut ja tarpeeton. Se koettaa vetää
pois työtätekevän luokan taistelusta oikeuksiensa puolesta ja
kehoittaa sitä kärsimään ja alistumaan.

»Tässä maailmassa Kristuksen evankeliumi jättää köyhän miehen

oman onnensa nojaan», sanoi saksalainen. »Muutamat ovat
uskovinaan, että uskonto juuri synnyttää uuden yhteiskunnallisen ja
valtiollisen järjestyksen, joka perustuu ihmisten veljeysaatteelle.
Tyhjää puhetta. Ei paise raapimalla parane. Evankeliumi on orjien ja
hupsujen uskoa, jotka eivät ymmärrä sivistystä, ja kansan asia
huojuu laineilla, jotka vielä kerran sen nielevät.»

Sitten seurasi sveitsiläinen puhuja — mies, jolla oli kaunis otsa ja

tuuhea, kiiltävän musta tukka. Hän tuomitsi militarismin ja kiitti oman
maansa onnea, kun sen ei tarvinnut maksaa miljoonia voidakseen
yhtyä Euroopan valtioiden kilpajuoksuun.

Sitten esiintyi jättiläiskokoinen venäläinen, silmät väsyneet ja ilme

kulunut. Hän puolusti myöskin vallankumousta, »48 vuoden
sangviininen yritys uudistettaisiin», »kesäkuun päivät» palaisivat,
köyhälistö saisi taas näytellä osaansa Euroopan valtiollisella
näyttämöllä.

»Sota on sotaa», sanoi venäläinen, »ja minun kansani, joka ensi

kerran tuntee olevansa jäsen suuressa ihmiskunnan perheessä, ei
tule enää kauan tyytymään taisteluun maanalaisien käytävien
pimeydessä.»

Sitten juotiin Davido Rossin malja, ja häntä sanottiin vapauden

uudeksi luojaksi, taivaallisen aatteen jaloksi pyhimykseksi, Mazzinin
pojaksi ja perilliseksi. Kesken innokkaiden huutojen, joita nuo
vallankumouksen vanhat soturit kohottivat, ja käsien tapausten
kaikuessa näkymättömästä kuulijajoukosta (köyhiä miehiä Zürichin
italialaisesta osasta, joka seisoi avonaisen ikkunan alla ulkona),
Davido Rossi nousi vastaamaan.

Hän oli muuttunut paljon Roomasta paettuaan. Hänen tummat

silmänsä näyttivät suuremmilta, hänen pitkä vartalonsa oli
kumarammassa, ja hän oli semmoisen miehen näköinen, joka
koettaa peittää hermostumisen lisääntymistä. Hänen puheensa, joka
lausuttiin liiasta käyttämisestä kuluneella äänellä, oli taitava
ponnistus eri ryhmien yhdistämiseksi.

Hän alkoi lyhyellä kiittävällä lausunnolla kaikista maista, jotka

olivat edustettuina tässä seurueessa. Englanti oli koko maailman
maanpakolaisten koti. Ranska absolutismin hauta ja yksilön
oikeuksien syntymäpaikka, Saksa yhtymisaatteen kehto, Amerikka
valon kantaja pimeyden mailla, Venäjä heräävän kansan kotipaikka,
Sveitsi vapauden tyyssija, ja lopuksi hänen oma rakastettu Italiansa,
oli kaikkien kansakuntien äiti, joka oli määrätty uuden ajan johtajaksi.

Kun hän näin oli valloittanut kuulijansa heti alussa, jatkoi hän
repimällä alas melkein kaiken, mitä he olivat sanoneet.

»Älkäämme tuhlatko voimia hyökkäyksiin kuninkaita vastaan»,

sanoi hän. »Euroopan hallitsijat ovat ylipäänsä hyviä miehiä, jotka
koettavat rehellisesti toimia kansojensa hyväksi käyttäen joskus
sosialismin ja tasavaltaisuudenkin aseita järkähyttääkseen maata
juuri sosialistien ja tasavaltalaisten jalkojen alla. Se on ainoa tapa,
jonka avulla he voivat olla olemassa hiukan kauemmin, ja maailma
voi huoleti jättää heidät rauhaan.»

»Hyvä!» huusi ranskalainen.

»Älkäämme hyökätkö paavia vastaan myöskään», sanoi Rossi.

»Pius X on pyhimys maan päällä, ja jos hän on menetellyt
itsevaltaisesti uskonnon nimessä, kysyn teiltä, kuka meistä olisi
kestänyt kymmenvuotisen vankinaolon samassa talossa, uskoen
itseään erehtymättömäksi ja Pyhän Hengen suoranaisen
vaikutuksen alaiseksi, tulematta huonommaksi, muuttumatta
sokeaksi tyranniksi, ehkäpä mielipuoleksi?»

»Hyvä, hyvä!» huusi loistavasilmäinen italialainen.

»Ja ennen kaikkea, älkäämme hyökätkö evankeliumia vastaan»,

sanoi Rossi. »Ei mikään uskonto ole alkanut työtään niin voimakkain
yhteiskunnallisin tarkoituksin. Jeesuksen sanoma ihmiskunnalle
tarkoitti sekä ihmisen maallista että hänen taivaallista elämäänsä,
eikä kristinusko ole ollenkaan maailmaa kieltävä oppi, jolla ei olisi
päämäärää tässä elämässä. Evankeliumin tarkoitus on perustaa
maan päälle valtakunta, joka on syvä kuin ihmisen kaiho ja puhdas
kuin taivaan valtakunta, ja siinä rukouksessa, jonka muutamat
meistä ovat valinneet yhdistyksemme ohjelmaksi, uskomme
perustaja on antanut meille valon, joka loistaa maailman kurjuuden,
köyhyyden, tuskan ja kärsimyksen yli.»

»Bravo!» huusi jykevä saksalainen.

 »Kunnioittakaamme kirkkoa myöskin», sanoi Rossi.
»Muistakaamme noita pieniä, suloisia kirkkoja, joita on ympäri
kaikkia maita risteineen ja torneineen iäisyyden vertauskuvina.
Muistakaamme niiden alttareita, jotka ovat vaikuttaneet niin syvästi
avioliittoja solmittaessa, kasteessa ja kuolemassa. Muistakaamme
hyviä pappeja ja uhrautuvaisia sisaria, heidän työtään vaimojemme
ja lastemme hyväksi. Pitäisikö meidän hävittää nuo iankaikkisuuden
sanoman tuojat? Jumala siitä varjelkoon!»

»Bravo! Bravo!» Muutamat vallankumouksen epäuskoisista

sotilaista pyyhkivät salaa silmiään.

»Veljet», sanoi Rossi, »me olemme kuningaskuntien, mutta emme

kuninkaitten vihollisia, paavikunnan, mutta ei paavin vastustajia; me
emme tahdo kumpaakaan hävittää väkivallalla. Kuninkaanmurhat ja
vallankumoukset ovat edistyksen estäjiä, ja murha on aina murha,
vaikkapa se tehtäisiin murhan estämiseksi. Sellaiset aseet ovat
kelvottomat sivistyksen sodassa, emmekä me tunnusta niitä
omiksemme.»

Jättiläiskokoiseen venäläiseen tarttui hetken innostus, ja hän huusi

eläköötä täydestä sydämestä.

»Siitä huolimatta me olemme kapinallisia», sanoi Rossi. »Minä

olen kapinallinen. Olen ollut kapinallinen koko elämäni ajan. Olen
kapinallinen oman maani kuningasta vastaan ja paavia vastaan.
Minä läksin Roomasta saadakseni aikaan kapinan, joka
mahdollisesti kukistaisi molemmat. Mutta minun aseenani ei ole
ruuti, vaan tieto, ja teidän avullanne on minun onnistunut luoda
sellainen yhdistysten verkko, että tästälähin koko sivistynyt maailma
tulee tietämään, mitä Italiassa tapahtuu. Jos se onnistuu, on siinä
kyllin. Se tulee tekemään lopun kuninkaista, jotka viettävät juhlia
kansan nähdessä nälkää, paljon varmemmin kuin mikään
kuninkaanmurha. Yleinen mielipide on maailman mahtavin voima,
eikä mikään paha voi elää kauan sen silmien edessä. Miekat ja
revolverit, hurjat metelit piazzalla ja väkirynnäköt eivät ole mitään
verrattuina tiedon voimaan. Kasvattakaa! Kasvattakaa! Yhdistäkää!
Yhdistäkää! Ne ovat meidän sodankäyntimme tunnussanoja ja
aseita.»

Huoneessa olevien miesten hyvä-huudot häipyivät

kättentaputukseen, joka kuului ulkoa. Rossin ääni heikkoni ja hänen
silmänsä säkenöivät, kun hän lopetti:

»Lähden takaisin Roomaan huomenna ja kiitän teitä tästä

hyvästijätöstä. Sen jälkeen kun läksin kotoa kaksi kuukautta sitten,
on kohtalo iskenyt minuun monta kovaa iskua. On ystäviä, joita en
enää ole näkevä — he ovat verellään maksaneet uskollisuutensa.
Toiset ovat kärsineet minun tähteni, heitä on kiusattu, heitä on
kidutettu. Veljet, pyydän teitä muistamaan naisiamme. Emme ajattele
heitä aina. Kun me nuorina poltamme laivamme takanamme ja kun
me siitä syystä, että rakastamme totuutta enemmän kuin itseämme,
valitsemme uran, jossa tuivertaa myrsky ja rajuilma, silloin
unohdamme usein vaimomme, joiden täytyy jakaa kohtalomme. He
eivät ajattele meidän ihanteitamme, ja heidän valtiollinen
mielipiteensä on useimmiten vain toinen nimitys heidän
rakkaudelleen. Sitä suloisempi ja jalompi on heidän uhrautumisensa.
Emmekö kaikki tunne sitä? Jalosukuinen tyttö, hellästi kasvatettu,
ehkäpä loiston ympäröimä, luopuu perheestään ja seurapiiristään
jakaakseen uljaasti maanpakolaisen köyhyyden,
vallankumouksellisen elämän, joka alusta alkaen kantaa maanpaon,
vankilan ja mestauslavan merkkiä. Jumala siunatkoon kaikkia naisia!
Onko sitä miestä syntynyt, joka voisi kestää mitä he kestävät? Ei
ole.»

Rossin puheen loputtua muutamat vallankumouksen vanhoista

sotureista tulivat häntä kyynelsilmin syleilemään. Sitten he oluensa
innostamina tahtoivat saattaa häntä hotelliin, mutta hän hiipi pois
huomaamatta.

Rossi nukkui tuon yön kuullen aaltojen loiskeen rantaa vastaan ja

seuraavana aamuna kello 10 hän oli asemalla lähteäkseen Italiaan.
Pieni joukko odotti häntä asemasillalla, pääasiallisesti italialaisia
kantomiesten ja kadunlakaisijain puvussa. Rossi astui heidän
luokseen tervehtien.

»Menettekö suoraa tietä Roomaan?»

»En. Aion jäädä yöksi Milanoon ja lähteä aamulla Roomaan.»

»Addio, Onorevole!»

»Addio!»
II.

Heti kun juna läksi, Rossi antautui yksinomaan ajattelemaan Romaa.

Missä hän oli nyt? Rossi sulki silmänsä ja koetti kuvitella häntä.
Roma istui lukemassa hänen kirjeitään. Rossi muisti muutamia
niissä olleita lauseita ja näki, kuinka Roma hymyili lukiessaan niitä.
Jumala suojelkoon häntä! Hän tunsi jo Roman pehmeiden sormien
hellän puristuksen ja huolimatta junan jyrinästä hän saattoi kuulla
tuon suloisen äänen.

Kaikki sinä päivänä toi hänen mieleensä Roman. Kun hän avasi
silmänsä, kiiti juna juuri järven ohi, ja nuori, kymmen- tai
kaksitoistavuotinen tyttö katseli ikkunasta järvellä näkyviä valkoisia
purjeita. Hänen suora vartalonsa, hänen varmamuotoinen jalkansa,
hänen kirkas, peloton katseensa ja vielä kehittymätön naisellisuus
hänen olennossaan toi Rossin mieleen Roman Lontoon ajoilta. Tytön
äiti istui vastapäätä Rossia ja katsoi häneen hymyillen.

Kun juna saapui Brunnenin asemalle, Rossi itse seisoi käytävässä

ikkunan luona ja näki asemasillalla nuoren tytön, joka nähtävästi
odotti jotakin henkilöä. Hänessä oli tuota omituista naisellisuutta, jota
ei ainoankaan miehen sydän voi vastustaa, ja hänen hymyilevät
kasvonsa synkistyivät äkkiä aivan kuin pettymyksestä, mutta
kirkastuivat samassa uudestaan, kun nuori upseeri, joka oli tullut
pääsiäislomalle kotiinsa, astui ulos junasta. Tyttö hymyili sinne päin,
missä Rossi istui, ja silloin tuntu aika ja etäisyys häviävän, ja Rossi
oli jälleen Roomassa ikävöivän rakkautensa siivillä.

Juna läksi taas, ja Rossi sulki jälleen silmänsä koetellen muistaa

muutamia Roman kirjeiden leikillisiä lauseita kauniista
englantilaisista tytöistä. Niin, kauniita ne olivatkin ja omalla tavallaan
kauniita olivat myöskin ranskattaret ja saksattaret ja Sveitsin
suloääniset tyttäret. Omituista kyllä, kaikki naiset olivat Rossin
mielestä suloisia nyt. Hän oli kuin nuori äiti, jolle Jumala on antanut
kauniin lapsen. Hänestä tuntuu heti, kuin maailma olisi aivan täynnä
lapsia. Mutta siitä huolimatta hänen omansa on kaikista kaunein.

Luonto ja ihmiskunta näyttivät hymyilevän Rossille sinä päivänä.

Järvet eivät koskaan olleet näyttäneet noin kirkkailta. He kulkivat
aikaisin aamulla Luzernin ohi, jossa valkoiset sumupilvet kiitivät kuin
haamut vuoria kohti. Suuret huiput siinsivät toistensa yli havupuiden
peittäminä, jotka näyttivät Alppien yli samoavilta lukemattomilta
armeijoilta. Alhaalla metsä oli tiheätä ja harveni sitten
harvenemistaan ylempänä. Auringon säteet hyppelivät järven
pinnalla aivan kuin keijukaiset peililattialla, ja kun juna seisahtui
Fluelenissa, sekoittui kosken kohina lintujen lauluun ja kirkonkellojen
sointuun. Nyt soitettiin Gloriaa. Koko maailma lauloi Gloriaa. »Kunnia
olkoon Jumalalle korkeudessa!»

Rossin ilo kävi melkein lapselliseksi junan lähestyessä Italiaa. Kun

oli kuljettu suuren tunnelin läpi, alkoivat uuden rodun merkit näkyä.
Tuolla oli Madonnan kuvia Kristus-kuvien asemesta, kentillä oli pitkät
rivit väkeä kuokka kädessä eikä pieniä ryhmiä auroineen, kuten
äsken, siellä oli isosarvisia jykeviä härkiä eikä vikkeliä, kellokaulaisia
hevosia.

Nuo olivat epäilemättä huolestuttavia merkkejä, mutta Rossi ei

ollut nyt sillä mielellä, että hän olisi sitä ajatellut. Hän avasi vaunun
ikkunan voidakseen hengittää oman maansa ilmaa. Huolimatta
mielipiteistään hän ei voinut olla sitä tekemättä. Tuo omituinen
tunne, joka hiipii sydämeen syntymämaassa, valtasi Rossinkin. Hän
kuuli laulua viinitarhoista, lemmen laulua — yhä vain lemmen. Hän
näki oranssipuut ja valkoiset sekä punaiset ruusupensaat. Silmissä
vilahteli vuoren rinteillä olevia pieniä kaupunkeja valleineen ja
torneineen, ulkopuolella Campo Santo. Hänen huulensa avautuivat,
hänen rintansa paisui. Se oli koti! Koti!

Päivä alkoi sammua, taivas pimeni ja matkustajat rupesivat

torkkumaan. Rossi palasi paikalleen ja ajatteli vakavammin Romaa.
Koko hänen sielunsa liiteli nuoren vaimon luo, joka oli jakanut hänen
kärsimyksensä. Hän luuli lukeneensa rivien välistä Roman kirjeissä
kärsimyksistä, ja hän rupesi täydellä todella moittimaan itseään.
Miksi hän oli kertonut elämänsä salaisuuden Romalle työntäen
hänelle sellaisen vastuunalaisuuden?

Hänen sielunsa taistelu oli lyhyt. Ellei hän olisi luottanut Romaan,
ei hän ikinä olisi rakastanut häntä. Ellei hän olisi paljastanut koko
sydäntään Romalle, ei hän koskaan olisi saanut tietää Roman
rakkaudesta. Ja vaikka Roma olikin kärsinyt, maksaisi Rossi nyt
kaiken hänelle. Hän muisti tuon Campagnalla vietetyn ihanan päivän
ja ajatteli sitten tulevia suloisia hetkiä. Mitä Roma nyt teki? Hän kai
lähettää sähkösanoman Chiassoon. Jumala häntä siunatkoon!
Jumala siunatkoon kaikkia!
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