INTRODUCTI

ON TO
POWER
SYSTEM

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CHAPTER ONE: Fundamentals of power systems

Contents
1.1 Structure / scheme of a power system,
1.2 Introductionto power transformers, CTs and PTs etc
1.3 Complex power,
1.4 AC and DC transmission,
1.5 Single-phase and three-phase transmission,

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1.2 Typical a.c. Power supply scheme

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Figure 1.1
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The large network of conductors between the power station and
the consumers broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission
system and distribution system.

Each part can be further sub-divided into two—primary

transmission and secondary transmission and primary
distribution and secondary distribution.
Fig. 1.1 shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply scheme
by a single line diagram.
 It may be noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes include all the
stages shown in the above figure.
 For example, in a certain power scheme, there may not be secondary
transmission and,
 In another case, the scheme may be so small that there is only distribution and
no transmission.

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(i) Generating station :
In Fig 1.1, G.S, represents the generating station where electric
power is produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel.

 The usual generation voltage is 11 kV. ( But It may range from

6·6 kV to 33 kV in certain cases.)
 For economic reason in the transmission of electric power, the
generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is stepped up to 132 kV.
 (or it can be more than 132 kV Depending upon the length of
transmission line and the amount of power to be transmitted.) at
the generating station with the help of 3-phase power transformer.

Generally the primary transmission is carried at 132kV, 220 kV

or 400 kV.

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 (ii) Primary transmission.
The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire
overhead system to the outkirts of the city. This forms the
primary transmission.
(iii) Secondary transmission.
The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving
station (RS) which usually lies at the outskirts of the city.
At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by
step-down transformers.
From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-
phase, 3-wire overhead system to various sub-stations (SS)
located at the strategic points
in the city. This forms the secondary transmission.
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(iv) Primary distribution.

The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station

(SS) where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-
wire.

The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city.
This forms the primary distribution.

It may be noted that big consumers (having demand more

than 50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11kV for further
handling with their own sub-stations.

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(v) Secondary distribution.
The electric power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is
delivered to distribution sub-stations (DSS).
These sub-stations are located near the consumers’
localities and step down the voltage to 400V or 380V, 3-
phase, 4-wire for secondary distribution.
The voltage between any two phases is considered as 400V or
380V and between any phase and neutral is 230 or 220 V.

The single-phase residential lighting load is connected between

any one phase and neutral,
Where as 3-phase, 400/380 V motor load is connected across
3-phase lines directly.

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In short, secondary power distribution may be divided in three sections
such as ,feeders, distributors and service lines
Feeders; Those electric power lines which connect generating station
(power station) or sub station to distributors are called feeders.
• Remember that current in feeders (in each point) is constant and
depends on the size of conductor, while the level of voltage may be
different.
Distributors ;Those taping which extracted for electric power supply
to the consumers or ,the lines from where consumers get direct electric
power supply is known as distributors.
• Current is different in each section of the distributors while voltage
may be same. The selection of distributors depends on voltage drop.
Service Lines or Service Mains; The normal cable which is connected
between Distributors and Consumer load terminal called Service Line or
Service Mains

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1.2 introduction to power Transformers
Power transformers are essential components of electrical power systems. They are
used to step up or step down voltage levels, allowing for efficient transmission and
distribution of electricity.
Power transformers are also used to isolate different parts of the power system and
to provide protection against overvoltage and overcurrent conditions.
Q. Why transformers are important to modern life?

Fig 3.1 High voltage reduces the required amount of transmission current required.
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Basic Principles of Transformer Operation
• Power transformers work on the principle of electromagnetic
induction. When an alternating current (AC) flows through the
primary winding of a transformer, it creates a changing magnetic
field.
• This magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the secondary winding.
The ratio of the voltage in the secondary winding to the voltage in the
primary winding is determined by the number of turns in each
winding.
Power transformers typically consist of three main components:
• Core: The core is made of a ferromagnetic material, such as steel,
and it provides a path for the magnetic flux.
• Windings: The windings are made of copper or aluminum wire, and
they are wrapped around the core. The primary winding is connected
to the source of electricity, and the secondary winding is connected to
the load.
• Tank: The tank is a metal enclosure that protects the transformer
from the environment. It also contains the oil that insulates and cools
the transformer.
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Types of Transformers:
i. Unit transformers-usually located at the output of a
generator. Its function is to step-up the voltage level so
that transmission of power is possible.
ii. Substation transformers-located at main distribution or
secondary level transmission substations. Its function is to
lower the voltage levels for distribution 1st level purposes.
iii. Distribution Transformers- located at small distribution
substation. It lowers the voltage levels for 2nd level distribution
purposes.
iv. Special purpose Transformers- E.g. potential Transformer (PT) ,
current Transformer(CT)

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 instrument transformer
• A device that serves as an input source of currents and voltages
from an electric power system to instruments, relays, meters, and
control device.

• The basic design is that of a transformer with the primary winding

connected to the power system, and the secondary winding to the
sensing and measuring equipment.

 Instrument transformer cab classified as ;

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• A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding
a current, which is proportional to the current flowing in its primary winding.
• The secondary current is usually smaller in magnitude than the primary current,
and connected in series to the equipment.
• In current transformers the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst
the secondary can have several hundred turns.

• Figure below shows current transformer Symbols and Simplified Concepts.

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 Cont…
• Construction of C.T. ; C.T. has a primary coil of one or more
turns of thick wire connected in series with the line whose current
is to be measured. The secondary consist of large number of turns
of fine wire, is connected across the ammeter terminals.
• Current Transformers normally known as C.T. is a step up
transformer.

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 Voltage transformers
• Voltage or Potential transformer (PT) is a step down transformer
having many primary turns but few secondary turns.

• They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being

measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship
to enable accurate secondary connected metering.

• Figure below shows voltage transformer Symbols and Simplified

Concepts.

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 Generally
The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

• To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a value easy to

handle for relays and instruments.

• To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage system.

• To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and relays to a few

rated currents and voltages.

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Complex Power
• Complex power is important in power analysis because it contains all the
information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load.
• The Complex sum of Real Power (P) and Reactive Power (Q) is known as
Complex Power which can be expressed like S = P+jQ and measured in
terms of Volt Amps Reactive (generally in kVAR).

• Given the phasor form V = Vm∠θv and I = Im∠θi of voltage v(t) and
current i(t), the complex power S absorbed by the ac load is the
product of the rms voltage and the complex conjugate of the rms
current, or
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In terms of the rms values,

Where, ,

• The magnitude of the complex power is the apparent power;

• The complex power is measured in volt-amperes (VA). And used for
transformer and generator rating .
• The angle of the complex power is the power factor angle.
The complex power may be expressed in terms of the load impedance Z.
The load impedance Z may be written as

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Thus, Vrms = ZIrms.

Since Z = R + jX,
where P and Q are the real and imaginary parts of the complex power; that is,
,P is the average or real power and it depends on the load’s resistance

,Q depends on the load’s reactance X and is called the reactive (or

quadrature) power.

• The real power P is the average power in watts delivered to a load; it is

the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by the load.
• The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the
source and the reactive part of the load.
• The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to distinguish it from the
real power, whose unit is the watt.

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It represents a lossless interchange between the load and the source. Notice that :
1.Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf)
2.Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf)
3.Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf)

It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form of a triangle, known

as the power triangle,

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The power triangle has four items – the apparent/complex power, real power,
reactive power, and the power factor angle. Given two of these items, the other
two can easily be obtained from the triangle.
• when S lies in the first quadrant, we have an inductive load and a lagging pf.
• When S lies in the fourth quadrant, we have a capacitive load and a leading
pf.
It is also possible for the complex power to lie in the second or third quadrant.
This requires that the load impedance have a negative resistance, which is
possible with active circuits.

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Example 1: The voltage across a load is v(t)=60cos(ωt-10o) V and the current through
the element in the direction of the voltage drop is i(t)=1.5cos(ωt+50o) A Find:
(a) the complex and apparent powers,
(b) the real and reactive powers, and
(c) the power factor and the load impedance.

SOLUTION
a)

b)

c)

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Example 2: A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a 120Vrms
sinusoidal source. Calculate:
(a) the average and reactive powers delivered to the load,
(b) the peak current, and
(c) the load impedance.
Solution
a)

b)

Thus Irms = 100∠31.13o and the peak current is

c)

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1.4 A.C and D.C. Transmisison

The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c.

or a.c. Each system has its own merits and demerits.
1. D.C. transmission.

For some years past, the transmission of electric power by

d.c. has been receiving the active consideration of engineers
due to its numerous advantages.

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Advantages. The high voltage d.c. transmission has the
following advantages over high voltage a.c. transmission :

(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three

conductors for a.c. transmission.

There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement

(ii)
and hence, no surge problems in d.c. transmission.

(iii) Dueto the abscence of inductance, capacitance, the

voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line is less than the a.c
transmission line, for the same load and sending end voltage
condition.
For this reason, a d.c. transmission line has better voltage
regulation.
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(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section
of the line conductor is utilized.

(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the
insulation is less in case of d.c. system than that in a.c. system.
Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication circuits.

(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the

dielectric losses, particularly in the case of cables.

(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems

and synchronizing difficulties.
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 Disadvantages

(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c.

voltage due to commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission
of power at high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own
limitations.

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 2. A.C. transmission.

Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated,

transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.

Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down
by transformers with ease and efficiency. This permits to
transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe
potentials.

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 Disadvantages

(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.

(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more

complicated than a d.c. transmission line.
(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective
resistance of the total line is increased.
(iv) Since An a.c. line has capacitance, there is a continuous
loss of power due to charging current.

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 Conclusion.
From the above comparison, it is clear that high voltage d.c.
transmission is superior to high voltage a.c. transmission b/c of
a number of advantages.
Although at present, transmission of electric power
is carried by a.c., there is an increasing interest in
d.c. transmission.

Fig. single line diagram of high voltage d.c. transmission

In present day the trend is towards a.c. system for
generation and distribution, but high voltage d.c. is for
transmission. 33
example
A series-connected load draws a current i(t)=4cos(100πt+10) A when the
applied voltage is v(t)=120cos(100πt-20) V. Find
a) the apparent power
b) power factor of the load.
c) Determine the element values that form the series-connected load.

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1.5 Single-phase and three-phase transmission

Single Phase circuit

• With single-phase current, the voltage rises to a peak in one direction of flow,
subsides to zero, reverses, rises to a peak in the opposite direction, subsides
to zero, and so on.
• The cycle repeats itself 60 times every second, which is where we get the
term 60-cycle or 60-hertz alternating current.

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Three Phase circuit
• Nearly all-electric power generation and most of power
transmission in the world today are in the form of three-phase
AC circuits.
• A three-phase circuit is a combination of three single-phase
circuits.
• A three-phase power system consists of three-phase generators,
transmission lines, and loads.
• Three-phase systems have two major advantages over single
phase systems:
(1) More power is obtained per kilogram of metal from three
phase system, and
(2) the power delivered to a three-phase load is constant all
the times, instead of pulsing as it does in single-phase system.
(3) More economical than single phase – less wire for the
same power transfer 36
The 120º phase difference of the three phases is must for the proper working
of the system. Otherwise, the system becomes damaged

Balanced 3-phase systems can be considered as 3 equal single phase

voltage sources connected either as Y or Delta () to 3 single three loads
connected as either Y or 

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Wye-Connected System
 They connected at a common point called neutral
 The star connection requires four wires in which there are three phase
conductors and one neutral conductor.
 Such type of connection is mainly used for long distance transmission
because it has a neutral point.
 The neutral point passes the unbalanced current to the earth and hence
make the system balance.
 CONT,D…

• The voltages between any two line terminals (a, b, or c) are called
line-to-line voltages, and the voltages between any line terminal and
the neutral terminal are called phase voltages.
• Since the load connected to this generator is assumed to be
resistive, the current in each phase of the generator will be at the
same angle as the voltage.

Accordingly, the currents flowing in the three phases are

 CONT,D…

It is obvious that the current in any line is the same as the current in the
corresponding phase.
Therefore, for a Y connection
The relationship between line voltage and phase voltage is given by the
following equation

Delta (∆) Connection

• Another possible connection is the delta (∆) connection, in which the
three generators are connected head to tail
• The delta connection has three wires, and there is a no neutral point.
• The ∆connection is possible because the sum of the three voltages
VA+ VB+ VC= 0.
 CONT,D…

In the case of the ∆connection, it is obvious that the line-to-line voltage

between any two lines will be the same as the voltage in the corresponding
phase.

The relationship between line current and phase current can be found by
applying Kirchhoff’s current law at a nodes of the ∆