Quantitative Research

Design
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Definition
•Kerlinger (1973), “Scientific research is a systematic,
empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
proposition about the presumed relations among
natural phenomenon.”

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Nature of Research Enquiry

Research is based on
• Finding a solution to a problem or finding answers an
inquiry.
•It is based on observable experience or empirical evidence.
• It demands precise and accurate observations and
descriptions.
•It is carefully recorded and reported.
• It involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand
sources or using existing data for new purposes.

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Types of Research

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Types of Research

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Types of Research

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Measurement v/s Assessment

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Importance of Research

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• Record data- Major significance of research is that the

findings can be recorded numerically and then statistically
analysed in order to determine whether these findings are
significant or not.
• Establish Cause and Effect relationship between variables-
Research establishes a cause and effect relationship between
variables and helps to identify behaviour patterns or trends in
certain variables.

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Limitations of Research
• Lack of resources for data collection - Quantitative research methodology usually
requires a large sample size. However, due to the lack of resources this large scale
research becomes impossible. In many developing countries, interested parties may
lack knowledge and especially the resources needed to conduct a thorough
quantitative research.
• Lack of Confidence - The majority of the businesses are of the viewpoint that
researchers can misuse the data given by them. As a result, they’re unwilling to
reveal information about their business.
• Expensive Publishing - Once a research is finished, the researcher needs to
search for a means to publish it. Publishing in international journals is very
expensive. This discourages the majority of the researchers from taking up
research work.
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• Lack of Training - Research methodology is not systematic. The

researches carry out work without having genuine understanding of the
research methods. They simply seek out similar studies and replicate the
methodologies mentioned in it. Therefore, a short-term training is required
for undertaking research activities.
• Time-Consuming - Experiments can be time-consuming especially if the
researcher is interested in measuring long-term effects.
• Difficulty in Administration - Experiments can be difficult to
administer. It may be impossible to control the effect of extraneous
variables particularly in a field environment. Competitors may
deliberately contaminate the results of a field experiment.

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Literature Review and Study Framework

• Collecting pertinent literature to give in-depth knowledge about

the problem
• Understanding what knowledge exists to make changes in
practice
• Framework is the abstract, theoretical basis for a study that
enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing’s body of
knowledge.
• Theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and relational
statements that present a view of a phenomenon and can be
used to describe, explain, predict, or control phenomena.

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Review: Research Problems and Purposes

• Research problem is an area of concern needing
research for practice.
• The problem identifies, describes, or predicts the research
situation.
• Research purpose comes from the problem and
identifies the specific goal or aim of the study.
• The purpose includes variables, population, and setting for the
study.

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• Research objectives should be closely related to the statement
of the problem and summarize what you hope will be achieved
by the study.
• For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of
antenatal care services, the general objective of the study could
be to identify the reasons for this low uptake, in order to find
ways of improving it.
• General objective - what is expected to be achieved in general
terms.
• Specific objectives break down the general objective into
smaller, logically connected parts that systematically address
the various aspects of the problem.
• Framing SMART objectives is a must.
Research Design
• Blueprint or detailed plan for conducting a study
• Purpose, review of literature, and framework provide the basis
for the design
What is the Purpose of a Research Study?
• To describe variables
• To examine relationships
• To determine differences
• To test a treatment
• To provide a base of evidence for practice

• OR a combination of the above!

Linking the Purpose to the Design
• The design of the quantitative research study must match with the
purpose

• As an example, it would not be appropriate to have a purpose of

describing a set of variables with an experimental design, which is
really meant to test a treatment or intervention
Quantitative Research Designs

Descriptive

Correlational

Quasi-experimental

Experimental
Descriptive Designs

Typical descriptive design

Comparative descriptive design

Case study design

Descriptive Designs
• Most commonly used design
• Examines characteristics of a single sample
• Identifies phenomenon, variables, and conceptual and
operational definitions and describes definitions
Comparative Descriptive Designs
• Examines differences in variables in two or more groups that
occur naturally in a setting.
• Results obtained from these analyses are frequently not
generalizable to a population.
Case Study Designs
• Exploration of single unit of study (e.g., family, group, or
community)
• Even though sample is small, number of variables studied is
large.
• Design can be source of descriptive information to support or
invalidate theories.
• It has potential to reveal important findings that can generate
new hypotheses for testing.
• There is no control.
Correlational Designs
• Descriptive correlational design
• Predictive correlational design
• Model testing design
Determining the Type of Correlational Design
Causal Research Design:
Experimentation
Conditions for Causality
• Concomitant variation is the extent to which a cause, X,
and an effect, Y, occur together or vary together in the way
predicted by the hypothesis under consideration.
• The time order of occurrence condition states that the
causing event must occur either before or simultaneously
with the effect; it cannot occur afterwards.
• The absence of other possible causal factors means that
the factor or variable being investigated should be the only
possible causal explanation.
 Definitions and Concepts

• Independent variables are variables or alternatives that are manipulated and whose
effects are measured and compared, e.g., price levels.
• Test units are individuals, organizations, or other entities whose response to the
independent variables or treatments is being examined, e.g., consumers or stores.
• Dependent variables are the variables which measure the effect of the independent
variables on the test units, e.g., sales, profits, and market shares.
• Extraneous variables are all variables other than the independent variables that affect the
response of the test units, e.g., store size, store location, and competitive effort.
Experimental Design
An experimental design is a set of procedures specifying:

■ the test units and how these units are to be divided into
homogeneous subsamples,
■ what independent variables or treatments are to be manipulated,
■ what dependent variables are to be measured; and
■ how the extraneous variables are to be controlled.
 Validity in Experimentation
• Internal validity refers to whether the manipulation of the
independent variables or treatments actually caused the
observed effects on the dependent variables. Control of
extraneous variables is a necessary condition for establishing
internal validity.

• External validity refers to whether the cause-and-effect

relationships found in the experiment can be generalized. To
what populations, settings, times, independent variables, and
dependent variables can the results be projected?
 Extraneous Variables
• History refers to specific events that are external to the
experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment.
• Maturation (MA) refers to changes in the test units
themselves that occur with the passage of time.
• Testing effects are caused by the process of experimentation.
Typically, these are the effects on the experiment of taking a
measure on the dependent variable before and after the
presentation of the treatment.
• The main testing effect (MT) occurs when a prior observation
affects a latter observation.
 Extraneous Variables
• In the interactive testing effect (IT), a prior measurement
affects the test unit's response to the independent variable.
• Instrumentation (I) refers to changes in the measuring
instrument, in the observers, or in the scores themselves.
• Statistical regression effects (SR) occur when test units with
extreme scores move closer to the average score during the
course of the experiment.
• Selection bias (SB) refers to the improper assignment of test
units to treatment conditions.
• Mortality (MO) refers to the loss of test units while the
experiment is in progress.
 Controlling Extraneous Variables
• Randomization refers to the random assignment of test
units to experimental groups by using random numbers.
Treatment conditions are also randomly assigned to
experimental groups.
• Matching involves comparing test units on a set of key
background variables before assigning them to the
treatment conditions.
• Statistical control involves measuring the extraneous
variables and adjusting for their effects through statistical
analysis.
• Design control involves the use of experiments designed to
control specific extraneous variables.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

• Pre-experimental designs do not employ randomization

procedures to control for extraneous factors: the one-shot
case study, the one-group pretest-posttest design, and the
static-group.
• In true experimental designs, the researcher can randomly
assign test units to experimental groups and treatments to
experimental groups: the pretest-posttest control group
design, the posttest-only control group design, and the
Solomon four-group design.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

• Quasi-experimental designs result when the researcher is

unable to achieve full manipulation of scheduling or
allocation of treatments to test units but can still apply part
of the apparatus of true experimentation: time series and
multiple time series designs.
• A statistical design is a series of basic experiments that
allows for statistical control and analysis of external
variables: randomized block design, Latin square design,
and factorial designs.
 A Classification of Experimental Designs

Experimental Designs

Pre-experimental True Quasi

Statistical
Experimental Experimental

One-Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Time Series Randomized

Study Control Group Blocks

One Group Posttest: Only Multiple Time Latin Square

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Series

Static Group Solomon Factorial

Four-Group Design
What are the Benefits of an Experimental
Design?
• More controlled design and conduct of study
• Increased internal validity: decreased threats to design validity
• Fewer rival hypotheses
What are the Essential Elements of an
Experimental Design?
1. Random assignment of subjects to groups
2. Researcher-controlled manipulation of independent variable
3. Researcher control of experimental situation and setting,
including control/comparison group
4. Control of variance
• Clearly spelled out sampling criteria
• Precisely defined independent variable
• Carefully measured dependent variable
What are Interventions in Experimental
Research?
• Interventions should result in differences in posttest measures
between the treatment and control or comparison groups.
• Intervention could be physiological, psychosocial, educational,
or a combination.
 One-Shot Case Study
X 01
• A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X.
• A single measurement on the dependent variable is taken
(01).
• There is no random assignment of test units.
• The one-shot case study is more appropriate for
exploratory than for conclusive research.
 One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design

01 X 02
• A group of test units is measured twice.
• There is no control group.
• The treatment effect is computed as 02 – 01.
• The validity of this conclusion is questionable since
extraneous variables are largely uncontrolled.
 Static Group Design
EG: X 01
CG: 02

• A two-group experimental design.

• The experimental group (EG) is exposed to the treatment, and
the control group (CG) is not.
• Measurements on both groups are made only after the
treatment.
• Test units are not assigned at random.
• The treatment effect would be measured as 01 - 02.
 True Experimental Designs:
Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
EG:R 01 X 02
CG: R 03 04

• Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group.
• A pretreatment measure is taken on each group.
• The treatment effect (TE) is measured as: (02 - 01) - (04 - 03).
• Selection bias is eliminated by randomization.
• The other extraneous effects are controlled as follows:
02 – 01= TE + H + MA + MT + IT + I + SR + MO
04 – 03= H + MA + MT + I + SR + MO
= EV (Extraneous Variables)
• The experimental result is obtained by:
(02 - 01) - (04 - 03) = TE + IT
• Interactive testing effect is not controlled.
 Posttest-Only Control Group Design
EG : R X 01
CG : R 02

• The treatment effect is obtained by:

TE = 01 - 02
• Except for pre-measurement, the implementation of this design
is very similar to that of the pretest-posttest control group
design.
 Solomon Four Group Design

R 01 X 02
R 03 04
R X 05
R 06
• Combination of the two equivalent group design: posttest only and
pretest-posttest design
• Two simultaneous experiments, therefore, effect of X is replicated.
• 02 > 01 ; 02 > 04 ; 05 > 06 ; 04 = 03
 Quasi-Experimental Designs: Time Series
Design

01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010
• There is no randomization of test units to treatments.
• The timing of treatment presentation, as well as which test
units are exposed to the treatment, may not be within the
researcher's control.
• Threat from history.
 Equivalent Time-Samples Design

• X1O1 X0O2 X1O3 X0O4

• Treatment is given one time, is introduced and reintroduced with
some other experience. History is controlled.
 Multiple Time Series Design
EG : 01 02 03 04 05 X 06 07 08 09 010

CG : 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 010

• If the control group is carefully selected, this design can be an

improvement over the simple time series experiment.

• Can test the treatment effect twice: against the pretreatment

measurements in the experimental group and against the
control group.
 Non-equivalent Control Group Design

• O1 X O 2
-------------
O3 O4
• Similar to pretest-posttest control group design but R is not there.
• Difficult to control variable of selection.
• The statistical analysis consists of comparing the mean (O2 – O1) to
the mean gain with the non-treatment group (O4 – O3).
 Separate Sample Pre-test Posttest
Design

• O1 X O 2
-------------
O 3 X O4

• When the experimenter cannot assign treatment to all subjects at a time.

• Testing effects of maturation and selection and interaction of maturation
and selection.
 Counterbalanced Design

• Switch-over design (Kempthorne, 1952), Crossover design (Cochran &

Cox, 1957) and Rotation experiments (McCall, 1923).
• Each treatment appears once and only once n each column and in
each row.
• Four treatments to four groups on four different occasions.
 Statistical Designs
Statistical designs consist of a series of basic experiments that
allow for statistical control and analysis of external variables
and offer the following advantages:

• The effects of more than one independent variable can be measured.

• Specific extraneous variables can be statistically controlled.
• Economical designs can be formulated when each test unit is
measured more than once.

The most common statistical designs are the randomized block

design and the factorial design.
 Randomized Block Design
• The Randomized Block Design is research design’s equivalent to stratified random
sampling.
• The researcher divide the sample into relatively homogeneous subgroups or blocks
(analogous to “strata” in stratified sampling).
• Then, the experimental design you want to implement is implemented within each
block or homogeneous subgroup.
• The key idea is that the variability within each block is less than the variability of the
entire sample.
• Thus, each estimate of the treatment effect within a block is more efficient than
estimates across the entire sample.
Randomized Block Design
 Factorial Design
• Is used to measure the effects of two or more
independent variables at various levels.
• A factorial design may also be conceptualized as a table.
• In factorial designs, a factor is a major independent
variable. A level is a subdivision of a factor.
• In a two-factor design, each level of one variable
represents a row and each level of another variable
represents a column.
Factorial Design
 Factorial Design

The Main Effects

• A main effect is an outcome that is a consistent difference
between levels of a factor.
Interaction Effects
• If we could only look at main effects, factorial designs would
be useful. But, because of the way we combine levels in
factorial designs, they also enable us to examine
the interaction effects that exist between factors.
An interaction effect exists when differences on one factor
depend on the level you are on another factor. It’s important
to recognize that an interaction is between factors, not
levels.
Advantages of Factorial Design

• Factorial design has several important features.

• First, it has great flexibility for exploring or enhancing the
“signal” (treatment) in our studies. Whenever we are interested
in examining treatment variations, factorial designs should be
strong candidates as the designs of choice.
• Second, factorial designs are efficient. Instead of conducting a
series of independent studies we are effectively able to combine
these studies into one.
• Finally, factorial designs are the only effective way to examine
interaction effects.
Within- subjects design
• A within-subject design, also known as a repeated measures design, is
a type of experimental design in which all participants are exposed to
every treatment or condition.
• In a within-subject design, individuals are exposed to all levels of a
treatment, so individual differences will not distort the results. Each
participant serves as their own baseline.
• When participants and resources are limited. Longitudinal studies.
• Carryover effects
Single-Case Experimental Designs
• Single-case experimental design uses experimental methodology to
focus on only one subject.
• This design is distinct from case study methodology, which also
focuses on one individual, because single-case experimental designs
use the same systematic procedures as other experimental designs.
• The researcher sets up the study to manipulate an independent
variable (or variables) and to measure how a dependent variable
responds to changes in the independent variable.
• This design has the experimental benefit of a controlled comparison,
because the individual subject serves as his or her own control by
participating in all of the conditions.
Laboratory Versus Field Experiments

Factor Laboratory Field

Environment Artificial Realistic

Control High Low
Reactive Error High Low
Demand Artifacts High Low
Internal Validity High Low
External Validity Low High
Time Short Long
Number of Units Small Large
Ease of Implementation High Low
Cost Low High
 Limitations of Experimentation
• Experiments can be time consuming, particularly if the
researcher is interested in measuring the long-term effects.
• Experiments are often expensive. The requirements of
experimental group, control group, and multiple
measurements significantly add to the cost of research.
• Experiments can be difficult to administer. It may be
impossible to control for the effects of the extraneous
variables, particularly in a field environment.
• Competitors may deliberately contaminate the results of a field
experiment.s
Ex post facto research design
• Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research
design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without
interference from the researcher.
• The majority of social research, in contexts in which it is not possible or
acceptable to manipulate the characteristics of human participants, is
based on ex post facto research designs.
• It is also often applied as a substitute for true experimental research to test
hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships or in situations in which it
is not practical or ethically acceptable to apply the full protocol of a true
experimental design.
• Despite studying facts that have already occurred, ex post facto research
shares with experimental research design some of its basic logic of inquiry.
Example of ex-post facto research design
• An instructor in a college math course believes that a relationship
exists between performance in college math courses and whether
students had the "old math" or "new math" techniques in grade
school. She decides to do a study to determine whether her
observations are indeed accurate ones. She looks up the grade school
records of a large number of college students taking her college math
course. On the basis of these records she selects fifty students who
received "new math" and another fifty students who received "old
math" techniques. She then gathers the two groups of students
together and gives them a college math proficiency test. Her
experimental design would look no different from that of a true
experiment.
• Causal comparative research
• The research has a control or a comparison group
• The behaviour, action, event or the treatment or the independent
variable of the research cannot be manipulated or changed
• The research focuses on the effects
• The research tries to analyse the ‘how’ and ‘what’ aspect of an event
Essentials of ex-post facto research design
• Associative variation
• Systematic order of events
• Absence of other causes
Correlational design
• Correlational research involves collecting data or searching out
records of a specified population and ascertaining the relationships
among the variables of interest.
• Such research involves neither random assignment nor manipulation
of an experimental variable.
• A statistical procedure called correlational analysis is used to
ascertain the extent of the relationship among individual scores on
the two variables.
Advantages and Challenges
• Correlations between variables are often used to make predictions. But no cause
and effect relationship.
Directionality/ direction of control and Third Variable Problems
• To infer a cause-effect relationship requires that we specify the direction of
control.
• Assume that variable X and variable Y are highly correlated such that increases in
one are associated with increases in the other. Does variable X cause variable Y to
vary, or does variable Y cause variable X to vary?
• TV violence and aggression
• Is this necessarily the case?
• Are there alternative explanations for the observed relationship?
• Is it not possible that children who are more aggressive, for whatever reason,
tend to choose TV shows with more violence?
• Third variable may at times cause changes in the two variables that
are measured.
Addressing direction of control and third
variable problems
• Time-lagged/ cross-lagged correlational design
• Determine a correlation between two variables at Time 1 and again later at
Time 2.

• Partial correlations
• Matching
Criterion-group design
• What has caused a particular state of condition by contrasting the
characteristics of the group which has the criterion behavior with the
group which does not have it.
• Comparing groups of students on the basis of their divergent thinking
patterns- initial scores on divergent thinking- grouping- being more or
less- identifying the causal factors
Process of ex-post facto research design
Isaac and Michael (1971)
• Define the problem.
• Examine the literature.
• State the hypotheses.
• List the assumptions on which the assumptions are based and the procedures will be
based.
• Design the approach.
• Select the appropriate topics and source materials.
• Select or construct techniques to collect the data.
• Establish categories to classify data that are unambiguous, appropriate for the purpose of
the study, and capable of revealing significant similarities or relationships.
• Validate data collection techniques.
• Describe, analyze and interpret the findings in clear and precise terms.
• Sukhia, Metrotra and Metrotra (1966), focus on-
• Gathering data on factors invariably present in cases where the given
result occurs and discarding those elements that are not universally
present;
• Collection of data on factors invariably present in cases where the
given effect does not occur; and
• Comparing the two sets of data, or indeed, subtracting one from the
other to arrive at the causes responsible for the occurrence or not of
the effect (p. 45].
Survey Research
• Survey research is a form of quantitative research in which the
investigator identifies the sample and the population, collects
data through questionnaires or interviews, and draws
conclusions or makes inferences about the population.
• It is a useful design to use when researchers seek to collect
data quickly and economically, study attitudes and opinions,
and survey geographically dispersed individuals.
• Kraemer (1991)
• First, survey research is used to quantitatively describe specific aspects of a
given population. These aspects often involve examining the relationships
among variables.
• Second, the data required for survey research are collected from people and
are, therefore, subjective.
• Finally, survey research uses a selected portion of the population from which
the findings can later be generalized back to the population.
• In survey research, independent and dependent variables are used to define the
scope of study, but cannot be explicitly controlled by the researcher.
• Before conducting the survey, the researcher must predicate a model that
identifies the expected relationships among these variables.
• The survey is then constructed to test this model against observations of the
phenomena.
Strengths of Survey Research
• Surveys are capable of obtaining information from large samples of
the population.
• Gathering demographic data that describe the composition of the
sample (McIntyre, 1999, p. 74).
• Surveys are inclusive in the types and number of variables that can be
studied, require minimal investment to develop and administer, and
are relatively easy for making generalizations (Bell, 1996, p. 68).
• Surveys can also elicit information about attitudes that are otherwise
difficult to measure using observational techniques (McIntyre, 1999,
p. 75).
Weaknesses of Survey Research
• Pinsonneault and Kraemer (1993) - surveys are generally unsuitable
where an understanding of the historical context of phenomena is
required.
• Bell (1996) - biases may occur, either in the lack of response from
intended participants or in the nature and accuracy of the responses
that are received.
• Intentional misreporting of behaviors by respondents to confound
the survey results or to hide inappropriate behavior.
• Finally, respondents may have difficulty assessing their own behavior
or have poor recall of the circumstances surrounding their behavior.
The Survey Process
• Survey Design
• First, a sampling plan must be developed. The sampling plan is the
methodology that will be used to select the sample from the population, how
an adequate sample size will be determined, and the choice of media through
which the survey will be administered. Survey media include telephone and
face-to-face interviews, as well as mailed surveys using either postal or
electronic mail (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 3).
• Second, procedures for obtaining population estimates from the sample data
and for estimating the reliability of those population estimates must be
established. This process includes identification of the desired response rate
and the preferred level of accuracy for the survey (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p.
3).
• Sample Selection- population size, its homogeneity, the sample media
and its cost of use, and the degree of precision
• Sample Size- Degree of Precision (confidence interval), Statistical
Power (Statistical power is the probability that the researcher rejects
the null hypothesis given that the alternate hypothesis is true), Effect
Size as a Determinant of Power (evaluate the overall importance of a
result, effect size is the extent to which the distributions of means for
the null and alternate hypotheses do not overlap, the greater the
difference in the distributions of means, the higher the power),
Sample Size as a Determinant of Power (as the sample size increases,
the distribution of means becomes narrower and the variance
decreases, thereby reducing the overlap between the two
distributions and increasing power), Access to Subjects, Stratification
and Clustering , Units of Analysis, Response Rate
• Choice of Survey Media- Written Surveys, Verbal Surveys, Mixed
Mode Surveys
• Survey Instrument Development- Question Wording, Feasible and
Ethical, Length of the Survey, NO- Double Negatives, Long Questions,
Acronyms, Jargons, Tone, Biased Context, Biased Wording
• Types of Survey Questions- Open Ended, Closed Ended, Questions
that Describe and Evaluate People, Places and Events, Questions that
Measure Responses to Ideas, Analyses or Proposals, Questions that
Measure Knowledge
• Subjective Responses to Survey Questions- Beliefs, Attitudes,
Behaviors and Attributes
• Cognitive Tasks Required for Survey Response- question
interpretation, response formulation and communication
• Sources of Measurement Error- leading respondents to specific
answers, interpreting questions for them, or projecting an image that
suggests certain answers are desired, false or biased opinions,
response set and response bias
• Data collection- face to face, telephonic, mailed (online and offline),
internet based surveys
Types of Surveys- Web based
• Internet based- The ability to collect large amounts of data without
interviewers, stationery or postage, and to process answers without
separate data entry, makes the cost of doing web surveys very attractive.
• Coverage error- no chance of selection, some units may have multiple
chances, and some units may not even qualify for the survey, surveying a
portion of the survey population rather than all of its members.
• Measurement error: The result of inaccurate answers to questions that
stem from poor question wording, poor interviewing, survey mode effects,
and/or the answering behavior of the respondent.
• Nonresponse error: The result of not getting some people in the sample to
respond to the survey request who, had they done so, would have
provided a different distribution of answers than those who did respond to
the survey.
Concerns for Constructing Web Based
Surveys
• Respondent-friendly design will take into account the inability of
some respondents to receive and respond to web questionnaires with
advanced programming features that cannot be received or easily
responded to because of equipment, browser, and/or transmission
limitations.
• Respondent-friendly design must take into account both the logic of
how computers operate and the logic of how people expect
questionnaires to operate.
• Web questionnaires should take into account the likelihood of their
use in mixed-mode survey situations.
Principles of Constructing Web Based
Surveys
• Introduce the web questionnaire with a welcome screen that is
motivational, emphasizes the ease of responding, and instructs
respondents on the action needed for proceeding to the next page.
• Begin the web questionnaire with a question that is fully visible on
the first screen of the questionnaire, and will be easily comprehended
and answered by all respondents.
• Present each question in a conventional format similar to that
normally used on paper questionnaires.
• Limit line length to decrease the likelihood of a long line of prose
being allowed to extend across the screen of the respondent’s
browser.
• Provide specific instructions on how to take each necessary computer
action for responding to the questionnaire.
• Provide computer operation instructions as part of each question where
the action is to be taken, not in a separate section prior to the beginning of
the questionnaire.
• Do not require respondents to provide an answer to each question before
being allowed to answer any subsequent ones.
• Construct web questionnaires so that they scroll from question to question
unless order effects are a major concern, large numbers of questions must
be skipped, and/or a mixed-mode survey is being done for which telephone
interview and web results will be combined.
• Use graphical symbols or words that convey a sense of where the
respondent is in the completion progress, but avoid ones that require
advanced programming.
• Be cautious about using question structures that have known
measurement problems on paper questionnaires, e.g., check-all-that-apply
and open-ended questions.
Types of Survey
• Longitudinal- assessing information over time. Longitudinal surveys
may assess changes over time with trends of a population, changes in
a cohort group or subpopulation of a population, or changes in a
panel of the same individuals over time.
• Cross-sectional- assessing information at one point in time
• Example-
• examine current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices.
• compare two or more educational groups in terms of attitudes, beliefs,
opinions, or practices.
• assess community needs for educational services.
• be used to evaluate programs.
• be used statewide or nationally to survey many participants across a large
geographic area.
Trend, Cohort and Panel studies
• Trend- Different samples from different populations whose members
may change are surveyed at different points in time.
• Cohort- Particular population whose members do not change over
the course of the survey. Cohort studies are a type of research design
that follow groups of people over time. Researchers use data from
cohort studies to understand human health and the environmental
and social factors that influence it.
• Panel- Same sample of respondents at different times during the
course of the survey.
Trend Analysis
Advantages and Disadvantages of Trend
Analysis
• Large sample size, verifiable, accurate, replicable
• Distortions, determining cause, large sample size, errors