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‫ك ْ‬ ‫ع َ‬‫ه َ‬ ‫سيَ َري انهَّ ُ‬ ‫ف َ‬‫مهُىا َ‬ ‫م اعْ َ‬‫( َو ُق ِ‬
‫مهُىنَ )‪.‬‬‫م تَ ْع َ‬‫مب ُك ْن ُت ْ‬ ‫م بِ َ‬ ‫ك ْ‬ ‫د ِة َ‬
‫ف ُي َنبِ ّ ُئ ُ‬ ‫هب َ‬‫انش َ‬
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‫غ ْيبِ َو‬ ‫إِنًَ عَ بنِ ِ‬

‫‪Algebra‬‬
‫‪Summary‬‬

‫‪Math Team 2024‬‬

.{‫ىٌ إََِّ ًَا يَتَ َذ َّك ُز أُونُى ْاْلَ ْنثَاب‬ َ ‫ىٌ َوانَّ ِذ‬
َ ًُ َ‫يٍ ال يَ ْعه‬ ْ َ‫}قُ ْم َه ْم ي‬:‫قال تعاني‬
َ ‫ستَ ِىي انَّ ِذ‬
َ ًُ َ‫يٍ يَ ْعه‬

Vector Space & Subspace

Rules of Vector Space

1) u + v ∈ V

2) ku ∈ V Conditions of Subspace

3) u + v = v + u

4) (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)

5) u + 0 = u, 0 ∈ V

6) u + w = 0, u = -w

7) u.1 = u

8) (k1k2).u = k1.(k2u)

9) k.(u + v) = ku + kv

10) (k1 + k2).u = k1u + k2u

Note:
 Set of all polynomials with degree ≤ 2 is a vector space.
 If w1, w2 are two subspaces of vector space V,
then, (w1 ∩ w2) is also a subspace.
Some Properties of Additive Identity 0

1) 0.v = 0
scalar additive identity

2) α.0 = 0
any scalar additive identity

3) if α.v = 0

Then α =0 or v = 0

Some Properties of Additive Inverse

1) The additive inverse is unique.

2) The additive inverse of v = multiplication of v by (-1).

3) The additive inverse of additive inverse of v is v.

Linear Combination of Set of Vectors

Ex: Can we write v = ( ) as a linear combination of the vectors:

S = {( ) ( ) ( )}

v1 v2 v3

Solution

v = c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3

v1 v2 v3 v

Solve this system to find c1, c2, c3

If the System is Consistent If the System is Inconsistent

(Unique, Infinite) (No Solution)
∴ We can write v as ∴ We can’t write v as a
a linear combination of linear combination of
v1, v2, v3 v1, v2, v3
Span (S)
Space contains many vectors but any one of them must be written as a
linear combination of vectors in S.
Is V belongs to Span (S)? ≡ Can we write V as a linear combination from vectors in S.

Linear Combination ‫ كأَك تتحم يسأنح‬Span‫و أَت تتحم يسأنح ال‬

To determine whether the vector V ∈ Span (S) or not:
You should check whether V can be written as a linear combination of S or not.

If V can be written as If V can’t be written as

a linear combination of S. a linear combination of S.
∴ V ∈ Span(S). ∴ V ∉ Span(S).

EX1: S =*( )( )( )+, Does u = (-3,-1,1) ∈ Span(S)?

v1 v2 v3
Solution
Check if we can write u as a linear combination of S.
∴ Let u = c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3

∴ c1 – 2c3 = -3 ∴ c1 = -3
∴ c2 + 4c3 = 5 ∴ c2 = 5
∴ -c3 =0 ∴ c3 = 0
∴u = -3v1 + 5v2
∴u can be written as a linear combination of S.
∴u ∈ Span(S).
 ‫ ∈ و ال أل‬Span(S) ‫ يعُي يثال كُت بقىنك هم األرقاو دي‬،‫في انًسأنت انهي فاتت كُت يذيهك داجت يذذدة‬
‫ وال أل؟‬S span R2 ‫نكٍ في انًسأنت انقاديت بيقىنك هم‬
‫؟‬R ‫ في ال‬vector ‫ ادُا عايزيٍ َذذد إرا كاٌ أي‬،‫ يذذد‬vector ٍ‫أَا هُا يص بتكهى ع‬
2

EX2: Does S = 2. / . /3 span R2?

Solution
In this case we want to determine whether any vector in R2 in the form . /
can be written as a linear combination of v1, v2.

∴ R1 * (-2) + R2 R2

∴ 5c2 = b – 2a c2 = (b-2a) There is no condition on the values of a and b

∴ c1 = a + (b-2a) = a + b

For any values of a and b, we can find values for c1 and c2

∴ Any vector in R2 . / can be written as a linear combination of v1, v2.

∴ S span R2.
Linearly Dependent and Independent Vectors
If we have a set of vectors = {v1, v2, v3}, we have two methods to check
whether v1, v2 and v3 are L.I or not.

Method 1
ٌ‫ تس انفزق أ‬Span ‫ و ال‬Linear Combination ‫شثه يسأنح ال‬
‫ هُحظ أصفار‬Right Hand Side ‫ال‬

Let c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3 = 0

To find c1, c2 and c3, we will solve the following system:
0
v1 v2 v3 0
0

If c1 = c2 = c3 =0 If any c ≠ 0
v1, v2, v3 are L.I. v1, v2, v3 are L.D.
Method 2
We will find the determinant.
=0 ∴L.D
v1 v2 v3
≠ 0 ∴L.I
The Method of determinant is easier but we can’t use it:
1-if v1, v2, v3 don’t form a square matrix.
2-if the relation between the vectors is required in case of L.D. (the values of c1, c2, c3)
Dimension of a Vector Space
Number of elements in this vector space.

In general, dim(Rn) = n ex: dim(R3) = 3 4 5

,dim(Mm*n) = mn ex: dim(M2*3) = 2*3 = 6

,dim(Pn) = n+1 ex: dim(P2) = 3

Polynomial with degree ≤ n = a0 + a1t + a2t2 + ……. + antn

Basis of a Vector Space

If we have a set S = {v1, v2, v3} in R3, then the set will form a basis for R3 if:
1) Number of vectors = dim(R3) = 3
2) If v1, v2, v3 are L.I.

v1 v2 v3 ≠ 0

Notes:
 If S forms a basis for R3, then S spans R3 but the converse is not true.
 Basis are not unique.
.basis ٍ‫ يًكٍ أالقي أكثر ي‬vector space‫يعُي يٍ َفس ال‬
Rank of a matrix
Number of non-zero rows after making ERO (Elementary Row Operations)

From the values of rank(A), rank(A|B), we can determine whether the system
is consistent or not.

If rank(A) = rank(A|B) If rank(A) ≠ rank(A|B)

∴ The system is consistent. ∴ The system is inconsistent.

= number of unknowns < number of unknowns

∴ Unique ∴ Infinite

Row Space (A)

Is a subspace that contains many vectors, but any vector in row space (A) must be
written as a linear combination of the rows of A.

Ex: A= * +

How to find a basis for and the dimension of the row space (A)?
First, we will make ERO on A.
After making ERO:

Leading ones: The first non-zero from left in each row

A basis of a row space (A): The non-zero rows after making ERO
( )
= ,( )-
( )
, the dimension of row space (A) = number of vectors in the basis of
row space (A) = 3 = Rank(A)
Column Space (A)
Is a subspace that contains many vectors, but any vector in column space (A) must be
written as a linear combination of the columns of A.

How to find a basis for and the dimension of the row space (A)?
We will take the columns of leading ones from the original matrix.

∴ A basis of column space (A) = ,( ) ( ) ( )-

, the dimension of column space (A) = number of vectors in the basis of

column space (A) = 3 = Rank(A)
Note: For any matrix, we must have:
dim(row space (A)) = dim( column space (A)) = rank (A)

Null Space (A)

Is a subspace that contains many vectors, but any vector in the
null space (A) must satisfy: AX = 0

How to find a basis for and the dimension of null space (A)?
To find a basis for N(A), you should solve the system AX = 0, find X.

x1 – 3x2 + 4x3 -2x4 + 5x5 – 4x6 = 0

x3 + 3x4 – 5x5 + 23x6 = 0
-x5 -13x6 = 0
3 equations in 3 unknowns.
Leading ones ‫ أسهل حاجة تفرض اللي معندهوش‬،3 ‫هنفرض الفرق اللي هو‬
Let x2 = x4 = , x6 = 
∴ x5 = -13x3 = -3 -36x1 = 3 + 14 + 213
∴X= + + 

( ) ( ) ( )
∴ The dimension of null space (A) = nullity (A) = number of vectors in the
basis of N(A) = 3

Note: For any matrix, we must have:
nullity(A) + rank (A) = number of columns of A

3 3 6
From the above equation, we can find nullity (A) without solving AX = 0,
But you must solve AX= 0 if the basis of the null space (A) is required.

Transformation
If we have two vector spaces V, W
(Transformation is like function)
image preimage

w = T(v) y = f(x)

W V For each x, we have single y (Range) Domain of f

Note:
 For each v, we must have a single w.
 v: domain of T.
w: codomain of T.
Range (T): set of all vectors in w that has a preimage in v.
Note:
 We may have a vector in w that has no preimage in v. In this case, w is in
the codomain of T but outside range (T).
 We may have a different v1, v2 that have the same image w.
To find the matrix B, B’ Non-standard matrix representation of T

A3*2 = ( )

1st coordinate vector 2nd coordinate vector

in 1st column in 2nd column
In the standard matrix representation of T:

T(x,y) = A3*2. / = ( ) ‫دة كان بيطلع من هنا بردو‬

T(x,y) = (x-y, 0, x+y)

In non-standard matrix representation of T:
A,v-B = , (v)-B’

Inner Product Spaces

Inner Product satisfies 4 properties
1) (u,u) ≥ 0, (u,u) = 0 if u = 0
:‫ حاجات‬۳ ‫في أول شرط بتثبت‬
.positive ‫ لما بتضربه في نفسه الزم يطلع‬vector‫ ال‬:‫أوال‬
.‫ الزم يطلع بصفر‬inner‫ يبقي ال‬،‫ كله أصفار‬vector‫ لو ال‬:‫ثانيا‬
.‫ يبقي كله أصفار‬vector‫ يبقي الزم ال‬،‫ طلع بصفر‬inner‫ لو ال‬:‫ثالثا‬
2) (u,v) = (v,u)
3) (u+v,w) = (u,w) + (v,w)
4) (cu,v) = c(u,v)

Orthogonal Vectors
perpendicular
u,v in a vector space V will be orthogonal if:
(u,v) = 0
Note: Orthogonal vectors are L.I. vectors.
If u,v are orthogonal
∴ u,v must be L.I.
.‫نكٍ خهي بانك أٌ انعكس يص صخ‬
Orthonormal Vectors
1) u,v are orthogonal (u,v) = 0
2) u,v are unit vectors ∴ ||u|| = 1, ||v|| = 1

Gram-Shmidt Orthogonalization Process

Given:
u1, u2, u3 are L.I. vectors.
We can convert these vectors to an orthonormal set of vectors
w1, w2, w3
Steps
1) v1 = u1
2) v2 = u2 – v1
3) v3 = u3 - v1 - v2
To have an orthonormal set of vectors:
w1 =

,w2 =

,w3 =
independent ‫ انهي هًا‬us‫يثقي هًا كذج قذروا يحىنىا ال‬
orthogonal ‫ انهي هًا‬vs‫ل‬
orthonormal ‫ انهي هًا‬ws‫تعذ كذج حىنىهى ل‬

Important Note:
root(v,v) ‫ اساي؟‬magnitude‫ هجية ال‬،standard‫نى أَا يش يستخذو ال‬
‫ انهي‬function‫ في َفسه تال‬vector‫ و تعذ يا أضزب ال‬،‫ في َفسه اْلول‬vector‫يثقي أَا هضزب ال‬
‫ يثقي هى دج‬،‫ تتاعها‬root‫ أروح واخذ ال‬،magnitude square‫ هيطهعهي ال‬،‫أَت يذيهاني‬
.vector‫ تتاع ال‬magnitude‫ال‬
Eigenvalue Problem
AX = λX

Eigenvector of A Eigenvalue of A

Steps:
1) Form An*n Find the matrix A-λI by subtracting λ from the diagonal of A.
2) ∴ |An*n-λI| = 0

equation of λ

called characteristic of degree = n

equation of A

From here, we will find the

values of λ

3) Substitute with each λ in the homogeneous system (A-λI)X = 0

∴ Solve the homogeneous system to find the corresponding eigenvector X.

Note:
 Number of repetition of λ is called algebraic multiplicity.
 Number of eigenvectors at the λ is called geometric multiplicity.
 Eigenvalues

Distinct Repeated
Each λ has one eigenvector
Ex: λ = 1, -2, 3

x1 x2 x3
In this case, eigenvectors
are L.I.

x1 x2 x3 ≠ 0

Algebraic Multiplicity = Algebraic Multiplicity ≠

Geometric Multiplicity Geometric Multiplicity
Ex: λ = -2, -2, 1 Ex: λ = -2, -2, 1

x1, x2 x3 x1 x2
In this case, eigenvectors In this case, eigenvectors
are L.I. are L.D.

x1 x2 x3 ≠ 0 x1 x2 x3 = 0

 A is called semi-simple matrix (means A has L.I. eigenvectors).

 A is called not semi-simple matrix (means A has L.D. eigenvectors).
Important Notes:
1) If A has eigenvalue = λ, eigenvector X.
∴ AX = λX

Eigenvector of A Eigenvalue of A

∴ A-1 (if exists) has eigenvalue = with the same eigenvector X.

Ex: A λ = 1, -2, 4
A-1 λ = 1, ,

2) If A has eigenvalue = λ, eigenvector X.

∴ An has eigenvalue = λn, with the same eigenvector = X.

3) A, AT have the same λ but with different eigenvectors.

4) If A has eigenvalue = λ and eigenvector = X.

∴ (A+rI) has eigenvalue = (λ+r) with the same eigenvector = X.
Ex: A λ = 1, -2, 4
∴ A + 3I λ = 1+3 = 4
r = -2+3 = 1
= 4+3 = 7
5) Sum of eigenvalues of A = Trace(A) = Sum of diagonal of A.

6) Product of eigenvalues of A = ||A||

Note: If A has an eigenvalue = 0
∴ Product of λ = 0
∴ ||A|| = 0
∴ A is singular (has no inverse).
Diagonalization of matrices
If A and B are n*n matrices, then A is similar to B if there is an invertible
matrix P such that: P-1AP = B
(Using calculator we can find P-1 Video)

Theorem: If A, B are n*n similar matrices, then they have the same eigenvalues.
Note: If B is a diagonal n*n matrix, then the eigenvalues of B are the diagonal elements.
zeros‫ و باقي األرقاو ب‬diagonal‫ دي يفيهاش أرقاو غير عهي ال‬Diagonal Matrix

The Diagonalization:
A matrix A is called diagonalizable if A is similar to a diagonal matrix.

How to find a matrix P that diagonalize A?

Let A3*3 has the eigenpairs (λ1, X1), (λ2, X2), (λ3, X3) such that X1, X2, X3 are L.I.
eigenvectors.

∴ A X1 X2 X3 = X1 X2 X3 ( )

A matrix that has the eigenvectors of A as its columns called P

A diagonal matrix with the eigenvalues of A as its diagonal element called Dλ

∴ AP = PDλ
∵ X1, X2, X3 are L.I. eigenvectors.
∴ P has an inverse (non-singular).
∴ We can multiply both sides from left by P-1.
∴ P-1AP = Dλ
∴ A is similar to a diagonal matrix Dλ.
∴ A is diagonalizable.

Important Note
∴ A is diagonalizable if P has an inverse, where P = [x1 x2 x3], x1, x2, x3 are the
eigenvectors of A.
, P has an inverse if the eigenvectors are L.I. (if A is semi-simple) and this
happens only if:
 The eigenvalues are distinct.
 The eigenvalues are repeated and the algebraic multiplicity = geometric
multiplicity.
Otherwise, P will have no inverse and A will not be diagonalizable.

Matrix Functions
Theorem: If An*n with eigenvalues λ1, λ2,…… λn and the corresponding
eigenvectors are X1, X2,…… Xn, then f(A) will have eigenvalues f(λ1), f(λ2) ,……
f(λn) with the same eigenvectors X1, X2,…… Xn.

EX: If A3*3 with λ = -1, 2, 4

∴ sin(A) will have eigenvalues sin(-1), sin(2), sin(4).

Note: If A is diagonalizable.
∴ f(A) = PDf(λ)P-1 P, P-1 of f(A) are the same as A

Put f(λ) instead of λ on the diagonal.

To find a matrix function f(A) if A is diagonalizable

Steps: 1) Find the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of A.

2) Put the eigenvectors of A in a matrix P, and find P-1 using calculator.

3) f(A) = PDf(λ)P-1

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Every matrix An*m satisfies its own characteristic equation.
Ex: λ2 – 6λ + 7 = 0 The Characteristic Equation of A.
A2 -6A + 7 = 0 Using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.

Applications of Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

1) Finding A-1 using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
2) Finding An using Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Note that:
If An*n, then A-1, Ak can be written as a linear combination of I, A, A2,….., An-1.
Ex: if A3*3
∴ A-1 = (if exists)
, Ak = 0I +1A + 2A2
Note: Any matrix f(An*n) can be written as a linear combination of
I, A, A2,.....,An-1.
f(An*n) = 0I +1A + 2A2 + n-1An-1

To find 0, 1,…..,n

We will assume that the eigenvalues of A are distinct λ1, λ2, λn

‫هي دي انذانت بس انهي عهيُا في انجزئيت دي يٍ انًسائم‬

Ex: If A3*3
∴ f(A) = 
If A has distinct eigenvalues λ1, λ2, λ3
∴ f(A) has eigenvalues f(λ1), f(λ2), f(λ3)

Where: f(λ1) = 0 + λ1 + λ12 1

, f(λ2) = 0 + λ2 + 2λ22 2
, f(λ3) = 0 + λ3 + 2λ32 3

Writing these equations on the matrix form:

1 λ1 λ12 0 f(λ1)
1 λ2 λ22 f(λ2) 
1 λ3 λ32 2 f(λ3)

Solve this linear system of equations using

Gauss-Elimination to find 0, 1, 2