Questionbank Aircrft System and Instrumentation
Questionbank Aircrft System and Instrumentation
UNIT 1
1. Describe the function of ILS in an aircraft.
Solution: - The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is crucial for safely landing aircraft, especially in
low visibility. It provides precise guidance through two main components:
1. Localizer: This system helps the pilot align the aircraft with the centerline of the runway. It
sends directional signals that indicate whether the aircraft is left, right, or on the correct path to
the runway.
2. Glideslope: This component offers vertical guidance, ensuring the aircraft descends at the
correct angle to reach the runway safely. It helps maintain a proper descent rate, preventing too
steep or shallow approaches.
Additionally, ILS may include marker beacons that alert pilots to their distance from the runway, further
enhancing situational awareness. Overall, ILS allows for more accurate landings, especially in
challenging weather conditions.
3. Define auto pilot system and explain the use of auto pilot system in an aircraft.
Solution: - An autopilot system is an automated control system in an aircraft that assists in managing
flight tasks such as maintaining altitude, heading, and navigation, allowing pilots to focus on other
operational aspects.
Solution: -
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Solution:
Radio altimeter
• When the aircraft approaching closely to the airport the landing of an aircraft is often
• GCA (Ground Control Approach): Alternatively, it may be systems controlled from the
• ground when the pilot is to landing following instructions from the ground control
• operator obtained from the Ground Control Approach systems
• I.L. Systems enables blind landing of an aircraft under poor visibility conditions.
• The I.L. Systems guides the aircraft both in elevation and azimuth supported by an aid
• called Radio Altimeter.
• Elevation guidance using radiation pattern
• Elevation guidance using lobe switching
• I.L.Systems is also called as the guides lope system in airports (UHF339.3-335MHz)
Radio altimeter
• Due to the modulation the transmitted frequency will allow the modulation
• Fig c the transmitted frequency at the instant 0, when the modulation wave from
• This transmission will be received back the reflection at the ground after delay
∆ t = 2h/c
• During the delta t the transmitted frequency is changed to a new value FC differing
from FC by during the delta t the transmitted frequency is changed to a new value FC
differing from FC by
fb = f’c - fc
Localizers
• Localizers operate in the VHF range and provide horizontal course guidance to runway
center line.
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• Transmitters are located on the center line at the opposite end of the runway from the
approach threshold.
• The signal transmitted consists of two fan shaped patterns that overlap at the centre.
The overlap area provides the on-track signal.
• The angular width of the beam is between 3°and 6°. Normally width is 5°, resulting in
full scale deflection at 2.5°.
• The width of the beam is adjusted to be 700 feet wide at runway threshold. o Beginning
with X, aligned localizer identifiers begin with I.
• The localizer may be offset from runway centreline by up to 3°. Localizers offset more
than 3°will have an identifier
• A cautionary note will be published in the CAP whenever localizer is offset more than
3°.
• Normal reliable coverage of localizers is 18nm within 10°of either side of course
centreline and 10nm within 35°.
• Localizer installations provide back course information, and non-precision localizer
back course approaches may be published.
• Caution: a localizer signal is transmitted differently than a VOR radial. Aircraft
receivers are not supplied with azimuth information relative to magnetic or true north.
It is simply a beam aligned with the runway center line.
Glide Path
• Glide path information is paired with the associated localizer frequency.
• The glide path is normally adjusted to an angle of 3°(may be adjusted 2°to 4.5°) and a
beam width of 1.4°(0.7°for full scale deflection).
• The antenna array is located approx. 1000ft from the approach end of the runway and
offset approx. 400ft. (if glide path is followed to the pavement touchdown point will
be at the 1000ft markers)
• In installations with an ILS serving both ends of a runway the systems are interlocked
so only one can operate at a time.
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6. Explain power assisted and fully powered flight control system with neat sketch.
Solutiom:
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7. Explain in brief about the communication and navigation system of an aircraft with diagram.
Solution:
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Solution:
An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance
from a human being. An autopilot can refer specifically to aircraft, self-steering gear for boats, or auto
guidance of space craft and missiles. The autopilot of an aircraft is sometimes referred to as “George”,
after one of the key contributors to its development.
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Today, autopilots are sophisticated systems that perform the same duties as a highly trained pilot. In
fact, for some in-flight routines and procedures, autopilots are even better than a pair of human hands.
They don’t just make flights smoother -they make them safer and more efficient.
The above illustration shows how the basic elements of an autopilot system are related. For simplicity,
only one control surface — the rudder — is shown, although each control surface would have a similar
arrangement. Notice that the basic schematic of an autopilot looks like a loop, with sensors sending data
to the autopilot computer, which processes the information and transmits signals to the servo, which
moves the control surface, which changes the attitude of the plane, which creates a new data set in the
sensors, which starts the whole process again. This type of feedback loop is central to the operation of
autopilot systems.
1. The pilot sets a control mode to maintain the wings in a level position.
3. Position sensors on the wing detect this deflection and send a signal to the autopilot computer.
4. The autopilot computer processes the input data and determines that the wings are no longer level.
5. The autopilot computer sends a signal to the servos that control the aircraft’s ailerons. The signal is
a very specific command telling the servo to make a precise adjustment.
a) Each servo has a small electric motor fitted with a slip clutch that, through a bridle cable, grips the
aileron cable. When the cable moves, the control surfaces move accordingly.
b) As the ailerons are adjusted based on the input data, the wings move back toward level.
c) The autopilot computer removes the command when the position sensor on the wing detects that the
wings are once again level.
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d) The servos cease to apply pressure on the aileron cables.
This loop, shown above in the block diagram, works continuously, many times a second, much more
quickly and smoothly than a human pilot could. Two- and three-axis autopilots obey the same principles,
employing multiple processors that control multiple surfaces. Some airplanes even have auto thrust
computers to control engine thrust. Autopilot and auto thrust systems can work together to perform very
complex manoeuvres.
Solution:
The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate
with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes chains to transmit
the forces of the flight deck controls to the control surfaces. Mechanical flight control systems are still
used today in small general and sport category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.
When the pilot pushes the control stick forward/backward the cable is getting tensed through the
linkages and it causes the Control surface to move respectively.
9. Compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of power-assisted and fully powered
flight control systems.
solution:
Definition: Power-assisted flight control systems use mechanical linkages between the pilot and the
flight control surfaces (e.g., ailerons, elevators, rudders) but are augmented by hydraulic or electrical
power to reduce the pilot's physical effort in controlling the aircraft.
Advantages:
1. Reduced Pilot Workload: Power assistance makes it easier for the pilot to control the
aircraft, especially in larger or more complex aircraft, where controlling flight surfaces
manually would require excessive force.
2. Improved Precision and Responsiveness: By reducing the effort required to move control
surfaces, the pilot can focus more on control precision and response times, enhancing overall
handling.
3. Increased Safety in High-Load Situations: In situations where high aerodynamic forces are
encountered (e.g., during high-speed flight or maneuvers), the system helps prevent the pilot
from becoming overwhelmed by physical strain.
4. Reliability: Power-assisted systems, while not as complex as fully powered systems, tend to
have fewer points of failure and can be more easily monitored and maintained.
Disadvantages:
1. Mechanical Linkages and Failures: Because these systems still rely on mechanical
connections, there is a risk of failure in the linkage itself (e.g., cables, rods, pulleys), which
could lead to a loss of control.
2. Weight: The addition of hydraulic or electrical power systems and associated components
(e.g., pumps, reservoirs) adds weight to the aircraft.
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3. Limited Redundancy: While power-assisted systems provide some assistance, they still rely
on mechanical components that might not be as redundant or fail-safe as fully powered
systems.
4. Potential for Reduced Feel: Some pilots might prefer a more tactile or direct "feel" for the
aircraft through mechanical control, which power assistance can diminish to some extent.
Definition: Fully powered flight control systems are completely reliant on powered actuators
(hydraulic, electric, or fly-by-wire technology) to control the flight surfaces. There is no direct
mechanical linkage between the pilot and the control surfaces; instead, all commands are transmitted
electronically or hydraulically.
Advantages:
1. Reduced Pilot Effort: The pilot's physical workload is virtually eliminated since the entire
control system is powered, enabling more precise and responsive control with minimal effort,
even for large aircraft.
2. Weight Reduction (in some cases): In modern designs, especially in fly-by-wire systems,
weight can be reduced by eliminating mechanical linkages, leading to overall lighter control
systems, which can improve fuel efficiency and payload capacity.
3. Enhanced Control Precision: Powered control surfaces allow for highly precise and
responsive flight control, particularly in advanced systems like fly-by-wire, which can be
fine-tuned electronically to enhance aircraft handling.
4. Redundancy and Safety: Fully powered systems can have extensive redundancy built in,
such as multiple independent power sources or backup systems. If one system fails, another
can take over, improving safety.
5. Advanced Flight Control Features: Fully powered systems, particularly fly-by-wire, can
include features like automatic stability augmentation, flight envelope protection, and ease of
integration with modern avionics.
Disadvantages:
1. Complexity and Maintenance: Fully powered systems are generally more complex, with
multiple components like actuators, sensors, and electrical systems. This complexity can lead
to higher maintenance costs and more potential points of failure.
2. Failure Modes: Although redundancy can mitigate risks, a complete failure of a powered
flight control system can result in a loss of control. Systems need to be highly reliable and
continuously monitored.
3. Pilot "Feel": The lack of direct mechanical linkages can lead to a loss of "feel" for the
aircraft. Pilots may have less tactile feedback, which can make flying feel less natural
compared to power-assisted or fully mechanical systems.
4. Dependency on Electrical Power: In the case of electrically powered systems (e.g., fly-by-
wire), a failure of the electrical power supply could result in a total loss of control unless the
system is properly designed with redundancy.
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UNIT 2
1. List out the applications of hydraulic system in aircraft.
Solution:
Solution:
Solution:
Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for
transmitting energy from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful
work.
➢ Reservoirs
➢ Pumps
➢ Selector Valves
➢ Check Valves
➢ Hydraulic Fuses
➢ Accumulators
➢ Actuators
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.
The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide
linear or rotary motion, respectively. Actuators can be either single-acting or double-acting servos based on the
needs of the system. This means that the fluid can be applied to one or both sides of the actuators, depending on
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the actuators type, and therefore provides power in one direction with a single-acting actuator/servo. A servo is a
cylinder with a piston inside that turns fluid power into work and creates the power needed to move an aircraft
system or flight control. The selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled. This is necessary for
operations like the extension and retraction of landing gear where the fluid must work in two different directions.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to rest of the hydraulic circuit by converting
mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of a fluid flowing through the circuit.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and efficient, as well as avoid
damage to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.
The piping shown in Figure is of closed-loop type with fluid transferred from the storage tank to one side of the
piston and returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank. Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that
produces fluid flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid pressure exceeds the required level, then the
excess fluid returns back to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires the required level.
1. When the piston of the valve is changed to upper position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port A and thus
the load is raised.
2. When the position of the valve is changed to lower position, the pipe pressure line is connected to port B and
thus the load is lowered.
3. When the valve is at center position, it locks the fluid into the cylinder (thereby holding it in position) and dead-
ends the fluid line (causing all the pump output fluid to return to tank via the pressure relief).
5. Discuss the various types of valves and actuators used in hydraulic system with diagram.
Solution:
Single-Acting Actuators:
• In these actuators, pressure is applied to one side of the piston to create motion in one
direction. A spring or other mechanism returns the actuator to its original position once pressure
is released.
• Advantages: Simple design and often used where motion is required only in one direction.
Examples:
Double-Acting Actuators:
• These actuators have pressure applied to both sides of the piston, allowing motion in both
directions (forward and backward).
• Advantages: Provides more control over motion in both directions and is used for more
complex applications.
Examples:
Rotary Actuators:
• A rotary actuator consists of a motor (electric or hydraulic) that drives a shaft in a circular
motion. This type of actuator is used when there is a need for continuous rotational motion.
Examples:
• Function: These valves are designed to regulate the pressure within a hydraulic system. They
ensure that the pressure does not exceed the desired levels, protecting the components from
damage due to excessive pressure.
• Types:
o Relief Valve: Limits the maximum pressure in the system. When the pressure exceeds
a certain threshold, the relief valve opens to allow fluid to flow back to the reservoir,
preventing over-pressurization.
o Pressure Reducing Valve: Lowers the pressure in a specific section of the system,
allowing certain components to operate at lower pressures than the main circuit.
o Sequence Valve: Controls the sequence of operations in a multi-step process. It ensures
that one part of the system operates before another.
o Unloading Valve: Used to control the pressure by diverting the flow of fluid when a
certain pressure is reached.
• Common Applications: Protecting systems, controlling pressure in specific parts of
machinery, preventing damage to pumps or actuators due to excessive pressure.
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Pressure Control Valves
• Function: These valves are used to control the flow rate of the hydraulic fluid, which in turn
controls the speed of actuators like cylinders or motors.
• Types:
o Flow Control Valve: Limits or controls the flow of fluid to a specific component. It
typically has an adjustable knob to control the flow rate.
o Throttle Valve: Used to adjust the speed of actuators by controlling the flow rate of
hydraulic fluid entering or leaving the actuator.
o Double-acting Flow Control Valve: Used in applications with double-acting
cylinders, adjusting flow in both directions (extension and retraction).
• Common Applications: Controlling the speed of actuators such as hydraulic cylinders and
motors. For example, in lifting or positioning applications where precise control of speed is
required.
4. Check Valves
• Function: A check valve allows flow in one direction only and prevents backflow. It’s used to
maintain pressure in one part of the system while allowing fluid to flow in the desired direction.
• Types:
o Standard Check Valve: Allows flow in one direction and automatically closes when
the fluid tries to reverse direction, preventing backflow.
o Pilot-Operated Check Valve: A more sophisticated check valve that uses a pilot
pressure to open or close the valve, allowing for more controlled backflow prevention.
o Non-Return Valve: Another name for a simple check valve, it prevents backflow and
ensures fluid flows in only one direction.
• Common Applications: Preventing backflow, holding pressure in systems, or in applications
where fluid should not be allowed to return to the source.
Check Valves
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6. Elaborate the characteristics of hydraulic fluid in detail.
Solution:
• Viscosity
A satisfactory liquid for a hydraulic system must have enough body t give a good seal at pumps, valves
and pistons; but it must not be so thick that it offers excessive resistance to flow.
• Fire Point
Fire Point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite and
continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame.
• Flash Point
Flash Point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapor in sufficient quantity to ignite
momentarily when a flame is applied.
Chemical stability refers to the ability of hydraulic fluid to maintain its chemical structure and properties
under the influence of heat, pressure, and other environmental factors over time. A chemically stable
fluid does not undergo significant degradation, oxidation, or formation of unwanted by-products (such
as sludge or varnish) during its operational life.
• Corrosion Resistance
Corrosion resistance refers to the fluid’s ability to prevent or slow down the oxidation of metal parts in
the system.
Hydraulic systems are often exposed to moisture, oxygen, and other contaminants that can cause
corrosion. If corrosion is not controlled, it can damage seals, valves, and pumps, leading to system
failure.
Solution:
1. Gear Pumps
Working Principle:
Gear pumps operate by the meshing of two gears—one is driven (the power gear) and the other is an
idler gear. As the gears rotate, fluid is trapped between the teeth and is carried from the pump inlet to
the outlet. The meshing of the gears forces the fluid out under pressure.
• External Gear Pump: Consists of two gears, one of which is driven and the other acts as the
idler gear. Fluid is trapped between the gears and the pump casing and is forced to the outlet.
• Internal Gear Pump: Involves one gear inside another. The inner gear rotates and meshes with
the outer gear to move fluid from the inlet to the outlet.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Gear pump
• Noisy operation.
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• Limited ability to handle high-pressure fluctuations.
Applications:
2. Vane Pumps
Working Principle:
Vane pumps have a rotor with several vanes that slide in and out of grooves. The rotor is mounted inside
a cavity. As the rotor turns, the vanes are pushed outward due to centrifugal force. The fluid is trapped
between the vanes and the casing and moved through the pump.
• Fixed Displacement Vane Pump: The volume of fluid moved per revolution is fixed.
• Variable Displacement Vane Pump: The flow rate can be adjusted by altering the angle of
the vane or the position of the rotor.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
Working Principle:
Piston pumps use pistons to move fluid. The pistons are housed in a cylindrical chamber. As the pistons
reciprocate (move back and forth), they push the fluid through the pump. Piston pumps can be either
axial piston or radial piston type.
• Axial Piston Pumps: In these pumps, the pistons are arranged parallel to the shaft (axially).
These pumps can have fixed or variable displacement.
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• Radial Piston Pumps: The pistons are arranged perpendicular to the shaft (radially). They are
often used for higher pressure applications.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
• Aerospace systems.
• Industrial hydraulic presses and machines.
• High-performance applications requiring precise flow control.
4. Screw Pumps
Working Principle:
Screw pumps use one or more screws to transfer fluid. The screws rotate, trapping the fluid between
their threads and moving it from the inlet to the outlet. This type of pump is also known as a positive
displacement pump.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• Marine applications.
• Oil and fuel transfer.
• High-viscosity fluid pumping, such as in lubrication systems.
5. Diaphragm Pumps
Working Principle:
Diaphragm pumps use a flexible diaphragm that moves up and down in a chamber. When the diaphragm
moves up, it creates a vacuum that draws in fluid through the inlet valve. When the diaphragm moves
down, the fluid is forced out through the outlet valve.
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Diaphragm Pumps
• Limited pressure capabilities.
• Requires regular maintenance of the diaphragm.
Applications:
Working Principle:
Rotary lobe pumps consist of two or more lobes that rotate inside a casing. As the lobes turn, they create
cavities that move the fluid from the inlet to the outlet.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Applications:
Rotary Lobe Pumps
• Food processing and beverage industries.
• Sludge and slurry pumping.
• Chemical industries.
9, How does the pneumatic system in an aircraft contribute to its overall functionality?
Solution:
The pneumatic system in an aircraft is crucial for several essential functions that support the safe
operation and performance of the aircraft. Pneumatics in aviation generally refer to systems that use
compressed air to perform tasks, and they contribute in multiple ways to the overall functionality of the
aircraft:
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1. Engine Start-Up: One of the primary uses of the pneumatic system is to provide air for starting
the engines. The system uses compressed air, typically from the aircraft's auxiliary power unit
(APU) or from a ground cart, to spin the engine turbines during the startup process.
2. Cabin Pressurization: The pneumatic system plays a key role in maintaining cabin pressure.
It takes air from the engines' compressors (bleed air), which is then used to pressurize the cabin,
ensuring a comfortable environment for passengers and crew, especially at high altitudes where
the external air pressure is low.
3. Air Conditioning and Heating: Pneumatic systems are used to provide air for the aircraft’s
environmental control system (ECS). This system regulates the temperature, humidity, and air
quality in the cabin by utilizing compressed air for cooling, heating, and ventilation.
4. Wing and Tail De-icing: Pneumatic pressure is used in the aircraft's de-icing systems,
particularly for the wings and tail. The system works by inflating rubber boots attached to the
leading edges of these surfaces, causing ice to break off. This is especially important during
flight in cold weather conditions.
5. Landing Gear and Brakes: Pneumatic systems are integral to the operation of the landing
gear, including its extension and retraction. Air pressure is used in the brakes as well, providing
the force necessary for smooth deceleration and stopping after landing.
6. Aircraft Control Systems: In some aircraft, pneumatic systems help power certain flight
control mechanisms such as rudders, elevators, and ailerons. The pressurized air assists in the
movement of control surfaces, especially in older aircraft or in certain backup systems.
7. Actuation of Various Components: The pneumatic system also drives actuators for various
other components on the aircraft, including cargo doors, hydraulic pumps, and some emergency
systems.
8. Oxygen Supply: In the event of cabin depressurization, the pneumatic system may be involved
in supplying oxygen to the passengers and crew through the use of oxygen masks or oxygen
generators.
10. Describe the operation of a landing gear system in an aircraft, including the role of shock absorbers,
retraction mechanisms, and gear extension systems.
Solution:
• Main Gear Legs (Mains): These are the primary wheels and struts, located under the
fuselage or wings.
• Nose Gear (or Tail Gear in taildraggers): This is the front (or rear) set of wheels, usually
smaller than the main gear, and supports the front of the aircraft.
• Shock Absorbers: Hydraulic or air-filled struts that absorb the impact forces during landing
and takeoff.
• Retract Mechanisms: Mechanisms that allow the gear to be raised or lowered during flight
and on the ground.
• Extension Mechanisms: Mechanisms that allow the landing gear to extend and lock in place
when the aircraft is preparing to land or taxi.
• Purpose: Shock absorbers are designed to dampen the impact loads when the aircraft touches
down, helping to prevent damage to the aircraft and ensuring a smoother ride for the
passengers and crew. They also allow for some flexibility and movement as the aircraft lands,
helping to keep the aircraft stable on the ground.
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• Operation: Shock absorbers typically consist of an air/oil hydraulic strut or a spring-loaded
system. Most commercial aircraft use hydraulic shock absorbers, where:
o The hydraulic strut contains both oil and nitrogen gas in separate chambers. Upon
landing, when the gear absorbs the impact, oil flows through small orifices, which
slows down the compression and returns the strut to its original position.
o The gas in the system provides pressure to help extend the strut back to its normal
position after compression.
3. Retract Mechanism
• Purpose: The retract mechanism is used to raise the landing gear after takeoff to reduce drag
and improve fuel efficiency during flight. It also allows the aircraft to fit into a streamlined
shape and avoid any interference with airflow.
• Operation:
o Hydraulic System: The most common system used for retracting the landing gear is
hydraulic. In this system, hydraulic pressure drives the gear into the wheel wells of
the aircraft. Hydraulic actuators move the gear legs into a retracted position after
takeoff.
o Electric Motors: Some smaller aircraft use electric motors or a combination of
hydraulic and electric actuators for retracting the landing gear.
o Control: The pilot controls the retraction via the landing gear lever, which activates
the hydraulic pumps or electric actuators. Once the landing gear is fully retracted, it is
usually locked in place by mechanical locks or hydraulic pressure to prevent
accidental deployment during flight.
• Safety Considerations: Many aircraft have backup systems (e.g., manual extension systems)
in case the primary retract mechanism fails.
• Purpose: The extension system is responsible for lowering and locking the landing gear into
position when the aircraft is preparing to land.
• Operation:
o Hydraulic/Electric Actuators: When the aircraft is descending toward the runway,
the pilot activates the landing gear lever, which triggers the extension system. In most
cases, this system is powered by hydraulic actuators or, in some smaller aircraft, by
electric motors. These actuators push the gear down into the extended position.
o Locking Mechanism: Once the landing gear is fully extended, mechanical locks or
hydraulic pressure hold the gear in place to prevent it from retracting during landing.
The gear is typically designed to lock automatically once extended, ensuring it
remains securely in place during the landing phase.
o Manual Extension: If there is a failure in the hydraulic or electric system, aircraft are
often equipped with a manual extension system, which allows the pilot to extend the
landing gear using a hand-crank or other manual means, often as a last resort.
• Brake Systems: Landing gear often includes integrated braking systems (such as disk brakes)
to slow the aircraft after touchdown. These brakes are typically operated by hydraulic
pressure and are controlled by the pilot via the brake pedals.
• Steering Mechanisms: The nose gear (or tail wheel in taildraggers) includes a steering
system that allows the pilot to control the aircraft’s direction on the ground. This is usually
done through the use of hydraulic actuators or mechanical linkages connected to the rudder
pedals.
• Takeoff: The landing gear is extended, and the aircraft taxis to the runway. Once cleared for
takeoff, the gear is retracted using hydraulic or electric mechanisms.
• In-Flight: Once retracted, the landing gear stays stowed in the wheel wells or compartments,
minimizing drag and improving fuel efficiency.
• Landing: As the aircraft approaches the runway, the pilot extends the landing gear. The
extension system lowers the gear, and locking mechanisms ensure it stays in place for
landing. Upon touchdown, the shock absorbers absorb the impact, and the aircraft's wheels
make contact with the runway.
• Taxiing: After landing, the aircraft's landing gear is used to taxi on the runway and apron,
using the nose or tail wheel steering.
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UNIT 3
1. List out the advantages of pneumatic system over hydraulic system.
➢ Leakage is less and does not influence the systems. Moreover, leakage is not harmful
Solution: A DC valve in an aircraft pneumatic system is an electrically controlled valve that uses direct
current (DC) power to open or close, regulating the flow of compressed air. It operates via a solenoid,
which moves a plunger to control airflow. The valve is used in various aircraft systems like flight control
actuators, landing gear, and environmental control systems, providing precise and reliable airflow
management for optimal performance and safety.
3. Explain any two advantages of using compressed air used in an aircraft pneumatic system.
Solution:
1. Air is available in unlimited quantities. Compressed air is easily conveyed in pipelines even
over longer distances.
2. Operating elements for compressed air operation are of simple and inexpensive construction.
3. Compressed air is fast. Thus, high operational speed can be attained.
4. Speeds and forces of the pneumatics elements can be infinitely adjusted.
4. Explain the working of pneumatic system of an aircraft with well labelled block diagram.
Solution:
➢ Pneumatic actuator
➢ Compressor
➢ reservoir
➢ Valves
➢ Air filter
➢ Air cooler
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor.
As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises and hence air cooler is provided to cool the air with
some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture.
Then the treatment pressurized air needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage
reservoir, a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reached
the required level, respectively.
The cylinder movement is controlled by pneumatic valve. One side of the pneumatic valve is connected
to the compressed air and silencers for the exhaust air and the other side of the valve is connected to
port A and Port B of the cylinder.
1. Raise: To lift the weight, the compressed air supply is connected to port A and the port B is connected
to the exhaust line, by moving the valve position to the “Raise”
2. Lower: To bring the weight down, the compressed air line is connected to port B and port A is
connected to exhaust air line, by moving the valve position to the “lower”
3. Off: The weight can be stopped at a particular position by moving the valve to position to “Off”
position. This disconnects the port A and port B from the pressurized line and the retrieval line, which
locks the air in the cylinder.
Question bank (ASI)
5. Discuss the anti-skid breaking system of an aircraft with neat sketch.
Solution:
Anti-Skid: Large aircraft with power brakes require anti-skid systems. It is not possible to immediately
ascertain in the flight deck when a wheel stops rotating and begins to skid, especially in aircraft with
multiple-wheel main landing gear assemblies. A skid not corrected can quickly lead to a tire blowout,
possible damage to the aircraft, and control of the aircraft may be lost.
System Operation: The anti-skid system not only detects wheel skid, it also detects when wheel skid is
imminent. It automatically relieves pressure to the brake pistons of the wheel in question by
momentarily connecting the pressurized brake fluid area to the hydraulic system return line. This allows
the wheel to rotate and avoid a skid. Lower pressure is then maintained to the brake at a level that slows
the wheel without causing it to skid. Maximum braking efficiency exists when the wheels are
decelerating at a maximum rate but are not skidding. If a wheel decelerates too fast, it is an indication
that the brakes are about to lock and cause a skid. To ensure that this does not happen, each wheel is
monitored for a deceleration rate faster than a preset rate. When excessive deceleration is detected,
hydraulic pressure is reduced to the brake on that wheel. To operate the anti-skid system, flight deck
switches must be placed in the ON position. After the aircraft touches down, the pilot applies and holds
full pressure to the rudder brake pedals. The anti-skid system then functions automatically until the
speed of the aircraft has dropped to approximately 20 mph. The system returns to manual braking mode
for slow taxi and ground maneuvering.
There are various designs of anti-skid systems. Most contain three main types of components: wheel
speed sensors, antiskid control valves, and a control unit. These units work together without human
interference. Some anti-skid systems provide complete automatic braking. The pilot needs only to turn
on the auto brake system, and the anti-skid components slow the aircraft without pedal input. [Above
Figure] Ground safety switches are wired into the circuitry for anti-skid and auto brake systems. Wheel
speed sensors are located on each wheel equipped with a brake assembly. Each brake also has its own
anti-skid control valve. Typically, a single control box contains the anti-skid comparative circuitry for
all of the brakes on the aircraft.
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6. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of compressed air used for pneumatic system
of an aircraft.
7. Explain the pneumatic breaking system of an aircraft with well labelled diagram.
Solution:
Mechanical brakes are those which are operated by the use of linkages, levers cams etc. Hydraulic
brakes make use of fluid pressure for transmission of pressure to the braking components while
Pneumatic brakes use air pressure for transmitting brake power. These systems either increase the
surrounding air drag with the help of airbrakes, spoilers, flaps, reverse thrusters, drag chutes, etc or
increase the ground drag using anchors, skids etc for effective braking.
Aircraft typically use disc and multi-disc brakes .It mainly consists of rotating disc attached to the wheel
assembly, brake calipers which are held stationary and contains the brake pads made of material such
as asbestos, ceramics, carbon etc. When brake pedal is pressed, brake fluid under pressure flows from
master cylinder to the slave cylinder via tubes. The slave cylinder consists of piston which gets actuated
by the force of incoming fluid pressure. The piston forces the brake pads against the rotating disc. The
friction between the brake pad and disc surface, resist its rotating motion and stops it. Disc brakes used
these days are differential type i.e. the left and right unit are independent of one another. This also
provides increased maneuverability.
Solution:
➢ Pneumatic actuator
➢ Compressor
➢ reservoir
➢ Valves
➢ Air filter
➢ Air cooler
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical power to perform useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the atmosphere.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure of compressed air.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to another.
Air is drawn from the atmosphere through air filter and raised to required pressure by an air compressor.
As the pressure rises, the temperature also rises and hence air cooler is provided to cool the air with
some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture.
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Then the treatment pressurized air needs to get stored to maintain the pressure. With the storage
reservoir, a pressure switch is fitted to start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reached
the required level, respectively.
The cylinder movement is controlled by pneumatic valve. One side of the pneumatic valve is connected
to the compressed air and silencers for the exhaust air and the other side of the valve is connected to
port A and Port B of the cylinder.
1. Raise: To lift the weight, the compressed air supply is connected to port A and the port B is connected
to the exhaust line, by moving the valve position to the “Raise”
2. Lower: To bring the weight down, the compressed air line is connected to port B and port A is
connected to exhaust air line, by moving the valve position to the “lower”
3. Off: The weight can be stopped at a particular position by moving the valve to position to “Off”
position. This disconnects the port A and port B from the pressurized line and the retrieval line, which
locks the air in the cylinder.
➢ Leakage is less and does not influence the systems. Moreover, leakage is not harmful.
➢ Suitable only for low pressure and hence low force applications.
➢ Less precise. It is not possible to achieve uniform speed due to compressibility of air.
• Function: A check valve allows flow in one direction only and prevents backflow. It’s used to
maintain pressure in one part of the system while allowing fluid to flow in the desired direction.
• Types:
o Standard Check Valve: Allows flow in one direction and automatically closes when
the fluid tries to reverse direction, preventing backflow.
o Pilot-Operated Check Valve: A more sophisticated check valve that uses a pilot
pressure to open or close the valve, allowing for more controlled backflow prevention.
o Non-Return Valve: Another name for a simple check valve, it prevents backflow and
ensures fluid flows in only one direction.
• Common Applications: Preventing backflow, holding pressure in systems, or in applications
where fluid should not be allowed to return to the source.
Check Valves
2. Restrictor valves
Functions:
1. Flow Control: Restrictor valves limit how much fluid or gas can pass through them, ensuring
that the system operates within safe parameters.
2. Pressure Regulation: By restricting the flow, these valves help maintain consistent pressure
throughout the system.
3. Speed Control: In hydraulic or pneumatic systems, restrictor valves are used to adjust the speed
of actuators (such as cylinders) by controlling the flow rate of fluid or air.
4. Noise Reduction: In some cases, restrictor valves can help reduce the noise associated with
rapid flow changes in systems.
Needle Valves: These allow precise control over the flow rate using a needle-like plunger that adjusts
the opening size.
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Orifice Plates: A simple type of restrictor that uses a fixed hole to limit flow, commonly found in water
systems.
Adjustable Restrictors: These can be adjusted to allow varying degrees of restriction, depending on the
needs of the system.
One-Way Restrictors: These allow fluid to flow in one direction only, restricting flow in the opposite
direction.
Applications:
Pneumatic Systems: In air compressors or valves to regulate air flow and pressure.
Automotive Engineering: Often used in fuel and oil systems to maintain optimal flow and pressure.
Restrictor valve
Question bank (ASI)
UNIT 4
1. List out the Characteristics of fuel used for an aircraft.
Solution:
Aviation gasoline consists almost entirely of hydrocarbons, namely, compounds consisting of hydrogen
and carbon. Some impurities in the form of sulphur and dissolved water will be present. The water
cannot be avoided, since the gasoline is exposed to moisture in the atmosphere. A small amount of
sulphur, always present in crude petroleum, is left in the process of manufacture.
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) is added to the gasoline to improve its performance in the engine. Organic
bromides and chlorides are mixed with TEL so that during combustion volatile lead halides will be
formed. These then are exhausted with the combustion products. TEL, if added alone, would burn to a
solid lead oxide and remain in the engine cylinder. Inhibitors are added to gasoline to suppress the
formation of substances that would be left as solids when the gasoline evaporates.
Certain properties of the fuel affect engine performance. These properties are volatility, the manner in
which the fuel burns during the combustion process, and the heating value of the fuel. Also important
is the corrosiveness of the gasoline as well as its tendency to form deposits in the engine during use.
These latter two factors are important because of their effect on general cleanliness, which has a bearing
on the time between engine overhauls.
1. Volatility
Volatility is a measure of the tendency of a liquid substance to vaporize under given hydrocarbon
compounds that have a wide range of boiling points and vapour pressures. It is blended in such a way
that a straight chain of boiling points is obtained. This is necessary to obtain the required starting,
acceleration, power, and fuel mixture characteristics for the engine.
If the gasoline vaporizes too readily, fuel lines may become filled with vapour and cause decreased fuel
flow. If the fuel does not vaporize readily enough, it can result in hard-starting, slow warm-up, poor
acceleration, and uneven fuel distribution to cylinders, and excessive crankcase dilution. The lower
grades of automobile fuel are not held within the tolerances required for aviation gasoline and usually
contain a considerable amount of cracked gasoline, which may form excessive gum deposits. For these
reasons, automobile fuels should not be used in aircraft engines, especially air-cooled engines operating
at high cylinder temperatures.
2. Vapour Lock
Vaporization of gasoline in fuel lines results in a reduced supply of gasoline to the engine. In severe
cases, it may result in engine stoppage. This phenomenon is referred to as vapour locking. A measure
of a gasoline's tendency to vapour lock is obtained from the Reid vapour pressure test. In this test a
sample of the fuel is sealed in a "bomb" equipped with a pressure gage.
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The apparatus (see figure) is then immersed in a constant-temperature bath and the indicated pressure
is noted. The higher the corrected vapour pressure of the sample under test, the more susceptible it is to
vapour locking. Aviation gasolines are limited to a maximum of 7p.s.i. because of their increased
tendency to vapor lock at high altitudes.
3. Carburetor Icing
Carburetor icing is also related to volatility. When the fuel changes from a liquid to a vapour state, it
extracts heat from its surroundings to make this change. The more volatile the fuel, the more rapid the
heat extraction will be. As the gasoline leaving the carburettor discharge nozzle vaporizes, it can freeze
water vapour contained in the incoming air. The moisture freezes on the walls of the induction system,
the venturi throat, and the throttle valves. This type of ice formation restricts the fuel and air passages
of the carburettor. It causes loss of power and, if not eliminated, eventual engine stoppage. Extreme
icing conditions can make operation of the throttle controls impossible. This icing condition is most
severe in the temperature range of 30° to 40° F. outside air temperature.
4. Aromatic Fuels
Some fuels may contain considerable quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons, which are added to increase
the rich mixture performance rating of the fuel. Such fuels, known as aromatic fuels, have a strong
solvent and swelling action on some types of hose and other rubber parts of the fuel system. For this
reason, aromatic-resistant hose and rubber parts have been developed for use with aromatic fuels.
5. Detonation
In an engine that is operating in a normal manner, the flame front traverses the charge at a steady velocity
of about 100 feet per second until the charge is consumed. When detonation occurs, the first portion of
the charge burns in a normal manner but the last portion burns almost instantaneously, creating an
excessive momentary pres- sure unbalance in the combustion chamber. This abnormal type of
combustion is called detonation. This tremendous increase in the speed of burning causes the cylinder
head temperature to rise. In severe cases, the increase in burning speed will decrease engine efficiency
and may cause structural damage to the cylinder head or piston.
During normal combustion, the expansion of the burning gases presses the head of the piston down
firmly and smoothly without excessive shock. The increased pressure of detonation exerted in a short
period of time produces a heavy shock load to the walls of the combustion chamber and the piston head.
It is this shock to the combustion chamber that is heard as an audible knock in an automobile engine. If
other sounds could be filtered out, the knock would be equally audible in an aircraft engine. Generally,
it is necessary to depend upon instruments to detect detonation in an aircraft engine.
6. Surface Ignition
Ignition of the fuel/air mixture by hot spots or surfaces in the combustion chamber is called surface
ignition. If this occurs before the normal ignition event, the phenomenon is referred to as pre-ignition.
When it is prevalent, the result is power loss and engine roughness. Pre-ignition is generally attributed
to overheating of such parts as spark plug electrodes, exhaust valves, carbon deposits, etc. Where pre-
ignition is present, an engine may continue to operate even though the ignition has been turned off.
Question bank (ASI)
Present information indicates that gasoline high in aromatic hydrocarbon content is much more likely
to cause surface ignition than fuels with a low content.
Octane and performance numbers designate the antiknock value of the fuel mixture in an engine
cylinder. Aircraft engines of high power output have been made possible principally as a result of
blending to produce fuels of high octane ratings. The use of such fuels has permitted increases in
compression ratio and manifold pressure, resulting in improved engine power and efficiency. However,
even the high-octane fuels will detonate under severe operating conditions and when certain engine
controls are improperly operated.
8. Purity
Aviation fuels must be free of impurities that would interfere with the operation of the engine or the
units in the fuel and induction system.
Even though all precautions are observed in storing and handling gasoline, it is not uncommon to find
a small amount of water and sediment in an aircraft fuel system. A small amount of such contamination
is usually retained in the strainers in the fuel system. Generally, this is not considered a source of great
danger, provided the strainers are drained and cleaned at frequent intervals. However, the water can
present a serious problem because it settles to the bottom of the fuel tank and can then be circulated
through the fuel system. A small quantity of water will flow with the gasoline through the carburettor
metering jets and will not be especially harmful. An excessive amount of water will displace the fuel
passing through the jets and restrict the flow of fuel; it will cause loss of power and can result in engine
stoppage.
Jet engines are the most common type used in commercial, military, and cargo aircraft. They work on
the principle of jet propulsion, where high-pressure air is accelerated out of the rear of the engine to
generate thrust.
a) Turbojet Engine
• Operation: Air is compressed by the compressor, mixed with fuel, ignited in the combustion
chamber, and the exhaust gases are ejected through a turbine and nozzle to produce thrust.
• Use: Predominantly used in older military jets, although modern commercial aircraft typically
use more efficient engines.
• Efficiency: Less efficient at subsonic speeds but performs well at high speeds.
b) Turbofan Engine
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• Operation: Similar to a turbojet, but a large fan at the front of the engine provides additional
thrust. Some air bypasses the core of the engine, which increases efficiency.
• Use: Most modern commercial aircraft use turbofan engines due to their better fuel efficiency
and quieter operation.
• Efficiency: More fuel-efficient and quieter than turbojets, especially at subsonic speeds.
c) Turboprop Engine
• Operation: A turbine engine is coupled to a propeller. The turbine drives the propeller, providing
thrust in a manner similar to a piston engine but more efficiently at higher altitudes and speeds.
• Efficiency: Very efficient at lower altitudes and lower speeds but less effective at supersonic
speeds.
d) Turboshaft Engine
• Operation: Similar to a turboprop, but the turbine drives a shaft instead of a propeller. The
output shaft is typically used to drive rotor blades in helicopters or other systems.
e) Ramjet Engine
• Operation: A simple jet engine that uses the aircraft's high speed to compress air, which is then
mixed with fuel, ignited, and expelled to produce thrust.
• Efficiency: Efficient at supersonic speeds but has no thrust at low speeds, so it requires another
form of propulsion for takeoff.
f) Scramjet Engine
• Operation: A variant of the ramjet engine designed to operate at hypersonic speeds (Mach 5+).
The difference is that air inside the engine flows at supersonic speeds throughout the entire
engine.
• Efficiency: Extremely efficient at hypersonic speeds but not practical at lower speeds.
Piston engines operate similarly to car engines, where a piston moves up and down in cylinders, driving
a crankshaft, which turns a propeller to produce thrust.
• Efficiency: More efficient for small aircraft but generally less reliable and powerful compared
to turbine engines.
• Operation: Cylinders are arranged in a circular pattern around the central crankshaft. These
engines have a high power-to-weight ratio and were commonly used in older aircraft.
• Efficiency: Can be very reliable and powerful for smaller aircraft, though less efficient than
modern turbine engines.
• Operation: Cylinders are arranged in two banks forming a "V" shape. V-type engines are known
for their compactness and smooth operation.
3. Electric Engines
Electric propulsion is a relatively new development in aviation, and it involves using electric motors to
drive propellers or fans. These engines can either be purely electric or hybrid-electric, in combination
with traditional engines.
a) Battery-Electric Engines
• Use: Light aircraft, urban air mobility (eVTOLs), and experimental aircraft.
• Efficiency: Highly efficient in terms of energy use, but limited by battery capacity, especially
for longer flights.
b) Hybrid-Electric Engines
• Operation: Combines electric motors with a conventional engine to provide additional range
and power.
• Use: Aimed at reducing emissions and improving fuel efficiency for commercial aircraft in the
future.
• Efficiency: More efficient than purely gas-powered engines, though still in developmental
stages for large-scale use.
• Operation: Hybrid engines that combine gas turbines and electric power for optimal
performance and efficiency.
• Efficiency: Offers better fuel efficiency and adaptability to a wide range of operating
conditions.
• Operation: Small turbine engines used to generate electrical power and provide air for air
conditioning, pressurization, and other functions when the main engines are not running.
• Efficiency: Efficient at providing power when the main engines are off.
A growing area in aviation is the hybrid airship, which combines aspects of fixed-wing and lighter-than-
air flight. These vehicles often use a combination of electric motors and conventional engines.
• Operation: Use electric engines for low-speed travel with a hybrid engine for higher speed.
Solution:
The aircraft fuel system is responsible for storing, managing, and delivering fuel to the engines. It
includes:
3. Fuel Lines & Valves: Transport and control the fuel flow.
5. Fuel Control Unit (FCU): Regulates fuel delivery to engines based on flight conditions.
8. Fuel Dumping System (for some planes): Dumps fuel in emergencies to reduce weight.
Aircraft typically use AvGas (for small piston-engine planes) and Jet fuel (Jet-A/Jet-A1) for jet engines.
The system ensures fuel is efficiently delivered and safely managed during flight.
2. Fuel Pumping: When the engine requires fuel, boost pumps inside the tanks move fuel to the
main fuel pumps, which deliver it to the engines.
3. Fuel Delivery: The Fuel Control Unit (FCU) adjusts the fuel flow based on engine demand,
altitude, and throttle settings.
4. Fuel Transfer: If needed, transfer pumps move fuel between tanks to maintain balance.
5. Monitoring: The fuel gauges provide the pilot with information about fuel levels, while filters
ensure the fuel is clean.
6. Ventilation: The fuel tank's venting system prevents pressure build-up by allowing air to enter
as fuel is consumed
Solution: The aircraft lubricating system is essential for reducing friction, cooling, and cleaning engine
components to ensure smooth operation. It consists of several key parts:
1. Lubricating Oil: Special oil circulates throughout the engine to reduce friction between moving
parts (like bearings, pistons, and gears), cool components, and prevent corrosion.
2. Oil Reservoir: This is where the oil is stored, usually integrated into the engine structure. It
provides oil to the system as needed.
3. Oil Pump: The oil pump draws oil from the reservoir and circulates it under pressure to various
engine parts that need lubrication.
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4. Oil Filter: As the oil circulates, it passes through a filter that removes contaminants like dirt and
metal particles to prevent engine damage.
5. Oil Cooler: High-performance engines generate a lot of heat. The oil cooler lowers the oil
temperature to maintain efficient lubrication and prevent overheating.
6. Scavenge Pump: After lubricating engine parts, the oil is returned to the reservoir via the
scavenge pump. This helps ensure a continuous supply of clean oil.
7. Oil Pressure and Temperature Gauges: These monitor the oil pressure and temperature, alerting
the pilot if the system isn't functioning properly.
Types of Systems:
• Wet Sump System: Common in smaller aircraft, the oil reservoir is part of the engine, and oil
is pumped directly to the engine and returns to the sump.
• Dry Sump System: Used in larger or high-performance aircraft, where the oil is stored in a
separate tank. This allows better management of oil, especially in high-g or aerobatic flights.
Operation:
The oil circulates through the engine, reducing friction, cooling engine parts, and keeping the
components clean by filtering out contaminants. It’s then cooled, filtered, and pumped back into the
engine. The system ensures that the engine operates efficiently and is protected from wear and
overheating.
In summary, the aircraft lubrication system is critical for ensuring engine reliability and longevity by
keeping engine parts well-lubricated, cool, and free from contaminants.
Solution:
• The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) or an external ground power unit (GPU) is used to supply
electrical power to the aircraft. This is especially necessary for starting large turbine engines.
2. Starter Motor:
• The turbine engine uses a starter motor or air turbine starter that engages with the engine’s rotor
to spin the compressor. In some engines, air from the APU or GPU may be used to provide
initial rotation.
3. Engine Spinning:
• The starter motor spins the compressor section of the turbine engine, allowing air to enter the
engine and pass through the compressor blades.
4. Fuel Flow:
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• Once the engine speed increases to a certain level, the fuel system starts injecting fuel into the
combustion chamber.
5. Ignition:
• Ignition sparks from the ignition system (usually a set of spark plugs) ignite the fuel-air mixture
in the combustion chamber. In turbine engines, high-energy igniters are used, which provide a
reliable and continuous spark.
6. Self-Sustained Operation:
• As combustion occurs, hot gases expand and pass through the turbine, which powers the
compressor and continues the cycle. The engine reaches a speed where it runs on its own, and
the starter motor disengages.
7. Idle State:
• Once the engine is running, it stabilizes at idle speed, and the aircraft is ready for further
operations, such as taxiing and takeoff.
Ignition Process:
• Igniters: These are electrical devices that use a high-voltage spark to ignite the fuel-air mixture
in the turbine’s combustion chamber. They are typically activated at engine startup and may
continue to operate until the engine reaches a self-sustaining speed.
• Combustion Process: Once the igniter sparks the fuel, the combustion process begins, and the
turbine generates the thrust needed to power the aircraft.
Solution:
Solid Fuels
Solid fuels are used extensively for external-combustion engines, such as a steam engine, where the
burning takes place under boilers or in furnaces. They include such fuels as wood and coal. Solid fuels
are not used in reciprocating engines, where the burning takes place inside the cylinder, because of their
slow rate of burning, low heat value, and numerous other disadvantages.
Gaseous Fuels
Gaseous fuels are used to some extent for internal-combustion engines, where a large supply of
combustible gas is readily available. Natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas are two of the more
common types. Gaseous fuels can be disregarded for use in aircraft engines. The large space they occupy
limits the supply of fuel that can be carried-
Liquid Fuels
Question bank (ASI)
Liquid fuels, in many respects, are the ideal fuel for use in internal-combustion engines. Liquid fuels
are classified as either non-volatile or volatile. The non-volatile fuels are the heavy oils used in diesel
engines. The volatile class includes those fuels that are commonly used with a fuel metering device and
are carried into the engine cylinder or combustion chamber in a vaporized or partially vaporized
condition. Among these are alcohol, benzol, kerosene, and gasoline.
Aviation fuel is a liquid containing chemical energy that, through combustion, is released as heat energy
and then converted to mechanical energy by the engine. This mechanical energy is used to produce
thrust, which propels the aircraft. Gasoline and kerosene are the two most widely used aviation fuels;
7. Describe the basic fuel transmission system used in aircraft with neat sketch.
8. Explain types of jet fuels used for various types aircraft.
The U.S. Military grades of jet fuel are designated by the letters JP followed by a number.
The grade number merely shows the approximate sequence the fuel specifications were
accepted by the military. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) codes show compatible
fuel standards. When changing to a different fuel, it is usually unnecessary to drain out the
old fuel. Some aircraft prohibit fuel mixing or require different settings on some fuel
JP–4
JP–4 (NATO Code F–40) is an alternate fuel to JP–5 for United States Navy (USN) jet
aircraft used at shore stations only. It is never used on ships. Its low vapour pressure reduces
fuel tank loss and vapour lock tendencies. Its fuel density is 6.5 pounds per gallon (ppg), and
its flash point is below 0 degrees Fahrenheit (°F). When switching to JP–4 from JP–5, engine
operating characteristics may change. Changes include easier starting, slower acceleration,
JP–5
JP–5 (NATO Code F–44) is the Navy’s primary jet fuel. It is relatively safe to store, is
thermally stable, and has high heat content per gallon. JP–5 is a kerosene-type fuel with a
vapour pressure close to 0 pounds per square inch (psi). Its high flash point makes it safe for
shipboard handling. In fact, it is the only jet aircraft fuel used aboard ships. It has a lower
tendency to vaporize than the more volatile grades. The vapour-air mixture in tanks or
containers above its liquid surfaces generally will be too lean to be ignited until the surface of
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the liquid reaches a temperature of about 140 °F.
JP–8
JP–8 (NATO Code F–34) is similar to JP–5 in most characteristics, except flash point and
freeze point. JP–8 is available only in Europe. JP–8 represents significant advantages over
JP–4 in fuel handling and operational safety. However, like JP–4, its flash point is lower than
shipboard safety standards. The disadvantages of cost, availability, and low temperature
Commercial Fuel
Common commercial fuels used include types A, A–1, and B. Commercial fuels are
authorized for use in military aircraft when JP fuel is not available. The characteristics of
commercial fuel are similar to military fuels. A–1 is designated NATO code F–34, or equal to
The aircraft gas turbine is designed to operate on a distillate fuel, commonly called jet fuel.
Jet fuels are also composed of hydrocarbons with a little more carbon and usually a higher
sulphur content than gasoline. Inhibitors may be added to reduce corrosion and oxidation.
Two types of jet fuel in common use today are: (1) Kerosene grade turbine fuel, now named
jet A; and (2) a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions, designated Jet B. There is a third
type, called Jet A-l, which is made for operation at extremely low temperatures. See figure.
There is very little physical difference between Jet A (JP-5) fuel and commercial kerosene.
Jet A was developed as a heavy kerosene having a higher flash point and lower freezing point
than most kerosenes. It has a very low vapour pressure, so there is little loss of fuel from
evaporation or boil-off at higher altitudes. It contains more heat energy per gallon than does
Jet B (JP-4).
Jet B is similar to Jet A. It is a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions. Most commercial
turbine engines will operate on either Jet A or Jet B fuel. However, the difference in the
specific gravity of the fuels may require fuel control adjustments. Therefore, the fuels cannot
specific gravity of jet fuels, especially kerosene, is closer to water than is aviation gasoline;
thus, any water introduced into the fuel, either through refuelling or condensation, will take
an appreciable time to settle out. At high altitudes, where low temperatures are encountered,
water droplets combine with the fuel to form a frozen substance referred to as "gel." The
mass of "gel" or "icing" that may be generated from moisture held in suspension in jet fuel
Solution:
1. Refuelling Process
Refuelling is the process of filling an aircraft’s fuel tanks with the required amount of fuel. The fuel
control system manages the transfer, measurement, and safety of this operation.
1. Pre-Refuelling Checks:
o Before refuelling begins, ground crew and flight crews conduct pre-refuelling checks.
These checks typically involve ensuring that all fueling equipment (e.g., fuel trucks,
hoses, and fuel tanks) is in proper working condition and that all safety protocols are
in place.
o The aircraft’s fuel control system is set up to communicate with the ground
refuelling equipment, ensuring the correct fuel type and quantity are provided.
2. Fueling Equipment Connection:
o The fuel truck or hydrant cart is positioned near the aircraft, and the refuelling hose is
connected to the aircraft’s refuelling port. Aircraft have dedicated fueling points
located on the wings or fuselage, where fuel can be supplied through the refuelling
valves.
3. Fuel Flow Control:
o Once the hose is connected, the fuel control system begins to manage the fuel flow.
The fuel pumps on the ground system push fuel through the hose and into the
aircraft’s fuel tanks. The fuel control system within the aircraft regulates how much
fuel is allowed into the tanks, and the system ensures the proper pressure for fuel
flow.
o On larger aircraft, there may be multiple tanks (e.g., wing tanks, fuselage tanks, etc.),
and the system is designed to balance the fuel flow across all tanks.
o Automatic Shutoff: During refuelling, the aircraft’s fuel system includes sensors that
monitor the tank levels. When the tanks are full, the system automatically shuts off
the flow of fuel to prevent overfilling. This may be done through level sensors or flow
meters connected to the fuel control system.
4. Fuel Quantity Measurement:
o The fuel control system monitors the quantity of fuel being added to the tanks. It uses
sensors such as capacitance probes or fuel flow meters to measure the amount of
fuel entering the tanks. The quantity is displayed to the crew or ground staff, and any
discrepancies or overfilling risks are flagged.
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o The system is often integrated with the aircraft’s fuel management system, which
tracks fuel consumption during flight.
5. Post-Refuelling Checks:
o Once refuelling is complete, a final check is performed to ensure all fueling
equipment is disconnected safely and there are no fuel leaks.
o The fuel system is pressurized and monitored for any irregularities before the aircraft
is cleared for departure.
6. Fuel Control Systems Involved:
o The fuel control system ensures safe and efficient refuelling by managing the refuel
valves, tank levels, flow rates, and shutoff mechanisms.
o Fuel Quantity Indicators: These show the fuel levels in various tanks and are
typically linked to the cockpit display for the flight crew to monitor.
o Fuel Shutoff Valves: These automatically close when the tank is full, preventing fuel
spillage or overfilling.
o Fuel Transfer Systems: In larger aircraft, fuel can be transferred between tanks, and
the system ensures this occurs during refuelling.
2. Defuelling Process
Defuelling is the process of removing fuel from the aircraft’s fuel tanks, usually for maintenance,
safety, or weight reduction purposes. This process also involves careful control to prevent fuel
spillage and ensure that the correct amount of fuel is removed.
1. Pre-Defuelling Checks:
o Before defuelling, the ground crew and flight crew perform checks to ensure that the
refuelling equipment is in good condition and that the aircraft's fuel system is ready
for defuelling.
o The aircraft’s fuel control system is set to allow fuel to be removed safely and
efficiently.
2. Defuelling Equipment Connection:
o The fuel defuelling hose is connected from the aircraft’s fuel tank to the defuelling
unit (such as a fuel truck or fuel storage tank).
o The connection points are usually located near the aircraft’s wings or fuselage, similar
to refuelling.
3. Fuel Flow Control:
o The ground defuelling equipment starts pumping fuel from the aircraft’s tanks. The
aircraft’s fuel control system monitors the removal process to ensure that fuel flows at
a safe rate.
o Automatic Shutoff: Similar to the refuelling process, the fuel system may include
automatic shutoff valves or sensors that prevent further fuel removal once the desired
quantity has been removed or when the tank is empty.
4. Fuel Quantity Monitoring:
o The fuel control system keeps track of the fuel being removed, ensuring the
appropriate amount is extracted. This could involve the same types of sensors and
gauges used during refuelling.
o The fuel management system ensures that the fuel distribution is balanced,
preventing the inadvertent draining of certain tanks over others.
5. Post-Defueling Checks:
o Once the defueling is complete, checks are made to ensure that no fuel has spilled and
that all defueling equipment is properly disconnected.
o The fuel system is monitored for leaks or irregularities, and the aircraft’s fuel tanks
are inspected for any signs of damage or contamination.
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o The aircraft may then be cleared for its next phase of operation, whether it be
maintenance or preparing for flight with a reduced fuel load.
6. Fuel Control Systems Involved:
o Defuel Valves and Pumps: The aircraft's fuel control system uses dedicated defuel
valves and pumps to remove fuel. These systems may be manually or automatically
controlled, depending on the aircraft.
o Fuel Quantity Indicators: Just as in refuelling, fuel quantity gauges and sensors help
monitor the amount of fuel in the tanks and ensure that the correct amount is removed
during defuelling.
o Pressure Management: The defuelling process may also require the management of
fuel tank pressure to prevent the creation of a vacuum in the tanks during fuel
removal.
3. Safety Considerations
Both the refuelling and defuelling processes must adhere to strict safety protocols to avoid accidents
such as fuel spills, fire, or contamination. Key safety features include:
• Grounding: The aircraft and fuel equipment are grounded to prevent static electricity
buildup, which could lead to sparks or fire.
• Spill Containment: Equipment and procedures are in place to contain any accidental fuel
spills during refuelling or defuelling.
• Overfill Protection: Automatic shutoff mechanisms prevent overfilling of the fuel tanks
during refuelling.
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UNIT 5
1. Elaborate the working principal of gyroscope.
When an external torque is applied, the gyroscope experiences precession, where the rotor moves at a
right angle to the applied force. This allows the gyroscope to measure or maintain orientation, as it
resists changes in its rotation axis.
Gyroscopes are used in navigation (aircraft, spacecraft, ships), stabilization systems (robots, drones),
and devices like smartphones to track orientation and angular velocity. Modern gyroscopes often use
small, vibrating structures (MEMS gyroscopes) or optical methods (fiber optic gyroscopes) for precise
measurements.
Working Principle:
1. Pressure Measurement:
o As an aircraft ascends, the air pressure decreases with altitude. The altimeter detects
this change in atmospheric pressure.
o The altimeter contains a barometric pressure sensor (often an aneroid capsule or a
pressure transducer) that responds to the atmospheric pressure.
2. Calibration to Sea Level:
o The sensor is calibrated to a reference pressure, typically standard atmospheric
pressure at sea level (1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inHg). The altimeter converts the
measured pressure into an altitude reading based on the pressure-altitude relationship
3. Altimeter Settings:
• Barometric Setting: Pilots adjust the altimeter to a local atmospheric pressure setting
(known as the QNH) at the airport to get an accurate altitude above the ground level.
• Pressure Decrease with Altitude: As the aircraft climbs, the pressure drops, and the
altimeter needle moves to indicate a higher altitude. Conversely, when descending, the
pressure increases, and the altimeter reading decreases.
Solution:
Functions:
1. Fire Detection:
o The system uses sensors (e.g., smoke detectors, temperature sensors, or infrared
detectors) to identify the presence of a fire or abnormal heat.
2. Fire Suppression:
o If a fire is detected, the system activates fire suppression mechanisms such as
extinguishing agents (e.g., Halon gas or water mist) to extinguish the fire. These
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agents are typically stored in pressurized bottles and released automatically or
manually by the crew.
3. Fire Containment:
o The system also includes fire-resistant materials and compartmentalization to
limit the spread of fire within the aircraft.
Solution:
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5. Elaborate the Basic Air cycle systems used in aircraft with well labelled diagram.
Solution:
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Solution:
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7. Explain the de-icing and anti-icing system used in an aircraft.
Solution:
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8. Explain the boost-strap air cycle system with neat sketch.
Solution:
The Boost-strap Air Cycle System is a type of air conditioning system commonly used in aircraft to
provide cooling. This system is part of the broader Air Cycle Machine (ACM) technology, which is
used to cool the air in an aircraft’s cabin. The boost-strap system works by utilizing the expansion of
compressed air to achieve cooling and can also use the concept of mixing hot, pressurized air with
colder air to create a more efficient cooling process.
1. Air Compression:
o The system starts by using compressed air from the aircraft’s engine or auxiliary power
unit (APU). This compressed air is typically hot and at a high pressure.
2. Cooling via Expansion:
o The compressed air flows into an expansion turbine. As the air expands in the turbine,
its temperature drops significantly, which is the key cooling process in the air cycle
machine. This is similar to how a refrigerant works in a traditional air conditioner, but
instead of a refrigerant, it relies on the properties of compressed air.
3. Boost-strap Process:
o In a typical air cycle system, the air that comes out of the turbine (which is now cooler)
is mixed with the hot, pressurized air from the engine or APU. The boost-strap part
comes into play as a mechanism that boosts or increases the cooling power of the
system by "strapping" this high-pressure, hot air into the cycle.
o The system essentially uses the mix of high-pressure and low-pressure air to achieve a
more efficient temperature drop. The cool, low-pressure air from the turbine mixes with
hot compressed air, making the temperature reduction more effective and delivering
more cooling to the cabin.
4. Heat Exchanger:
o The cold air from the turbine and the mixed air are then passed through a heat
exchanger. This ensures that the cold air is further cooled if necessary before entering
the cabin.
o A heat exchanger may also use outside air (ambient air) for additional cooling if the
aircraft is in flight and outside air is available at low enough temperatures.
5. Distribution:
o Finally, the cooled air is supplied to the aircraft cabin to maintain comfortable
temperatures for passengers and crew.
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9. Explain the working of following with neat sketch:
a) Temperature gauges
b) Pressure gauges
Solution:
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10. Explain the working principles of a typical flight instrument, such as an airspeed indicator
or altimeter.
Solution:
VOR
The Very High-Frequency Omni directional Range (VOR) system is a type of air navigation system.
Though older than GPS, VORs are very commonly used and have been a very reliable source of
navigation information since the 1960s, and it still serves as a useful navigational aid for many pilots
without GPS services.
Working principle
• The VOR ground station is aligned with magnetic north, and it emits two signals -- a
360-degree sweeping variable signal and an Omni-directional reference signal. The
signals are compared by the aircraft's receiver, and a phase difference between them is
measured, giving a precise radial position of the aircraft and displaying it on the OBI,
HSI or RMI.
• VORs come with different service volumes and dimensions: High, Low and Terminal.
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High-altitude VORs can be used up to 60,000 feet and 130 nautical miles wide. Low
altitude VORs service aircraft up to 18,000 feet and up to 40 nautical miles wide.
Terminal VORs go up to 12,000 feet and 25 nautical miles. The network of VORs
typically provides thorough coverage along published VFR and IFR routes.
VOR Errors
• As with any system, the VOR comes with some potential problems. While it's more
accurate and usable than the old NDB system, the VOR is still a line-of-sight
instrument. Pilots flying in low or mountainous terrain may find it difficult to identify
a VOR facility successfully.
• Also, there exists a "cone of confusion" when flying near a VOR. For a brief period
when an aircraft flies near or over the top of a VOR station, the aircraft instrument
will give erroneous readings.
• Finally, VOR ground systems require constant maintenance, and they are commonly
out of order for short periods of time while maintenance is performed.
The GPS (Global Positioning System) in aircraft is a satellite-based navigation system that provides
precise location, speed, and time information to pilots and flight management systems.
basic operation
GPS receivers onboard the aircraft receive signals from multiple satellites in orbit. A minimum of four
satellites is typically needed to calculate a 3D position (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and time
Signal Processing:
The GPS receiver measures the time delay for each satellite signal to reach the aircraft. This information
is used to calculate the distance between the aircraft and each satellite.
Position Calculation: Using trilateration, the GPS receiver calculates the aircraft's exact position by
determining where the spheres (representing distances to each satellite) intersect.
The GPS receiver processes the positional data to display navigation information such as:
12. Discuss the principles and applications of gyroscopic instruments in modern aircraft.
Solution:
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