Spread-Spectrum Modulation

1
Modulation schemes studied thus far
• Efficient use of BW and Power. Trade off BW and Power. (Bandlimited
and Power limited Modulation Schemes)
• Margins provided for operation in AWGN environment
• ISI was controlled using pulse shaping
• No margins for interference from external sources was provided.

 Both AWGN and Interference are undesired and present together.

 ISI is self interference .
 Interference from other sources are intentional and unintentional.
Need modulation schemes that facilitate reception in the presence of
AWGN plus an interference environment that are defined as.
• Unintentional interference (multiple users)
• Intentional interference (hostile jammer)
• Low probability of interception (intended overhearing, signal below
noise bed like in deep space communication )

Spread Spectrum (SS)

• Controls BW and Power independently to manage interference. (Not a
trade off as done earlier. Eb=(A.A) . T for given BW=1/T)
• Transmit data rate occupies BW in excess of minimum bandwidth.
Spreading of spectrum done by a code that is independent of information
data sequence. (Unlike say PCM where BW increase is accomplished by
code that is dependent on level)
3
4
Figure 7.5
Idealized model of baseband spread-spectrum
system. (a) Transmitter. (b) Channel. (c) Receiver.

5
Figure 7.6
Illustrating the
waveforms in the
transmitter of
Figure 7.5a.

6
Two types of SS -
•Direct Sequence SS (DSSS) wherein a Pseudo Random (PN) data
sequence is used to spread the BW of the information sequence.
• Frequency Hopped SS (FHSS) wherein the information sequence
BW is frequency hopped across much wider SS BW.

Note:
• Both employ a spreading sequence generation called PN sequence.
• The PN sequence employed has good ACF and CCF properties that
make them suitable for multipath rejection and Ranging.
• DSSS is easily employed for multiuser applications.
• FHSS is more ideally suited for Antijam applications.

7
Data DSSS Bandwidth of FHSS Bandwidth of
Data Data
BW wideband carrier BW BW wideband carrier

8
 PN sequences for Spread Spectrum

Feedback shift register. (Non systematic, Feedback)

All zero initial state is not valid. Always initialized to a non zero state.

Feedback , Feedforward
Systematic , Non- Systematic 9
Maximal-length sequence, Feedback and Non-systematic
Maximal-length sequence generator for m  3.

Succession of states 100, 110, 111, 011, 101, 010, 001, 100

Output sequence 00111010 repeats itself (2^m -1 = 7)

10
11
Two different configurations of feedback shift register of length m  5. (a)
Feedback connections [5, 2].

In DS SS – Output sequence chips the information bits.

In FH SS – Two ways
1. The sequence is partitioned into k bit segments and each
segment determines hop frequency
2. Every state of Shift register determines a frequency that 12
corresponds to one output bit of sequence
 Properties of Maximal Length Sequences (Used when we derive SNR)

• Period of Maximal length sequence is (2^m -1) for m- length register

•Each period of maximal length sequence has a balance property –

number of 1’s is one more than number of 0’s.

• Run property – subsequence of identical symbols (1’s or 0’s). One half

the lengths 1’s and 0’s are of length one , one fourth are of length two
etc. The total number of runs (N+1)/2 with N = 2^m -1

•Correlation property (Autocorrelation and Cross-Correlation)

13
Autocorrelation property (a) Waveform of maximal-length sequence
for length m  3 or period N  7. (b)
Autocorrelation function. (c) Power spectral
density. All three parts refer to the output of
the feedback shift register.

14
Maximal Linear m - sequences Autocorrelation property

15
Some Important Aspects about maximal length PN sequences
1. Vulnerability of the PN Sequence – Easy to find Tc and Tb from
spectrum analyzer. PN sequence should be long else feedback
connections may be easily determined. (Not suitable for antijam
applications)
2. Good Auto correlation properties especially for Ranging.
3. Auto correlation properties good for use in CDMA. But number of
such sequences are too limited for public cellular use.
4. Cross correlation properties not as good (see table) – Though it gets
better with longer sequence period ‘n’. Ideally PN sequences should
be mutually orthogonal so that interference adds on power basis. These
are not fully satisfied by linear m - sequences. Not used in CDMA
because of high values of Cross correlation.
5. Gold – Kasami sequences are the preferred choice in CDMA with
larger number of available sequences and significantly better cross
correlation properties than M-sequences.
Table on Pairs of m – sequences - next slide
16
17
Gold – Kasami Sequences

18
{-1, -t(m), t(m)- 2}

n = 2^5 – 1 = 31
Total number of seq = n+2
= 31+2 = 33

0 1 2 3 4 5

(1.x^0)+ (0.x^1)+(1.x^2)+(0.x^3)+(0.x^4)+(1.x^5)

(1.x^0)+ (1.x^1)+(1.x^2)+(0.x^3)+(1.x^4)+(1.x^5)

19
 TX and Rx Architecture for DSSS with QPSK Modulation

Information Rate at Input to Encoder is R bits/sec

R = (1/Tb) where Tb is transmission time of information bit (pulse width)
W - Channel Bandwidth, W= (1/Tc) where Tc is chip time. W>>R is a necessity.

Bandwidth Expansion Factor = (W/R) = (Tb/Tc) = Lc = N i.e number of chips per Transmitted Information bit
Encoder is a (n,k) block or a convolution coder.

Code rate Rc = (k/n) = (Tc/Tb) = (1/Lc). Therefore block length of code word n = k . Lc
In terms of Time - k information bits x bit time Tb = kTb = n coded bits x chip time Tc = nTc
How is this accomplished?

Data bits (1&0) at (1/Tb) rate – Chopped by all 1’s i.e. (n,1) block code – (1&0) at (1/Tc) rate – Modulo 2
added with PN sequence at (1/Tc) rate.

bi ai
gi

ci

Output of Mod-2 adder is (ai, bi, ci are binary logic values) ai = bi + ci

This means that ai = 1 if either bi or ci is 1, else ai = 0. In other words ai=1 when bi ≠ ci, ai =0 when bi = ci.
This Logic output ‘ai’ is BPSK modulated at a bandpass carrier ‘’ after applying a real low pass shaping pulse g(t) of
duration Tc secs. Note that ‘ai’ is expressed in polar form (2 ai – 1).
However ai shown above is in additive form
s(t − iTc) = Re −(2 ai − 1) g(t − iTc)e = Re gi(t)e
Where gi(t) = −(2 ai − 1) g(t − iTc) is the ith transmitted PSK symbol.
+g(t − iTc) for ai = 0
Note that gi(t) = is the Transmitted Symbol
−g(t − iTc)for ai = 1
Reason for this choice is evident from the explanation and truth table shown below.

This scheme is fine for Transmitter with ai shown implemented in additive form.
At the Demodulator we express s(t-iTc) and correspondingly the received signal in multiplicative form in terms of
information code words and PN sequence code words since multiplicative operations are invoked at the receiver.
This multiplicative form is easily obtained by defining a secondary set of waveform functions
ci(t) = (2 ci − 1)g(t − iTc) , for the polar form of encoded data words and
pi(t) = (2 bi − 1) p(t − iTc) , for the polar form of the impressed PN sequence where p(t) is a unit height
rectangular gating pulse of duration Tc.
Then the equivalent low pass transmit signal can be represented in polar waveform as
gi(t) = pi(t). ci(t) = (2 bi − 1)(2 ci − 1) p(t − iTc)g(t − iTc) = (2 bi − 1)(2 ci − 1) g(t − iTc)
= −(2 ai − 1) g(𝑡 − 𝑖𝑇𝑐)
Here we have used the fact that p(t – iTc) is a rectangular pulse leading to p(t – iTc) ∗ g(t – iTc) = g(t – iTc)

See table below that shows that (2bi – 1) (2ci – 1) = - (2ai -1)
This is same as the transmitted PSK signal using Mod-2 adder as evidenced by the table below.

bi ci ai = bi+ci (2ai – 1) (2bi – 1) (2ci – 1) Note (2bi – 1) (2ci – 1)

Info bit PN Seq bits Coded Seq Coded Seq = - (2ai – 1)
0 0 0 -1 -1 -1 1
0 1 1 1 -1 1 -1
1 0 1 1 1 -1 -1
1 1 0 -1 1 1 1

The received signal can now be represented in multiplicative form as

r(t) = gi(t) + z(t) = pi(t) ci(t) + z(t) = (2bi – 1) (2ci – 1) g(t – iTc) + z(t)
Where z(t) represents the interference or jamming signal apart from AWGN
In cases (a) and (c), g(t) is removed first using MF and Correlator respectively . Then the PN sequence is stripped off
by using the simple fact bit by bit multiplication of two identical PN sequences is ‘1’, i.e alternations are removed. In
mathematical terms (2 𝑏𝑖 − 1) = 1. Our final idea is to extract (2ci – 1) which contains the information.

In case (a) after the MF operation it continues to be a wideband signal

r(t) ∗ g(Tc − t) = ∫ r(𝜏) g(Tc − τ − t)dτ = ∫(2 bi − 1)(2 ci − 1) g. g ∗ dt + ∫ z(t). g ∗ (t) dt
This now is (2 𝑏𝑖 − 1)(2 𝑐𝑖 − 1) ∫ 𝑔. 𝑔∗ 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑧(𝑡). 𝑔∗ 𝑑𝑡
= 2Ec (2bi – 1)(2ci – 1) + ∫ 𝑧(𝑡). 𝑔∗ 𝑑𝑡 continues to be wideband, both signal and interference parts
This MF output is now multiplied by the same synchronized PN sequence at receiver.
yi (t) = 2Ec . (2bi – 1)(2bi – 1) (2ci – 1) + ʃ (z(t) . g*(t)). (2bi – 1) dt
= 2Ec.(2ci – 1) + ʃ (z(t) . g*(t)). (2bi – 1) dt
= Info bits (narrow band) + wideband noise. (In total this appears as a wideband signal but distinctively has a
narrow band desired information content meshed with wideband interference content. So simple narrow band
filtering can mitigate effect of noise.
Now filter yi(t) through a narrow band filter that keeps only Info bits and noise only in that narrow band. Most of
the wideband jammer noise is cut off.
We now proceed to determine the error rate performance with these types of demodulators.
 Jammer Design with Spread Spectrum

Need modulation schemes that facilitate reception in the presence of AWGN

plus an interference environment that are defined as.
• Unintentional interference reception (multiple users)
• Intentional interference (hostile jammer)
• Low probability of interception (Prevent intended overhearing)

Interferences are categorized as

1. Continuous Broadband (relative to information BW) Jamming.
2. Continuous Narrowband (relative to information BW) Jamming.
3. Continuous Wave (Single Tone) Jamming.
4. Pulsed Jamming.

Study of performance in the presence of these types of Interference.

PN Sequence is used to chip the Information sequence to line rate.
The line rate data Transmit symbol Modulation is BPSK, MFSK.

20
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Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum

21
 • Available channel BW is divided into a large number of
contiguous frequency slots.
• In any Transmit interval, signal occupies one or more of these
frequency slots.
• Selection of frequency slot is done Pseudo randomly using a
PN sequence
• Example 1: m- bits from a PN Seq generator can be used to
determine ( – 1) possible frequency translations.
• Example 2: – Every state of shift register array in PN
sequence generator determines a frequency slot.

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum

• PSK modulation used in DSSS. However in FHSS systems FSK is used because it is difficult to
maintain phase coherence of frequencies over the hop pattern over wide bandwidths.
• Multiple (≥1) bits first mapped to MFSK symbol (baseband freqs 1/Tc apart) then the contiguous
baseband (one MFSK frequency per symbol ) is hopped over spread bandwidth– Block Hopping
• Multiple bits mapped to one symbol. Multiple symbols per hop. Each Multi-symbol is hopped (non-
contiguously) across spread bandwidth i.e Independent Tone hopping. When hopped at multiple symbols
per hop - Slow frequency hopping.
• Multiple bits mapped to one symbol then symbol is hopped (non- contiguously) across spread bandwidth
i.e Independent Tone hopping. When hopped as multiple(>1)hops per symbol (i.e. hop rate > symbol
rate) - Fast frequency hopping.
• Frequency Hopping is preferred when Antijam (AJ) is needed or also in CDMA where many users share
common BW. FH is preferred over DS when it comes to synchronization . DS needs sync to a fraction of
chip interval Tc ~ = 1/W. In FH however chip interval is signal BW B « W., and so time (1/B) >> (1/W)
22
Block hopping.
Carrier is PN hopped every signaling interval
M-info bearing tones separated by 1/Tc, Tc is signal interval

M possible tones from Modulator in dispersed freq slots

m - bits from PN generator and k – bits from encoder
determine freq slots.

23
Figure 7.10
Frequency-hop
spread M-ary
frequency-shift
keying.
(a) Transmitter.
(b) Receiver.

24
Rc = Max (Rh, Rs) where
Rh – hop rate,
Rs – symbol rate.
Slow Freq hop Rc = Rs= Rbitrate / K
and note that Rs > Rh
>= 1 symbols/Hop is Slow Freq Hop
Period of PN Sequence = 2^4 - 1 = 15

Figure 7.11
Illustrating slow-frequency hopping.
(a) Full spread bandwidth frequency variation
for one complete period of the PN sequence.
(b) Partitioned PN Seq. Each part mapped to a
hop frequency.
(c) Variation of the dehopped
frequency with time.

2 bits/tone, 4 FSK
2 symbols/hop
Rc = Max (Rh, Rs) where
Rh – hop rate,
Rs – symbol rate.
Fast Freq hop Rc = Rh and that is > Rs
< 1 symbol/Hop Fast Freq Hop
Figure 7.12
Illustrating fast-frequency hopping.
(a) Variation of the transmitter frequency with
time.
(b) Variation of the dehopped frequency with
time.

PN Sequence and partioning same as used

for slow freq hopping, but each partition
carries only 0.5 symbol /hop or 2 hops /
symbol.

2 bits/tone, 4 FSK
1/2 symbol /hop or 1 bit/hop
 Limitations of CDMA

• CDMA was not continued in 4G and 5G because these generations

adopted OFDM, which offers better spectral efficiency, supports
higher data rates, simplifies receiver design, and integrates
seamlessly with advanced technologies like MIMO.

• OFDM also handles interference and resource management more

effectively, meets modern use case demands, and aligns with the
global move toward unified standards.

• Additionally, OFDM reduced costs compared to CDMA’s

licensing-heavy ecosystem, making it a more suitable choice for
the future of mobile communication.

27
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Problem-2

Problem-3

1
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Problem-4

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2
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Wru T lo_l t;
o
tlpry,_\tJ
*b
-a
:Lo,
,$

LR ** fkr,\ 1" -,)

17/

f"5z R Lu (rv -r) = 2'qX 106 +

fr 5

= z.Qp K rtl
T. --- J-
,o Cr*{* [rr.)-l
b=* =R* XroG ckryfs"..
Tc

to,v = rnd+ t R- -- to3 / 2ja =- lo

(i)
{^

4= Soo r-
fu'5
f-.
eb

!L: 7DfW = >oAu= [ua

K
\-
N Axto3 = t# ++3

(ir) 4x o-*l - 0.01

&h,

= 0.oBg = s" r xl" 3

w --=-;
nbi
Problem-6

Problem-7