LECTURE NOTE 2025 - PHYSICS [SECOND YEAR]

MAGNETISM AND MATTER

Magnetic field line

It is an imaginary curve, the tangent to which at any point give us the direction of magnetic field at that
point.
Properties
 The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) from a continuous closed loops.
 The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic field at that
point.
 The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit normal area, the larger is the magnitude of
magnetic field.
 The magnetic field lines do not intersect. This is so since the direction of the magnetic field would not
be unique at the point of intersection.
Magnetic flux
It is the total no of magnetic field lines passing normally through unit area.

flux through the small area ‘ds’ is given by

d  B cos .ds  B.ds

 Total flux through the entire surface is   s B.ds

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Gauss’s Theorem for Magnetism

The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is always zero.

B   B.ds  0
s

ie magnetic monopoles does not exist.

Magnetic dipole
A magnetic dipole consists of two unlike poles of equal strength and seperated by a small distance.
eg: Bar magnet, compass needle
Magnetic dipole moment of Bar magnet

It is the product of strength of either pole (m) and the magnetic length  2  of the magnet.


M  m  2
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed from South to North pole of the magnet.
S.I unit  Am2 or J/T
S.I unit of pole strength  Am.
Force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles.
Force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2 separated by a
distance r is directly proportional to the product of the strength and inversely proportional to square of
the distance between them.

m1m 2
F
r2

km1m 2
F
r2

0
k
4

0 m1m 2
F
4 r 2

 0  magnetic permeability of free space or air..

 0  4  10 7 wb A 1m 1
Force between short Bar magnets
Consider two short bar magnets of magnetic moments of M1 and M2 where centres are separated by
a small distance ‘r’.

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1) When they are in Axial position

 0 6M1M 2
F
4 r 4
2) When they are in equatorial position

0 3M1M 2
F
4 r 4

3) When the two magnets are  to each other

0 3M1M 2
F
4 r4
Magnetic field intensity due to Bar magnet
The magnetic field at any point is defined as the force experienced by a hypothetical unit, north pole
placed at that point.

If a magnetic north pole of pole strength ‘m’ is placed in field of intensity B , it experiences a force
 
F  mB directed along the direction of field.

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
If a magnetic South pole of pole strength ‘m’ placed in field of intensity B , it experiences the force of
same magnitude, but in opposite direction of the field.
Axial field

0 m
Field at point P due to N-pole B N  (directed away from pole)
4   r   2

0 m
Field at point P due to R-pole BS  (directed towards the pole)
4  r    2

Net field intensity, Baxial  B N  BS

0  1 1 
 m  
4   r     r   2 
2

0 4r
 m
4  r 2  2 
2

 0 2Mr
Baxial 
4  r 2   2  2

For short magnet r 2   2   2 can be neglected

 0 2M
Baxial 
4 r 3
direction is in the direction of dipole moment vector.

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Equatorial field

0 m
BS  B N 
4 r 2
But they are inclined at angle 2
 Net field intensity
Bequitorial  B N cos   BS cos   2BN cos 

0 m  0 M
 2  
4 r 2 r 4 r 3

x   r 2  2 
½

0 M
 Bequitorial 
4 r  2 
2 3/ 2

For short Bar magnet r 2   2 ,  2 can be neglected.

0 M
hence Bequitorial 
4 r 3
Direction is opposite to the direction of dipole moment.

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3) At any point

0 2M cos 
Br 
4 r3

 0 M sin 
B 
4 r3

 Net field B  Br  B
2 2

0 M
 4 cos 2   sin 2 
4 r 3

0 M
B 3cos 2   1
4 r 3

B sin 
tan   
Br 2 cos 

1
 tan   tan 
2

 is the angle between net field and the radius vector joining the point P and centre of dipole.

 is the angle between dipole moment vector and the radius vector to the point P..

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Torque on a bar magnet in a magnetic field

A bar magnet is held at an angle  with uniform magnetic field B, then Fnet   mB  mB  

ie magnet is in translational equilibrium.

But the two equal and opposite forces constitute a couple.

Torque,   Force  distance between the forces  mB  2 sin 

  MBsin 
 
Invector form,   M  B

when   0o ,   0 stable equilibrium

when   180o ,   0 unstable equilibrium

when   90o ,   MB maximum torque

Work done in rotating a dipole

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The small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through a small angle d against the restoring is

dW  d  MBsin  d

Total work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to 2 is

2

W   MBsin  d  MB   cos 2   MB cos 2   MB cos 1


1
1

W  MB  cos 1  cos 2 

According to work - Energy theorem

W  U  U f  Ui

U f  MB cos 2 Ui  MB cos 1


 In general U   MBcos    M.B

When   0 , U = -MB P.E is minimum. This is the position of stable equilibrium.

When   180o , U   MB P.E is maximum. This is the position of unstable equilibrium.

Magnetic Materials
Properties of Magnetic Materials

1. Magnetic permeability   

It is the ability of material to permit passage of magnetic lines of force through it.
Relative magnetic permeability is the ratio of number of magnetic field lines per unit area (then density
B) in that material to the number of magnetic field lines per unit area that would be present, if the
medium were replaced by vacuum (B0).

B
r 
B0

It is also defined as the ratio of magnetic permeability of the material    and magnetic permeability of

free space  0  .


r 
0

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
Magnetic force/magnetising Intensity H  
o
Consider a solenoid with ‘n’ turns per unit length carrying a current  would round a magnetic material.
The magnetic induction of the field produced in the material.

B0  0 ni

The product nI is called magnetising force or magnetizing intensity H.

H  ni

If inside solenoid, there is free space, the magnetic induction B0   0 H

SI unit of H  A/m
Intensity of magnitisation (I)
It is the magnetic moment unit volume of the material.

M
I
V

unit  A / m
Magnetic susceptibility (X)
It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (I) to the magnetising force (H) applied on it.

I
 It has no units and no dimensions.
H
Relation between relative permeability and susceptibility
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetising field H, the material gets magnetised. The total
magnetic induction B in the material is the sum of magnetic induction B0 in vacuum produced by
magnetising intensity and magnetic Bm, due to magnetisation of material,

 B  B0  B m

B0   0 H , Bm  0 I

B  0  H  I 

I

H

 I
B   0 H  1     0 H 1  X 
 H

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B  H

H   0 H 1  X 


 1 X
0

r  1  X

Diamagnetic Materials
 The diamagnetic substances are those in which individual atoms/molecules do not possess any net
magnetic moment on their own.
 When they are placed in an external magnetic field they get fully magnetized is a direction opposite to
the magnetising field.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, those substances have a tendency to move from stronger
parts of the field to the weaker parts.
 When a specimen of diamagnetic material is placed in magnetising field, the magnetic field lines
prefer not to pass through the specimen.

i.e.  r  1

 Since  r  1 , x is a small negative value.

Susceptibility of diamagnetic materials does not change with temperature.

Paramagnetic Materials
 Paramagnetic substances are those is which each individual atoms/molecule has a not non-zero
magnetic moment of its own.
 When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they tend to move from weaker parts of the field to the
stronger parts.
 When a specimen of paramagnetic substance is placed in a magnetising field, the magnetic field lines
prefer to pass through the specimen rather than through air.
Relative permeability is always more than unity.

r  1
 X is a small +ve value.

1
  of paramagnetic subtances various inversity as the temperature of substance  
T

C
 Curie’s law
T

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Ferromagnetic substances
 Ferromagnetic substances are those in which each individual atom/molecule has a non-zero magnetic
moment as in a paramagnetic substances.
 When they are placed in an external magnetising field, they gets strongly magnetized in the direction of
the field.
 They have a tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to the region of strong magnetic
field

  r is very large
 X is also a large +ve value
 With rise in temperature, susceptibility of ferromagnetic substances decreases. At a certain
temperature, ferromagnetic change over to paramagnetic substances. This transition temperature is
called curie temperature.
Hysteresis


Hysteresis represents the relation between magnetic induction B of a ferromagnetic material with

magnetising force H .
The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction B behind magnetising field H is called hysteresis.
The area of B-H loop represents energy dissipated per unit volume of the material.
 Energy loss due to hysteresis is given by

E  VAft
V  volume of specimen
A  Area of B -H loop
f  frequency of magnetisation
t  time

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