NUCLEAR ENERGY

E= mc2
 Atomic Theory
Rutherford model of atom
 Atomic Theory

Subatomic Particles

Particle Symbol Charge Relative Mass

Electron e- 1- 0

Proton p+ + 1

Neutron n 0 1
 Atomic Theory
Location of Subatomic Particles
-13
10 cm
electrons

protons
nucleus neutrons

10-8 cm
 Atomic Theory
Atomic Number and Mass Number

Mass Number
Symbol
Atomic Number

Z=The number of protons in an atom

N=The number of neutrons in an atom
A=The number of protons and neutrons in an atom
A=Z+N
 Atomic Theory

Number of Electrons

-An atom is neutral

-The net charge is zero
-Number of protons = Number of electrons
-Atomic number = Number of electrons
 Atomic Theory
Subatomic Particles in Some Atoms

8 p+ 15 p+ 30 p+
8n 16 n 35 n
8 e- 15 e- 30 e-
 Atomic Theory
Isotopes
Atoms with the same number of protons, but
different numbers of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element (same atomic number)
with different mass numbers
Isotopes of Uranium
Atomic Theory
Isotopes
 Atomic Theory
Atomic Mass on the Periodic Table

Atomic Number
Symbol
Atomic Mass
 Atomic Theory
Nuclear Stability & Decay

•Key factor: ratio between number of neutrons to

number of protons (the N/Z ratio)

•For elements below Ca (N/Z = 20/20 = 1) most

elements are relatively stable (the minimum ratio for
stability is 1.0)

•For elements above Ca, stability relatively constant

as long as N/Z ratio remains 1.0-1.5

•For elements above Bi (N/Z = 126/83 = 1.52) all

elements are unstable and radioactive
 Atomic Theory α-decay z>83

Mode of Nuclear Decay

β-decay

Positron emission-proton
given off positron and
converts to neutron
 BINDING ENERGY
Binding energy is defined as the
amount of energy that must be
supplied to a nucleus to completely
separate its nuclear particles
(nucleons). It can also be understood
as the amount of energy that would
be released if the nucleus was formed
from the separate particles. Binding
energy is the energy equivalent of the
mass defect.
 BINDING ENERGY 1 amu = 1.6606 x 10 -27kg

Mass ⇔ Energy
1 newton = 1 kg-m/sec2
1 joule = 1 newton-meter
1 MeV = 1.6022 x 10-13 joules

1 amu ⇔ 931.46 MeV= 931.46 x 106 eV

 BINDING ENERGY
The difference between the mass of the atom and the sum
of the masses of its parts is called the mass defect (Δm).
Δm = [ Z(mp + me) + (A-Z) mn] - matom
BE= Δm·931.46 MeV

BE =Binding Energy
Δm = mass defect (amu)
mp = mass of a proton (1.007277 amu)
mn = mass of a neutron (1.008665 amu)
me = mass of an electron (0.000548597 amu)
matom = mass of nuclide (amu)
Z = atomic number (number of protons)
A = mass number (number of nucleons )
 BINDING ENERGY

Binding Energy (B.E),

B.E= Δm·931.46=39.24566991 MeV

B.E/A=39.24566991/7=5.60651 MeV/nucleon
BINDING ENERGY

B.E./A=1784/235=7.591MeV/nucleon
BINDING ENERGY
 ATOMIC DENSITY

N = Atomic Density [atoms/cm3]

ρ= density [gram/cm3]
A0=Avagadro’s Number
(6.023x1023atoms or molecules/gram-mole)
M= Atomic Mass [gram/gram-mole]
ATOMIC DENSITY
ATOMIC DENSITY
ATOMIC DENSITY
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
Alpha Emission
RADIOACTIVITY
Beta Emission
n0 → p+ + e- + Energy
RADIOACTIVITY
Positron Emission
p+ → n0 + e+ + Energy
RADIOACTIVITY
Electron Capture
p+ + e- → n + Energy
RADIOACTIVITY
Gamma Emission
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVITY
 RADIOACTIVITY
Compound Decay
N1 → N 2 → N 3

dN 2
= λ1N1 ( t ) − λ 2 N 2 ( t )
dt

−λ 2 t N1 (0)λ1 −λ1t −λ 2 t
N 2 ( t ) = N 2 ( 0) e + (e −e )
λ 2 − λ1

dN 3
= λ 2 N 2 (t)
dt
 −λ 2 t −λ1t 
−λ 2 t λ1e − λ 2e
N 3 ( t ) = N 3 (0) + N 2 (0)(1 − e ) + N1 (0)  1 + 
 λ 2 − λ1 
RADIOACTIVITY
 RADIOACTIVITY
ACTIVITY
A=λ·N

A = Activity of the nuclide [disintegrations/second]

λ = Decay constant of the nuclide [1/second]
N = Number of atoms of the nuclide in the sample [atoms]
 RADIOACTIVITY
ACTIVITY

Two common units to measure the activity of a

substance are the curie (Ci) and becquerel (Bq)

1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 becquerels

This is approximately equivalent to the number of

disintegrations that one gram of Radium-226 will
undergo in one second
 Nuclear Reactions

1. Conservation of nucleons. The total number of nucleons before

and after a reaction are the same.

2. Conservation of charge. The sum of the charges on all the

particles before and after a reaction are the same.

3. Conservation of momentum. The total momentum of the

interacting particles before and after a reaction are the same.

4. Conservation of energy. Energy, including rest-mass energy, is

conserved in nuclear reactions.
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Reactions
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER

Microscopic Cross Section

σ [cm2, 1 barn=10-24 cm2]
σt = σs + σa
σs = σe + σie
σa = σγ + σf + σα + σ2n + σ3n + .....

Macroscopic Cross Section

Σ = N·σ [1/cm]

Mean Path Free

λ = 1/Σ [cm]
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
ELASTIC SCATTERING
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
ELASTIC SCATTERING
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INELASTIC SCATTERING
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
INTERACTIONS OF NEUTRONS WITH MATTER
 Nuclear Fission
-A very heavy nucleus splits into more stable nuclei of intermediate mass.
-The mass of the products is less than the mass of the reactants.
-Missing mass is converted to energy (E=mc2)
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission
Fissile Fuels
Fissile fuels can undergo fission with thermal neutrons (0.025eV)
U-233 (articifial), U-235, Np-237 (artificial),
Pu-239 (artificial), Pu-241 (artificial)

Naturally occurring Uranium contains two major isotopes:

Uranium-238 (99.3%)
Uranium-235 (0.7%)
As it turns out the only isotope of Uranium that undergoes fission is
Uranium-235
Nuclear Fission
Fission of 235U

(Each≈ 2 MeV)

(≈ 200 MeV)
Nuclear Fission
Fission of 235U

(≈ 200 MeV)

(Each ≈ 2 MeV)
 Nuclear Fission
Fission of 235U
1 235 U
0 n + 92 236
92 U FF1 + FF2 + 2.43 10n + Energy
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission
Fisson Energy
235
92U + 10n (0.025eV) 90
37Rb + 14455Cs + 210n (each ≈ 2 MeV) + Q (≈ 200 MeV)

235
92U + 10n (0.025eV) 87
35Br + 14657La + 310n (each ≈ 2 MeV) + Q (≈ 200 MeV)

235
92U + 10n (0.025eV) 72
30Zn + 16062Sm + 410n (each ≈ 2 MeV) + Q (≈ 200 MeV)
 Nuclear Fission
Fission of 235U

235
92U+ 10n → 23692U*
and 10-14 seconds later...
236 U* → 92 Kr + 141 Ba + 3 1 n + ENERGY
92 36 56 0
50 possible sets of fission products (sum of atomic numbers = 92)
3 neutrons released for ONE 23592U
each neutron can split another 23592U
CHAIN REACTION POSSIBLE
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Chain Reactions
•Nuclear fission releases more neutrons which trigger more fission reactions
•The number of neutrons
________ released determines the success of a chain
reaction
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Power Plant
A nuclear reactor is a system that contains and controls
sustained nuclear chain reactions
 Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Power Plant
 Conversion of Fertile Nuclides to Fissile Nuclides
(Fertile-Fissile Conversion)

Th-232, U-238, Pu-238, and Pu-240 are fertile fuels

 Neutron Flux
Φ= n·v

Φ = neutron flux (neutrons/cm2–sec)

n = neutron density (neutrons/cm3 )

v = neutron velocity (cm/sec)

 Reaction Rate
R = Φ·Σ
R = Φ·N·σ

R = reaction rate (reactions/cm3-sec)

Φ = neutron flux (neutrons/cm2–sec)

Σ = macroscopic cross section (1/cm )

N = atom density (atoms/cm3 )

σ = microscopic cross section (cm2)

Neutron Flux
Reaction Rate
Reaction Rate
Reactor Power
 Neutron Moderation

The ideal moderating material (moderator)

should have the following nuclear properties:

-Large scattering cross section

-Small absorption cross section
-Large energy loss per collision
 Neutron Moderation
Neutrons from fission have very high speeds (2MeV) and must be
slowed greatly by water "moderation" to maintain the chain
reaction.

The uranium-235 is enriched to 2.5 - 3.5% to allow ordinary water

to be the moderator.
 Neutron Moderation
Average logarithmic energy decrement
 Neutron Moderation

Number of collisions (N) to travel from any energy,

Ehigh, to any lower energy, Elow, can be calculated as
shown below:
Neutron Moderation
Neutron Moderation
Neutron Moderation
 Neutron Moderation
Macroscopic Slowing Down Power:

Moderating Ratio:
 Nuclear Criticality
When a reactor’s neutron population remains steady from
one generation to the next (creating as many new neutrons as
are lost), the fission chain reaction is self-sustaining and the
reactor's condition is referred to as "critical".
Effective Multiplication Factor (keff )

keff <1 subcritical

keff =1 critical
keff >1 supercritical
 Neutron Life Cycle

235
92U FISSION

Capture

Thermal Fast
Absorption neutrons
Thermal
Leakage
Fast
Leakage
Thermal Fast
neutrons Absorption

THERMALIZATION
 Nuclear Fusion
•Light-mass nuclei combine to form a heavier, more stable nucleus

•More energetic than fission reactions

•Source of energy for the H-bomb

•Origin of the elements

 Nuclear Fusion
Binding Energy of Nuclei
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear Fusion
Energy Released by Nuclear
Fusion and Fission
Fusion reactions release much higher energies than
Fission reactions
 Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Reactions
• Deuterium – from water
(0.02% of all hydrogen is heavy hydrogen or deuterium)

• Tritium – from lithium

(a light metal common in the Earth’s crust)
Deuterium + Lithium → Helium +
Energy

This fusion cycle (which has the

fastest reaction rate) is of interest for
Energy Production
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Energy
4 1
D + T → 2 He+ 0 n + Q(17.6MeV)

Tritium Breeding Reactions

 Nuclear Fusion
Requirements for Fusion

• High Temperatures

• Adequate Densities

• Adequate Confinement

• Lawson Criterion: nt > 1020 s/m3

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Reactor
NUCLEAR ENERGY

END