Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

A comprehensive review of energy storage technology development and

application for pure electric vehicles
Feng Jiang a, b, c, Xuhui Yuan a, Lingling Hu a, Guangming Xie c, Zhiqing Zhang a, b, *, Xiaoping Li a,
Jie Hu a, Chuang Wang a, Haichang Wang a
a
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, China
b
Guangxi Key Laboratory of Automobile Components and Vehicle Technology, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, China
c
Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Environmental pollution associated with emissions from conventional fuel vehicles is beginning to become
Pure electric vehicle increasingly serious. To decrease the dependence on oil and environmental pollution and the present problem of
Energy type low energy efficiency of electric vehicles, this is a new opportunity for electric vehicles. Although the fuel
Energy storage technology
economy of hybrid vehicles has been better than that of conventional fuel vehicles in the past, it is only a
On-board energy
Energy management strategy
transitional stage in the development of pure electric vehicles as people become more and more concerned about
energy and environmental issues. Energy technology is an indispensable part of the development of pure electric
vehicles, but there are fewer review articles on pure electric vehicle energy technology. In this paper, the types of
on-board energy sources and energy storage technologies are firstly introduced, and then the types of on-board
energy sources used in pure electric vehicles are analyzed. Secondly, it will focus on the types of energy man­
agement strategies used in pure electric vehicles. Finally, the energy technology of pure electric vehicles is
summarized, and the problems faced in the development of energy technology of pure electric vehicles and their
solutions are pointed out and discussed. This will further promote the development of pure electric vehicles.

serious. In dense urban areas and areas with large populations, exhaust
1. Introduction fumes from vehicles have become a major source of air pollution [1].
According to a case study in Serbia, as the number of vehicles increased
Conventional fuel-fired vehicles use the energy generated by the the emission of pollutants in the air increased accordingly, and research
combustion of fossil fuels to power their operation, but the products of on energy technologies for vehicles was initiated to reduce pollution [3].
combustion lead to a dramatic increase in ambient levels of air pollut­ Conventional fuel vehicles produce various pollutants such as carbon
ants, which not only causes environmental problems but also exacer­ dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide, aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm (PM2.5),
bates energy depletion to a certain extent [1]. In order to alleviate the and nitrogen dioxide. These pollutants not only affect the environment
environmental problems caused by conventional fuel vehicles, people but even jeopardize human health [4,5]. Vehicle emissions are a wide­
have been working on the development and application of Battery spread problem throughout the world, and even those in high-risk
electric vehicles (BEVs) in the past few years. Hybrid electric vehicles pollution areas are experiencing progressively higher mortality rates.
(HEVs) emerged in this process and began to be rapidly developed and Fuel vehicles, which are the largest producers of greenhouse gases,
applied to the market. It improves the fuel economy of the vehicle by contribute to global temperature increases due to the relatively large
incorporating batteries and electric motors with an internal combustion share of CO2 it produces among the emitted pollutants. In addition to
engine, which makes hybrids improve the fuel economy of the vehicle this, it produces inorganic air pollutants that adversely affect biodiver­
compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), sity, ecosystems and ecosystem services [6]. The rising temperatures in
and it results in a reduction of tailpipe emissions [2]. However, hybrid recent years, as well as the increase in sea level, could reflect the severity
vehicles are not the ultimate goal to be pursued, it is just a transitional of the current situation. In June 2022, the world's land areas reportedly
period in the process of developing from ICEV to BEV. experienced the hottest temperatures on record, with a record-breaking
The current environmental problems are becoming more and more heat wave sweeping across the Northern Hemisphere, particularly parts

* Corresponding author at: Mechanical and Automotive Engineering School, Guangxi University of Science and Technology, Liuzhou 545006, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.111159
Received 26 October 2023; Received in revised form 24 January 2024; Accepted 28 February 2024
Available online 11 March 2024
2352-152X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Nomenclature RBS regenerative braking system

LCA Life Cycle Analysis
BEVs battery electric vehicles PDS power distribution system
HEVs hybrid electric vehicles TCS thermostat control strategy
ICEVs internal combustion engine vehicles SOC state of charge
FCEVs fuel cell electric vehicles FLC fuzzy logic control
V2G vehicle to grid DP Dynamic Programming
EMS energy management strategies PSO Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
ASSB all-solid-state batteries MPC Model Predictive Control
EDLC double layer capacitor ECMS Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy
PC pseudo-capacitor A-ECMS Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy
HSC hybrid supercapacitor NN neural network
FESS flywheel energy storage system DQN deep Q-learning
PEMFC proton exchange membrane fuel cells DDPG deep deterministic policy gradient

of continental Europe, Asia and North America. Wave after wave of heat development of BEVs. According to recent reviews, oil is mostly used in
waves peaked and erupted across the globe. The heat waves caused the petrochemical industry and transportation, but the existing oil re­
thousands of heat-related deaths [7]. As depicted in Fig. 1, global CO2 sources around the world can only be used for >50 years [10,11]. It is
emissions change between 2022 and 2024.There is a significant reduc­ therefore necessary to find new energy technologies and implement
tion in greenhouse gas emissions due to the emergence of new tech­ policies to reduce the problems caused by energy shortages. Comparing
nologies and support from national policies [8]. In addition to the the domestic and international energy technologies for electric vehicles,
greenhouse gas problem mentioned above, the current energy shortage the technical routes regarding energy utilization are still lagging behind
is also a problem for most countries. Energy loss is also an area of foreign countries, the comprehensive consideration of pure electric ve­
concern, and researchers at home and abroad are exploring or creating hicles in the motor, battery and a series of components such as efficiency
more new renewable energy sources to improve the vehicle's energy and energy consumption, after the test can be known as BEVs of the total
technology, increase the proportion of electricity generated, and in­ energy efficiency of about 60 % to 70 %, while the fuel efficiency of the
crease the mileage of BEVs [9]. This is one of the reasons for the ICEVs in the range of 15 % to 18 % [7,12]. In addition to that, ICEV can

Fig. 1. 2022-VS-2024 global CO2 emissions.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

be connected to the smart grid as a distributed energy storage system 2.1. Energy storage type
compared to BEV. The power flow connection between regular hybrid
vehicles with power batteries and ICEV is bi-directional, whereas the 2.1.1. Electrochemical energy storage
energy storage device in the electric vehicle can re-transmit the excess Energy storage technologies are considered to tackle the gap be­
energy from the device back to the grid during peak electricity con­ tween energy provision and demand, with batteries as the most widely
sumption periods. When surplus energy is present in the grid, it can be used energy storage equipment for converting chemical energy into
used to charge on-board batteries as well as to generate a certain amount electrical energy in applications. However, electric vehicles also face
of hydrogen by electrolyzing water. Connecting pure electric vehicles to several challenges such as limited range, long charging time, high cost
the smart grid (V2G) mitigates the impact on loads during charging, and light weight of batteries [17]. With technological breakthroughs,
equalizes the load on the batteries, and enhances the reliability of the the types of batteries applied in BEV have become diverse. This paper
grid, managing these energy demands more intelligently and enabling analyzes the types of electric vehicle batteries that are already available
better power delivery without compromising powertrain efficiency, on the market, such as lead-acid, fuel, nickel-based, and lithium batte­
effectively alleviating the energy crisis [13–15]. With the above anal­ ries, and then also analyzes new types of batteries, such as all-solid-state
ysis, the initiative to carry out research and development of pure electric batteries (ASSBs), sodium-ion batteries, and cohesive batteries. An
vehicles is imperative and of great significance. overview of the energy characteristics of these batteries is presented in
Through the sales volume of the global automobile market in recent Table 1 [18–22].
years, the total number of automobile sales in the world in 2022 will be Lead-acid batteries are used as one of the earliest energy storage
about 80.18 million units, of which the sales share of new energy ve­ devices applied to uninterrupted power systems grid services and other
hicles has increased compared with previous years, and this figure is stationary energy storage fields due to their advantages of high safety,
expected to increase by 3 % from 2022 to 2025. As the world's largest recyclability and low cost. Lead-acid batteries have a specific energy of
automobile consumer market, China's automobile market sales volume 30–50 Wh/kg, a specific power of 75–300 W/kg, and a small self-
will reach 26.864 million units in 2022 alone [12]. How to solve the discharge rate (0.1–0.3 %) about 2 % of the rated capacity per month
above problems is particularly important. The Chinese new energy (at 25 ◦ C) [18,19]. Wang et al. [23,24] investigated the energy efficiency
vehicle market has shown continued explosive growth, thanks to new parameters in the charging and discharging control process of lead-acid
policies implemented by governments to support automotive companies' batteries and found that lead-acid batteries have higher multiplication
research and development of new technologies and products, as well as rate and voltage requirements, and the higher polarization of PbO2
factors such as the control of the new crown epidemic, improved product positive plates, which leads to lower cycling performance of lead-acid
supply, the beginning of slow economic growth, government subsidies, batteries. In addition to this, the production and recycling of lead-acid
and price guarantees and promotions by most automotive companies. batteries is the most significant source of lead exposure. Widespread
China has proposed an imminent halt to the sale of traditional internal lead contamination and lead poisoning can occur in the areas sur­
combustion locomotives, and the rest of the world has announced a halt rounding battery production and recycling plants, and the flow of lead
to the sale of internal combustion locomotives. As a result, research and effluent into surface and groundwater can result in some degree of
development of electric vehicles has become a goal they are pursuing. contamination of crops, plants and animals in the water [18]. At the
Although electric vehicles still produce pollutants during their produc­ same time, due to the lack of specific treatment standards for recycling,
tion and manufacturing as well as during their use, BEVs do not pollute the emission standards and recycling efficiency have been greatly
while driving and have good environmental protection power compared reduced, and when problems arise, the responsibility cannot be realized
to ICEVs. The current research on hybrid technologies has a lot of by individuals and enterprises. To mitigate this impact, a standardized
literature to refer to, and the research literature on BEVs energy tech­ recycling process for lead-acid batteries can be developed to ensure the
nologies is much less detailed than that on HEVs energy technologies. A recycling of lead batteries; relevant legislation and regulatory systems
review of articles on energy technology over the past decade reveals an can be established to address the environmental and safety issues
increasing trend year by year, which indicates that the role of energy involved in the production and recycling process to mitigate the impact
technology for vehicles is becoming more and more important. There­ on the environment.
fore, this paper analyzes and researches the energy technology of BEVs. FCEVs are electric motors driven by electricity generated by a
In Section 2, the energy characteristics of BEVs are analyzed, and the combination of fuel cells and batteries. Fuel cells generate electricity
energy storage devices and energy generation devices of BEVs are through hydrogen rather than batteries. It is characterized by high ef­
summarized. Section 3, analyzes the types of BEVs present in the current ficiency and environmental friendliness compared to lead-acid batteries,
market. Section 4, analyzes the impact of electric vehicles. Section 5, so most of the FCEVs currently on the market use hydrogen to power the
analyzes energy management strategies (EMS) applied to electric vehi­ fuel cells [25]. Fuel cells convert the energy in the fuel directly into
cles. Section 6 analyzes the current status of BEV development and ad­ electricity to drive the vehicle during operation. Hydrogen fuel cell
dresses the problems faced in developing BEV. Section 7 summarizes the electric vehicles have a longer range than BEVs. Ajanovic et al. [26] their
development of energy storage technologies for electric vehicles. study pointed out that the application of hydrogen and fuel cells is a
better option when performing long-distance transportation, to verify
2. Energy storage devices and energy storage power systems for the improvement of low power response and power density issues of
BEV FCEVs, fuel cells were combined with supercapacitors to form a fuel
system, supercapacitors were used so that the vehicle can respond faster
Energy systems are used by batteries, supercapacitors, flywheels, to the power while driving, making fuel cell as a power source. The
fuel cells, photovoltaic cells, etc. to generate electricity and store energy results show that the fuel cell and supercapacitor combination could
[16]. As the key to energy storage and conversion, energy storage sys­ effectively increase the driving range. These problems have contributed
tems can improve the safety, flexibility and adaptability of multi-energy to the fact that although FCEVs have been used in the fields of distrib­
systems, and can also effectively alleviate the problem of energy crisis. uted power generation, transportation, etc., their high cost and low
However, for some of the power installations described above, there are number of cycle times make large-scale production difficult [27,28].
still many challenges in terms of reliability and performance, so this Nickel-based battery types can be divided into NiMH, Ni-Zn, Ni-Cd,
paper investigates and analyzes the energy devices used for BEV. and Ni-Fe batteries according to the negative electrode material. NiMH
batteries used in electric vehicles can generate higher discharge rates
and higher energy densities, while at the same time emitting large
amounts of heat through the production of hydrogen. Compared with

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Table 1
Presentation of energy characteristics of different batteries.

Energy storage Energy density Power density Cycle life Advantages Disadvantages
systems (Wh/L) (W/L)

Lead-acid battery High power density and specific power Short life span and high maintenance costs
[18,19] 3–15 90–700 250–1500
High cost and Insufficient durability of start-stop
High energy density and long lifespan cycles
Fuel cell [19,21] 600 0.2–20 103–104
Long service life, more environmentally
Ni-Fe [18,20] 50–60 100 >10,000 friendly Poor discharge capacity and stability
Longer service life and more
Ni-MH [18,20] 50–100 / 800–1200 environmentally friendly Relatively short range
Rapid growth of dendrites inside the cell,
High energy density and high preventing use in vehicles
Ni-Zn [18,20] >145 >1700 >500 power density
Poor overcharge/discharge capability, overcharge
Li-ion battery
[18,19] 200–300 1300–10,000 600–4500 High power density

Good thermal stability, high power Influenced by the environment

LiFeO4 [18,19] 70–80 >1000 >2000 density
High energy, high power, low cost Poor thermal stability, difficult to prepare
LiNiMnCoO2 150–220 / 1000–2000
[18,19]
Poor thermal stability and high cost prevent
High energy density, longer life cycle widespread use in vehicles.
LiCoO2 [18,19] 700 <25 500–1000
High energy density, long life, high safety
performance Low power density, high cost
ASSB [21] 250–400 1500–6000 2000–3000
Sodium ion battery 10–15 120–160 2500–4000 High specific power Safety issues exist
[22]

other nickel-based batteries, Ni-Zn batteries have a shorter cycle life, electrocatalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction in the cathode, which
and they are not generally used as a power source, and Ni-Zn batteries can increase the cycle life of Ni-Zn batteries [29]. The use of the Ni-Cd
do not cause environmental pollution problems when offering a power battery can accomplish the goal of fast charging, but it is gradually
source. Researchers have utilized the side-dissolved oxygen reaction in eliminated from the market because it produces toxic substances that
Ni-Zn batteries to construct an air-breathing cathode by coupling an pollute the environment and even jeopardize human health. The Ni-Fe

Fig. 2. Positive and negative materials for lithium-ion batteries.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

battery is more consistent and has a longer cycle life than other nickel- anode, with the overall internal structure of a pearl-like KB branched
based batteries, but it is larger in mass, has a higher cost and has a higher chain around NVFP structure to improve the overall conductivity and
self-discharge rate [30]. cycling performance. This approach can further enable large-scale pro­
In the past, electric vehicle batteries mostly utilized the traditional duction of Sodium-ion batteries for energy storage applications. In April
battery types mentioned above, but in recent years, most electric vehi­ 2023, Contemporary Amperex Technology Co Limited (CATL) released a
cles have been using lithium batteries as energy storage devices and new type of battery-Condensed Battery. Generally speaking, the high
power sources. As a result, researchers began experimenting with energy density and safety of batteries generally show a negative corre­
different positive and negative materials to improve the performance of lation, while the energy density of cohesive batteries is as high as 500
lithium batteries, as shown in Fig. 2 [31]. For example, lithium-ion- Wh/kg, and safety can be guaranteed [38]. It incorporates a high-power
based monomer batteries, polymer batteries formed with lithium ions, bionic cohesive electrolyte in its technology, which regulates the inter­
lithium iron phosphate batteries, etc. The high energy density of lithium action between the chains by constructing an adaptive mesh structure at
iron phosphate batteries allows them to be fabricated into smaller cap­ the micron level, which not only reinforces the structural stability, but
sules, reducing the amount of space they consume. The lithium iron also allows the ions to move more quickly inside the battery, improving
phosphate batteries discharge energy efficiently into vehicles while the vehicle's fast charging capability, and the SOC in the initial state
BEVs are in motion, while their discharge rate is small, resulting in a allows the battery to realize its optimal potential [40,41].
long service life for lithium iron phosphate batteries. A review of vehi­ As batteries are used for longer periods, they become more prone to
cles using lithium iron phosphate batteries compared to other battery failure. The causes of battery failure may be due to temperature, internal
types shows that lithium iron phosphate batteries are better at cutting voltage, overcharge or over-discharge, and a series of other reasons, so
down on charging times [32,33]. Lithium-ion polymer batteries have in its failure to repair, you need to first find out the specific causes of
increased reliability and robustness compared to the above lithium iron failure. The correct maintenance strategies such as restorative mainte­
phosphate batteries, but their power density and conductivity are nance (replacement of batteries), preventive maintenance (maintenance
poorer. The above two lithium‑iron phosphate batteries also have the of batteries, temperature control), and improved maintenance
same flaws, lithium iron phosphate batteries in the production of easy to (replacement of chargers) are used to find out the specific causes of
cause environmental pollution. In the utilization process, lithium iron battery failures with a reliability-centered maintenance mindset. Strictly
phosphate batteries may overheat and cause combustion or even ex­ follow the overhaul steps in the service manual when performing re­
plosion problems. LiFePO4 batteries are also characterized by high en­ pairs. The correct maintenance strategy will prolong the life of the
ergy density, low self-discharge rate, and stable cycling performance, battery and guarantee its normal operation.
but the utility of LiFePO4 batteries decreases when subjected to extreme
temperature conditions, which limits the large-scale application of 2.1.2. Electrical energy storage
LiFePO4 batteries with BEVs [34,35]. A supercapacitor may be treated as an electrochemical device con­
The emergence of rechargeable ASSB is another development in sisting of two solid conductors immersed in an electrolyte and segre­
electrochemical energy storage devices and there are still three main gated by a corresponding spacer. It works on the principle of electrolyte
challenges for ASSBs as shown in Fig. 3 [36]. For ASSB suitable solid- solution between two solid conductors to realize the energy storage
state electrolyte is the key to performing energy storage. When halide process, which combines high energy density and fast charging and
SSEs are utilized in the ASSBs, the ASSBs are characterized by high ionic discharging characteristics [42]. However, the supercapacitor is often
conductivity, high energy density, strong stability, and excellent me­ synergized with other energy sources to do their work. Ultracapacitors
chanical deformability. This can effectively mitigate mileage anxiety as can be categorized into three types according to the charge stacking
well as better tackle safety aspects [37,38]. Zhao et al. [39] proposed to principle, double-layer capacitors (EDLC) that store charge on the sur­
utilize the multivalent redox reaction of vanadium in sodium-ion bat­ face of the metal electrolyte through non-Faraday/electrostatic in­
teries to manufacture a sodium superionic conductor material as its teractions, pseudo-capacitors (PCs) that store energy through Faraday, a

Fig. 3. Bipolar stacked solid-state battery.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

reversible redox reaction, and hybrid supercapacitors (HSCs) that stack store the kinetic energy from electrical energy, increasing the energy
energy through both Faraday and non-Faraday interactions, as shown in storage capacity of the FESS as much as possible and driving the BEVs'
Fig. 4 [42]. Following technological advances in electrolytes, collectors, motors to output electrical energy through the reverse rotation of the
large electrode-specific surface area, and thin permittivity spacers, flywheel when needed [47]. The mechanical energy of the revolving
supercapacitors can demonstrate 10,000-fold capacitance augmentation mass is converted into electrical energy during the discharge procedure,
compared to conventional capacitors [43,44]. The smallest of the three, and the electrical rotor acts as a motor to convert the electrical energy
EDLC, PC, and HSC, can demonstrate a specific power of up to 4000 W/ into mechanical energy stored in the revolving mass during the charging
kg and have a broad range of temperature operation and a cycle life far procedure. FESS, as an energy system previously applied to racing cars,
superior to that of other batteries or conventional capacitors. However, has re-entered people's view with the development of magnetic levita­
high fabrication cost is required in the actual production process of tion bearings, levitation technology and new materials. It is beginning to
supercapacitors, so how to further reduce the cost of fabricating and be gradually applied to emerging fields such as BEVs, distributed power
using supercapacitors has gradually become a direction of vehicular grids, and realizing the full peaking of wind power generation systems.
energy research and development personnel's attention. The constituents of the FESS are shown in Fig. 5 [48]. The flywheel
Guo et al. [45] in their study proposed a technological route for energy storage system is characterized by superior power characteris­
hybrid electric vehicle energy storage system based on supercapacitors, tics, millisecond startup capability, ultra-long lifetime, environmental
and accordingly developed a supercapacitor battery with high safety, friendliness, and wide operating temperature range [48,49]. When the
wide range of operating temperatures, and high energy density, which flywheel is engaged in BEVs, bi-directional AC/DC converter connects
was tested to significantly improve the performance of the vehicle, and the FESS to the DC bus to control flywheel charging and maintain a
to a certain extent, play a role in alleviating the energy crisis. Simon constant DC voltage. In charging mode, the flywheel is driven at high
et al. [46] provided a comprehensive review of supercapacitors, sum­ speed by a permanent magnet synchronous motor powered by an
marizing the key technologies, functions, and requirements for a external source (e.g., grid or photovoltaic system). During this process,
supercapacitor management system consisting of different super­ an AC/DC converter is used to control the speed of the PM synchronous
capacitors. Several key issues such as modeling, control, and state esti­ motor. In discharge mode, the flywheel is decelerated by a PMSM
mation performed by supercapacitors are also covered, and their operating as a generator to produce electrical power when it is needed.
research fills a gap in supercapacitor management systems. However, due to the friction loss generated during the working process,
it has a high self-discharge loss, which limits the application in vehicles
2.1.3. Mechanical energy storage to a certain extent. FESS has an advantage over BESS, the most
The flywheel in the flywheel energy storage system (FESS) improves commonly used technology for electric vehicles, in terms of more
the limiting angular velocity of the rotor during operation by rotating to frequent and rapidly compensating power.

Fig. 4. Classification of supercapacitors.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 5. Flywheel energy storage system.

Zhang et al. [50] addressed the procedure of the energy that could be the methods of hydrogen production were proposed as shown in Table 2.
saved or released by the FESS and proposed a simple model to calculate The storage of hydrogen in the vehicle after production is also a
the initial angular velocity of the flywheel in the charging and dis­ difficult point in the development process of hydrogen energy. For
charging modes, which could enable the FESS to have a fixed charging or example, hydrogen is prone to leakage; hydrogen storage tank failure;
discharging power to realize the power balance. high-pressure hydrogen refueling process caused by hydrogen to achieve
/ rapid warming, there are security risks [53]. Therefore, vehicles need to
E = Jw2 2 (1)
be equipped with a comprehensive hydrogen safety system to ensure the
In Eq. (1) E denotes the kinetic energy of the flywheel, J denotes the safety of vehicles and people. The most common hydrogen-storage
moment of inertia, and w denotes the angular velocity of the rotor. Then technology used in vehicles today is the use of high pressure com­
the energy that can be stored in the FESS can be calculated: pressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks.
( )/ Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles substitute hydrogen tanks for
ΔE = J w2max − w2min 2 (2) conventional fuel tanks to produce electricity to drive the vehicle, and
the fuel cell does not observe the efficiency constraints of the Carnot
In Eq. (2) w2max is the maximum angular speed of rotation of the
cycle, which makes it possible to supply a high-performance metric in
flywheel and w2min is the minimum angular speed of rotation of the
terms of efficiency that greatly increases the vehicle's driving range
flywheel.
[52,60]. As researchers have tackled hydrogen storage technology, the
number of approaches for hydrogen storage has increased accordingly,
2.1.4. Chemical energy storage
such as hydrogen liquefaction, metal hydride hydrogen storage, porous
The emergence of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is considered to be the
material hydrogen storage technology, liquid organic hydrogen carrier
main direction for the development of new energy vehicles in the future.
or liquid organic hydride hydrogen storage [61–63]. Among the
Its longer mileage, environmental adaptability, and zero emissions have
hydrogen storage approaches mentioned above, the development of
changed people's perception of traditional electric vehicles. However, as
liquid organic hydrogen carriers or liquid organic hydrides for hydrogen
far as technology is concerned, there are definite difficulties in the
storage is more favorable for the application of pure electric vehicles.
production of hydrogen. Hydrogen storage technology, in contrast to the
above-mentioned batteries, supercapacitors, and flywheels used for
short-term power storage, allows for the design of a long-term storage
2.2. Energy power systems
medium using hydrogen as an energy carrier, which reduces the con­
sumption of traditional fossil energy sources [51]. In addition to this,
2.2.1. Fuel cell systems
neither the generation of mechanical energy when hydrogen is com­
Fuel cell system works mainly through the chemical reaction be­
busted nor the oxidation reaction that occurs in fuel cells to generate
tween elemental hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity to drive
electrical energy contributes to the emergence of pollution problems.
the vehicle normally. A typical Fuel cell system is shown in Fig. 6 [64].
Hydrogen is one of the superior energy storage options, releasing a
The fuel cell in a Fuel cell system is characterized by high efficiency
high specific energy capacity of 120 MJ/kg (calorific value of hydrogen)
and environmental friendliness by converting electrical energy for its
and clean combustion products when burned [52]. For hydrogen for on-
operation. Different kinds of fuel cells are also utilized in different fields.
board applications, there is a requirement for the ability to meet not only
Alkaline fuel cells are mainly used in aerospace; proton exchange
high energy density and high mass density storage methods but also fast
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) are applied in transportation power and
kinetics requirements for hydrogen storage and emission [53]. Some of
power supply for small devices; phosphoric acid fuel cells are mostly

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Table 2 transportation, it is operating in the cell's anode and cathode half-cell

Hydrogen production methods. reaction and the overall cell reaction sequence is as follows:
Authors Research focus Methodology Results PEMFC Anode Reaction:
Hydrogen H2 →2H + + 2e− (3)
Through a production from Enhanced
Hosseini comparative renewable energy efficiency of PEMFC cathodic reaction:
et al. [54] evaluation of various sources through hydrogen
green energy thermochemical production. 1/2 × O2 + 2H + + 2e− →H2 O (4)
carriers. processes.
Integrated PEMFC total response:
A thermodynamic Supercritical Water
H2 + 1/2 × O2 →H2 O + Electronic + Thermal Energy (5)
analysis was Gasification for
performed using Hydrogen From the above reaction process when the battery works can be seen
SCWG technology Production from The hydrogen yield
and evaluated the Coal Power increases with the
after a series of reactions will be converted into electrical energy and
Chen life cycle (ISCWGC-HPP) is a increase of heat, and by-products only produce water and no polluting gases are
et al. [55] environment of their highly efficient temperature and produced [67].
new ISCWGC-HPP multi-generational coal concentration. Fuel cell systems used as energy sources for power in vehicles are
system. coal conversion
usually composed of multiple PEMFCs linked in series to form a circuit
system to produce
hydrogen. so that adequate voltages are available for the normal starting of the
The increased vehicle. For a single PEMFC output voltage in the circuit can be repre­
Thermodynamic Solar-based steam- output of hydrogen sented by [68]:
analysis of energy autothermal produces more
and exertion methane reforming electricity, which VFC = ENernst − Vact − Vohm − Vconc (6)
Ishaq methods from a system for hydrogen can provide 59.1 %
et al. [56] solar-driven steam production and more energy and ENernst indicates the open circuit voltage of the circuit, Vact indicates
autothermal (EISAR) power generation 31.1 % more the activation voltage drop across the PEMFC, Vohm indicates the ohmic
methane reforming efficient voltage drop across the PEMFC, and Vconc indicates the concentration
system movement.
voltage drop across the PEMFC.
Deoxygenation The hydrogen
Generation of enhanced chemical production and When N PEMFCs are connected in series, then the stack output
hydrogen-rich cycle biomass maximum voltage at this time is:
Sun et al. syngas through gasification (DE- concentration after
[57] deoxygenation and CLBG) is used for deoxygenation VSF = NV FC (7)
regeneration stages hydrogen-rich increased by 287 %
syngas production and 27 %, 2.2.2. Vehicle regenerative braking systems
together with CO respectively
Rapid mass
A regenerative braking system (RBS) in BEVs is also referred to as a
Study on GDY-based transfer and gas feedback braking system. As shown in Fig. 7, It recovers further heat
catalysts for Hydrogen release during energy wasted during vehicle braking, while reducing carbon and other
Yu et al. hydrogen production production by water hydrogen fuel emissions and dependence on non-renewable energy sources [69].
[58] method by water electrolysis production to
This energy is subsequently stored in the form of electrical energy using
electrolysis enhance hydrogen
production rates. an energy converter in a single energy storage device such as a battery,
Hydrogen Koppers-Totzek Produces up to 97 flywheel, ultracapacitor, or a hybrid energy storage device consisting of
Baykara production by coal process % pure hydrogen all of them.
et al. [59] gasification RBS not only increases the range of BEVs but also enhances the
braking effect of the vehicle. The vehicle's RBS can work in conjunction
used in civil fuel cells; molten carbonate fuel cells are used in industry with various ESS (BESS, FESS) through the electric motor. A schematic
and power stations; and solid oxide fuel cells are more suitable for large- diagram of the energy flow of the hydraulic-based RBS is shown in Fig. 8
scale clean power generation stations in the future. Molten carbonate [70]. When the vehicle brakes, the kinetic energy of the vehicle rotates
fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells have high operating temperatures the hydraulic motor and moves the working fluid from the low-pressure
(600 ◦ C to 1000 ◦ C) and are commonly used in electric utilities and accumulator to the high-pressure accumulator, which compresses the
distributed generation [64,65].The research and application of all the internal gas. At the same time, the hydraulic motor becomes a generator,
above energy technology power systems have served to alleviate the converting the vehicle's mechanical (kinetic) energy into hydraulic and
energy crisis. At this stage, PEMFC has a prosperous future in the di­ electrical energy for storage. However, the compressed gas in the
rection of transportation. It has high energy and power densities as well accumulator expands during acceleration, which allows the stored hy­
as adapts to low-temperature environments and is able to provide fast draulic energy to act as an auxiliary power to drive the hydraulic motor,
response. In addition, with in-depth research on PEMFC, it can satisfy a helping to transfer the energy to the wheels. At this stage, there are also
wider range of operating conditions. For example, when the Fuel cell RBSs that store kinetic energy as rotational energy in the flywheel [71].
system is subjected to frequent starting and stopping of the vehicle, load All of the above regenerative braking systems are appropriate for
and power variations, and pressure imbalance of the exchange mem­ BEVs, in comparison, BESS is more required in terms of charging and
brane, this technology ensures that no damage is occurs to the fuel cell discharging technology, which can be prevented from impacting the
stack, and smooth operation of the vehicle between maximum fuel energy storage, and regenerative systems applying supercapacitors tend
economy and powertrain is achieved [66]. Fuel cell systems are not able to be more costly [72]. Flywheel and hydraulic regenerative braking
to meet market demand due to their high cost and inadequate infra­ systems are preferred to the first two in terms of energy recovery and
structure. However, with the research on key technologies and the charging/discharging capabilities. Although some progress has been
gradual addition of market applications, fuel cell systems may substitute made in RBS research, and some ways of energy combination have been
the current position of lithium batteries as the energy source for found to improve energy utilization. However, there are also new energy
vehicles. braking energy recovery system has not been fully industrialized;
PEMFC is currently the most widely used fuel cell in the direction of insufficient coordination and control with mechanical braking. These
are the problems that need to be solved in the development process of

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 6. Typical fuel cell system.

Fig. 7. Simplified diagram of regenerative braking system.

RBS. power generation systems can work properly DC/AC inverter is essen­
tial, it will be the photovoltaic cell system will be converted into alter­
2.2.3. Photovoltaic power generation systems nating current to ensure the normal application of electrical energy [75].
A photovoltaic cell is a device that can convert light energy from the When the photovoltaic system is running, it is able to be used to save
sun directly into electrical energy. Individual photovoltaics are not energy while not polluting the environment, as well as having a long
usually used in their applications; they are mostly designed in the form service life and low cost [76,77]. Photovoltaic systems have unpredict­
of solar arrays to fulfill normal usage requirements [73]. The photo­ able risks for normal use due to the high dependence on weather
voltaic battery system mainly contains photovoltaic modules, inverters, conditions.
batteries (off-grid system) and other accessories, a typical photovoltaic The research and development of photovoltaic cells has proceeded to
power generation system is shown in Fig. 9 [74]. The types of photo­ the fourth generation of graphene-based photovoltaic cells, in which the
voltaic modules are mostly monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline sil­ semiconductor material in the photovoltaic cell generates an electric
icon and amorphous silicon, of which monocrystalline silicon has a current due to the photovoltaic effect when solar radiation irradiates the
photovoltaic conversion rate of about 18 %, which is the highest con­ photovoltaic surface [78,79]. Fig. 10 below shows the technology of
version rate of the three photovoltaic modules, while amorphous silicon photovoltaic cells [80]. The first generation is based on monocrystalline
can generate electricity even under low-light conditions. Photovoltaic silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and gallium arsenide photovoltaic cells,

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 8. Energy flow of RBS based on hydraulic pressure.

Fig. 9. Simple photovoltaic power generation system.

which currently account for >80 % of the global installed capacity [81]. times, and the energy generated does not meet the energy demand of
The second generation is mostly chemical compound cells made by thin vehicle charging stations [87].
film photovoltaic cell technology, such as cadmium telluride, copper Photovoltaic cells assimilate photons of solar radiation converting
indium selenide amorphous silicon and microcrystalline silicon, and has them into the form of current. In this paper, it was determined that the
become the ideal absorbing material for high-efficiency and low-cost current I output from the photovoltaic power system is determined by
thin film polycrystalline due to its photovoltaic and chemical proper­ the simplest equivalent circuit model of the photovoltaic cell, as shown
ties [82]. The third generation of photovoltaic technologies based on in Fig. 11 [88].
dye sensitization, state-of-the-art organic materials, and polymers; and By analyzing the simple equivalent circuit model above, the equiv­
the fourth generation of graphene-based photovoltaic cells made by alent circuit model of this photovoltaic cell is applicable for any irra­
creating inorganic nanostructures [83,84]. The first generation of these diance and temperature conditions. The output electric current ID for the
cells is currently the most widely used photovoltaic cell due to its diode is firstly derived and then the output current of the individual
comprehensive performance and low cost. photovoltaic cell is obtained according to Kirchhoff's law [89–91].
Photovoltaic power generation systems have been widely applied in [ ( ) ]
V
residential, commercial, and industrial applications, and distributed ID = I0 exp − 1 (8)
AV T
photovoltaic power plants built based on the electric power demand of
electric vehicles have become another effective method to solve the [ ( ) ]
V
energy shortage and environmental pollution [85]. In addition, based on I = IPV − I0 exp − 1 (9)
AV T
the results of research on combustion-based microthermal photovoltaic
systems, improved combustion stabilization techniques in energy tech­ Vis the voltage across the diode, I0 is the reverse saturation current of
nology systems can effectively reduce CO/NO emissions, improve the diode; IPV is the photocurrent; A is the ideal factor of the diode
combustion/radiation efficiency and the energy conversion perfor­ (which varies for different photovoltaic cell); VT is the thermal voltage of
mance of the system, and alleviate energy pressure [86]. In the present the diode.
case of photovoltaic power generation systems applied to electric ve­ The above is an analysis of the ways in which energy storage tech­
hicles, the level of photovoltaic power generation varies at different nologies are used and the energy power systems of fuel cell systems,

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 10. Photovoltaic cell technology development.

3.1. Single energy source BEVs

Single energy source BEVs involve only one energy source to moti­
vate the vehicle when it is running, as shown in Fig. 12a [71]. Although
BEVs were the first single-source electric vehicles to appear in the 19th
century, they have a shorter range and need to be recharged more
frequently than ICEVs, ICEVs have gradually improved their overall
performance with technological advances, so people are more willing to
choose ICEVs. In recent years, people have started to refocus their
attention on the research and development of BEVs because of the
further deterioration of the global environment and the energy shortage.
The emergence of new materials not only improves the mileage of BEVs
but also finds a variety of energy storage elements to enhance the energy
utilization of the vehicle. For BEVs, the regenerative braking system
unique to BEVs enables the electric motor to work as a generator when
Fig. 11. Equivalent circuit model of a single photovoltaic cell.

regenerative braking systems, and photovoltaic power generation sys­

tems. Next, Chapter 3 will categorize the existing electric vehicles into
single-source, dual-source, and multi-source types through a cluster
analysis study. The effect of energy technologies applied to electric ve­
hicles is quantified by the coordinated cooperation of energy sources to
increase the range of BEVs.

3. Types of BEVs

Through market research, it was found that the types of energy types
used in electric vehicles in the current automotive market can be cate­
gorized into single-source BEVs, dual-source BEVs, and multi-source
BEVs [92]. These three types of vehicles using different energy source
types are analyzed next.
a) Power system for single-source BEVs

Fig. 12a. Power system for single-source BEVs.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

the vehicle is braking, which reduces energy loss [93,94]. However, the consisting of a battery and a fuel cell, this kind of vehicle operates with a
onboard energy is inevitably lost to a certain extent each time the fuel cell as the primary energy source power to drive the vehicle. At this
vehicle undergoes charging and discharging. point, the battery becomes a secondary energy source to store energy
FCEVs are also a typical single energy source BEVs as shown in and the excess energy is kept in the battery [101,102]. In this way they
Fig. 12b [71]. In contrast to BEVs, both are composed of an electric not only operate in the highest efficiency range of 40 % to 85 %
motor, an inverter, a power converter, and an energy source. However, compared to all other power generation systems, but fuel cell is easier to
the energy sources of both are different. The energy source of BEVs is maintain and supply energy to than on-board power sources [103].
constituted by an energy storage system (ESS) consisting of batteries, Fig. 13 (d) [96] illustrates a dual-energy-source electric vehicle with a
and the energy source of FCEVs is constituted by fuel cell stacks. The supercapacitor and fuel cell as energy sources, and this vehicle type
variety of fuel cells developed is also increasing, among which the often has a fuel cell as its major energy source and a supercapacitor as a
PEMFC has high energy and power density, can accommodate low- secondary energy system with a more reasonable energy distribution
temperature environments can respond efficiently, and undergo an under different operating conditions [27,104]. In addition, this kind of
electrode reaction to convert into electrical energy for normal operation powertrain device can significantly enhance the regenerative braking of
of FCEVs [64]. In particular, the power flow of BEVs can be bi- the vehicle by integrating a flywheel and a supercapacitor bank as a type
directional, and braking energy can be recovered, whereas the power of power buffer [27].
flow of FCEVs can only be irreversibly unidirectional [95].
3.3. Multi-energy source BEVs
3.2. Dual energy source BEVs
For BEVs with multiple energy sources, its powertrain has at least
Dual energy source electric vehicles are purely electric vehicles that three energy sources to push the vehicle. Comparing this multi-energy
are powered by a battery that supplies energy along with other energy source vehicle with the other two kinds of vehicles, it can be
sources to keep the vehicle moving. This category of vehicles can concluded that the multi-energy source vehicle can make the energy
overcome the shortcomings of conventional single-source pure electric efficiency improve and the vehicle has better dynamic performance
vehicles. There are existing various types of dual energy source pure [42,48]. The drive power unit composed of multiple energy sources can
electric vehicles such as battery and supercapacitor, battery and adequately utilize the characteristics of various energy sources to
flywheel, battery and fuel cell, and fuel cell and supercapacitor. Fig. 13 enhance the overall performance of the vehicle, and this composition
(a) [96] illustrates a pure electric vehicle with a battery and super­ can not only reduce the manufacturing cost of the vehicle to a certain
capacitor as the driving energy sources, where the battery functions as extent but also provide ideas for the optimization of the vehicle energy
the main energy source for pulling the vehicle on the road, while the system. Therefore, the coordination of multiple energy sources is the
supercapacitor, acts as an auxiliary energy source for driving the vehicle future direction of vehicle development, but there also exists some ur­
on the road, also recovers a portion of the regenerative energy when the gent problems. The configuration of the multi-source powertrain found
vehicle is braked [97]. Zhang et al. [98] also offered a fuzzy adaptive in the existing literature is shown in Fig. 14 [105–108].
filter-based energy management strategy for the regenerative energy Analyzing the above multi-energy power system configuration, it can
generated during vehicle braking. This energy management strategy be obtained that the battery and fuel cell are usually regarded as the
optimizes the energy management system of the vehicle and allows the major energy source for the trend vehicle driving, and supercapacitor
mileage of the vehicle to be increased. Fig. 13 (b) [96] illustrates a dual and photovoltaic cells are often regarded as a kind of auxiliary device for
energy source electric vehicle made up of a battery and a flywheel as storing regenerative energy in the regenerative braking of the vehicle. In
energy sources. This kind of vehicle has a similar scenario to the dual addition, the power system device uses photovoltaic cells as an auxiliary
energy source electric vehicle with battery and supercapacitor as the energy source in Fig. 14(a), (b), and (c) has a longer service life and
driving energy source, where the battery serves as the principal energy lower cost than the power system device using a supercapacitor as an
source and the flywheel serves as an auxiliary energy device that absorbs auxiliary energy source because it does not pollute the environment
the energy generated during braking of the vehicle. When the vehicle [109].
speeds up, the power system frees the energy that is stored during
braking to drive the vehicle, and this dual-source pure electric vehicle 4. Impact of electric vehicles
operation can improve the service life of the battery, and to a certain
extent, increase the performance of the vehicle and the mileage of the Through the research on BEVs, it was found that the present impacts
vehicle [99,100]. of electric vehicles are mainly reflected in three aspects: economy,
Fig. 13 (c) [96] illustrates a dual energy source electric vehicle environment, and power grid, so these three aspects will be analyzed in
detail in the next section.

4.1. Impact of BEVs on the economy

The economic effect of electric vehicles is viewed from two per­

spectives: on the one hand, from the perspective of the consumers who
buy them, electric vehicles have cheaper electricity and more efficient
electric motors compared to fuel vehicles. However, more expensive
battery components make BEVs slightly more costly than ICEVs. In this
context, the term “valuation gap” was adopted to estimate the pur­
chasing power of consumers for electric vehicles [110]. European
vehicle manufacturers mitigate the higher pricing standards of BEVs by
producing more BEVs [111].
On the other hand, considering the economic effects from the grid
point of view, electric vehicles depend mainly on the electricity gener­
b) Power system for single-source FCEVs ated to keep the vehicle running, which determines that they need to be
connected to the grid to recharge them. Conductive charging, wireless
Fig. 12b. Power system for single-source FCEVs. charging, battery swapping, and a host of other charging methods are

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 13. Dual-energy power systems BEV, (a) battery and SC hybrid systems, (b) battery and flywheel hybrid systems, (c) battery and FC hybrid systems, (d) FC and
SC hybrid systems.

4.2. Environmental impacts of BEVs

BEVs have no exhaust emissions compared to ICEVs, which is good

for the surrounding environment. Although BEVs do not cause envi­
ronmental pollution when driving normally, the metal materials
included in the batteries cause damage to the environment when they
are formed, and the process of charging BEVs when they are linked to the
power grid also causes greenhouse gases to be emitted, resulting in
environmental pollution. Pan et al. [115] investigated the impact of
electric vehicles on air quality in the greater Houston area and found a
95 % reduction in vehicle activity emissions. Pan et al. [116] studied the
U.S. projected reductions of about 75 % of carbon monoxide in 2050
under the influence of automation of BEVs. Sun et al. [117] concluded
by predicting pollutant emissions in the Tianjin area that the widespread
promotion of new energy vehicles is an effective measure to reduce the
emissions of all air pollutants.
The environmental impact of BEVs is associated with the on-board
battery, which is one of the key components of BEVs [118]. Although
the types of on-board batteries are constantly increasing, the treatment
Fig. 14. Multi-energy power systems BEV, 14 (a) SC, FC, and battery hybrid
methods for waste batteries are not satisfactory. The current treatment
systems,14 (b) SC, FC and PV cell hybrid systems,14 (c) battery, PV cell, SC
methods have the following ways: separating different types of batteries,
hybrid systems.
dismantling useful and harmful substances inside the battery; the in­
ternal substances of the battery were crushed, and different substances
dependent on grid power, increasing power consumption [112]. Re­
were screened and separated. Acid and alkali treatment of recycled
searchers reduced daily expenditure electricity consumption by
waste batteries will convert harmful substances into harmless sub­
applying energy management strategies for electric vehicles and
stances; in addition, pyrolysis treatment of the materials inside the waste
photovoltaic-integrated smart homes to hold the load profile within the
battery can be carried out to extract the required useful materials
optimal energy consumption range [113]. It is also adopted that
[46,119,120]. By the above method, it is possible to propose further
centralizing some renewable energy sources such as wind and photo­
conversion of useful substances in used batteries through a regeneration
voltaic in the grid will enhance the economy of BEVs.
route in order to produce new batteries. Waste batteries contain metals
By looking at the impacts of BEVs on the economy, with the rise in
and other renewable components with high recycling value, due to
the number of BEVs, more capacity is required in the grid to meet the
China's lithium cobalt and nickel resources, low reserves, and low vol­
electricity consumption of electric vehicles, which results in facilitating
ume of minerals, but the consumption is very large, the resource
the change in electricity pricing policies with the trading of some new
dependence on foreign countries remains high, so the recovery of key
energy sources [114]. In addition, the demand for electric vehicles is
metals in waste batteries is of strategic significance to break through the
gradually increasing, which will have an impact on the economy.
resource shackles of energy metals and guarantee the supply of key
domestic metal resources in the future. This will, to a certain extent,

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

solve the constraints on industrial development caused by the imbalance summer months [129]. India addressed the problem of uneven loads on
between supply and demand of resources [120]. In addition, standard­ the grid and utilized the full potential of electric vehicles by using
izing the recycling process of waste batteries, the establishment of a economically viable V2G technology to correctly predict power losses
perfect waste battery recycling system and a sound quality management [130]. Germany repealed the load limits imposed by the grid operator
system is also an effective way to promote the resourceful use of waste restricting certain households to reduce peak demand [131]. According
batteries. to a survey of the electric vehicle market in Portugal, a mere 10 %
If there is no standardized recycling route for used batteries there penetration of electric vehicles can cause a significant degree of voltage
will be an impact on the environment. Taking the treatment way in New drop during peak hours in Portugal [132]. In summary, controllable grid
Zealand as an example [121], they used three methods to dispose of used loads and the adoption of time-of-use as well as the coordination of grid
lithium-ion batteries, but regardless of the method of disposal, polluting loads can effectively solve the problem of excessive grid loads.
gases are generated. Al is treated as a fuel additive in the preparation of
lithium batteries and cannot be disposed of freely without being harmful 4.3.2. Impact on grid components
to the environment. Instead, Fig. 15 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) evaluates Vehicle charging requires the absorption of a large amount of power
the resources used and gases released to the environment over the entire delivered to the grid from a power plant. Power plants are limited in the
life cycle of an onboard power supply [122]. Ambrose et al. [123] used amount of power they can produce, and when the number of loads in­
the LCA framework to investigate the environmental impacts arising creases it may cause problems with the grid components. Investigating
from the manufacture and use phases of lithium-ion batteries. It was the effects of increased loads on distribution transformers, a survey in
discovered that the environmental impact of material manufacturing [133] for a power distribution system (PDS) in a rural area of western
production was about 20 %, with cathode materials and aluminum ac­ Kentucky found that increased loads caused the overloading of distri­
counting for about 40 % of the environmental impact of material pro­ bution transformers in the PDS in the area. HotSpotter, an EPRI software
duction. Currently, the environmental impact of on-board batteries is tool based on a probabilistic approach, was used in the literature [134]
mostly assessed using LCA, which involves analyzing the carbon emis­ to assess the system-wide impact of electric vehicle charging demand on
sions and their distribution in each stage, then optimizing the design of distribution transformers. In [135], it was found that the load penetra­
the pollutant gases produced in each stage, and analyzing the overall tion during charging of BEVs also affects the PDS, when for every 10 %
situation to take measures to reduce the impact on the environment increase in it, there is a corresponding 18 % increase in the PDS demand.
[124–126]. An investigation of charging requirements in Australia in [136] found
that the impact of grid voltage deviations ranged from 12.7 % to 43.3 %
4.3. Impact of BEVs charging demand on the grid when the penetration of electric vehicle chargers increased from 20 % to
80 %. The above-mentioned literature also proposes some solutions
4.3.1. Impact on grid loads regarding the potential impacts present in the distribution system while
While the quick development of BEVs has brought some degree of charging electric vehicles. For example; intelligent load management
environmental relief, the need for electricity consumption has put some approaches, managed charging strategies to restrict voltage and power
considerable strain on the grid. The increase in electricity consumption to enhance the penetration of BEVs, and automatic system voltage
has led to an increase in electrical loads in the distribution network, controllers.
which in turn has some negative impacts such as high voltage fluctua­ In addition to the effect of distribution transformers, there is also a
tions, power losses and conditions such as power overloads and stability focus on the effect of increased loads on PDS lines. The literature [137]
[127]. This subsection prioritizes the distribution of grid loads, e.g., has proposed a method for modeling and analyzing the charging load on
Malaysia adopts the deployment of renewable energy sources in the grid cable carrying capacity for different vehicles and different harmonic
system, an initiative that will help to maintain the stability of grid loads current levels, and the results obtained for harmonic current order and
and ensure the normal charging demand of electric vehicles [128]. The magnitude are shown in Fig. 16. While in [138] a multi-objective model
Minneapolis utility in the United States smoothed its demand curve by based on the actual criteria of mobility is developed and applied to the
modeling consumers in mixed residential/industrial zones and adopting Spanish island of Tenerife, the results show that the model decreases the
a pilot program using time-of-use to handle peak loads during the amplitude difference of the electrical energy demand curve at the time

Fig. 15. Life Cycle Analysis framework.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

fluctuations and reduces the stability of the grid frequency.

The above literature focuses on the stability of the grid changing in a
bad direction when the grid is connected to BEVs, whereas in [150] it
was found that microgrids composed of renewable energy sources can
strengthen the transient stability of the grid in islanded or grid-
connected mode. When BEVs are plugged into the grid for charging
may lead to changes in the stability of the power system, and the pos­
sibility exists for electric vehicles to increase the transient stability of the
grid in grid-connected mode.

5. Energy management strategies for BEVs

The diversity of energy types of electric vehicles increases the

Fig. 16. Amplitude at different vehicles and levels of harmonic currents. complexity of the power system operation mode, in order to better uti­
lize the utility of the vehicle's energy storage system, based on this, the
of charging. The fast growth of BEVs is a great challenge for the power proposed EMS technology [151]. The proposal of EMS allows the vehicle
sector. This can lead to congestion in distribution cables when the in­ to achieve a rational distribution of energy while meeting the power
crease in penetration of their vehicles creates a problem of centralized required while driving. Although in most of the literature, EMS is mostly
charging demand [139]. Problems occurring in distribution lines can be used for HEVs, with the development EMS is gradually applied to BEVs
tackled by a hierarchical and graded regulation approach, and a coor­ as well. It has been found that EMS can be classified into three main
dination strategy for charging BEVs is proposed in [140–142] to solve categories: rule-based, optimization method-based, and reinforcement
line load overloads in distribution systems. learning method-based strategies [152]. The specific classification of
The charging of BEVs impacts the distribution transformers and ca­ EMS is shown in Fig. 17 [105].
bles while the power is transmitted with some losses. The connection of
a large number of BEVs in the grid leads to a significant increase in 5.1. Rule-based EMS
system losses [135]. Mohammad proposed to come up with an IEMS-
based energy coordinated control scheme to reduce the peak power Rule-based EMS is the most common EMS in electric vehicles. Rule-
demand with low system losses and can reduce the impact of charging based is an EMS based on human expertise, experimental results, and
loads on the grid to some extent [143]. Since the load consumed by the mathematical models [153]. Rule-based EMS applied to electric vehicles
Electric Vehicle Charging Station cannot be accurately predicted when can be subdivided into rule-based deterministic strategies and fuzzy
BEVs are charging, a combined model is proposed in [144] to predict the rule-based strategies.
load, and the simulation and experimental results show that there is a
significant system loss when charging electric vehicles and that the 5.1.1. Deterministic rule-based EMS
method improves the accuracy of the load prediction of the Electric Rule-based deterministic strategy realizes control of multiple energy
Vehicle Charging Station. The use of distributed generation and the flows and power allocation through control rules for input/output var­
adoption of intelligent control strategies have also been proposed in iables. At this stage, the RB-based deterministic strategy is mainly ach­
[143,145] to reduce the system losses caused by the charging of BEVs. ieved by thermostat control strategy (TCS) and power follower control.
From the above impacts of BEVs charging on grid components and Sun et al. [154] proposed a TCS-based approach to realize the stability of
system losses, the growing number of BEVs makes the grid bear more the state of charge (SOC) of the battery for fuel cell systems with fuel cell
loads, therefore, facing this development situation, adopting suitable extended range electric vehicles. A conventional ABC-TCS was also
charging and discharging strategies and managing the number of loads proposed to increase the range of the vehicle using an artificial bee
to be borne by the grid become the direction that will be tackled in the colony optimization algorithm. Zhang et al. [155] used TCS for battery-
future. powered wheeled vehicles to reduce energy losses and improve the
dynamic performance of the machine. Xia et al. [156] ensured temper­
4.3.3. Implications for stability ature management of the cooling system by essentially eliminating
The stability of a power system involves the ability of the system to temperature fluctuations by using TCS for the fuel cell engine cooling
regain stable operation again after a disturbance or transient process system. These pointed out that only the power performance was
occurs in the power grid [146]. It determines whether the power grid is improved with the use of TCS. However, Yao et al. [157] pointed out in
able to provide stable power supply capacity, and if the stability of the their paper that under TCS the battery is in a frequent charging and
power grid is out of balance it may lead to economic losses or even discharging process, and when the power is constant, charging the
threaten social security. Numerous literature reviews have shown that battery with a high current tends to degrade the cycle life of the battery.
the stability of the grid is altered when BEVs are connected to the grid as To identify the specific performance of TCS applied in practice, Yang
a new load during charging. In [147], it is pointed out that the nonlin­ et al. [158] designed a novel EMS to tackle the problem of a hybrid
earity and complexity of the dynamic behavior of the grid lead to a vehicle with a short continuous operation time, and the simulation re­
change in the frequency and voltage of the grid after the connection of sults indicated that this integrated strategy resulted in a better working
BEVs, which is caused by the reactive power absorbed by the charger status of the vehicle in different SOC states.
with the injected current harmonics while the electric vehicles are Rule-based deterministic strategies regarding PFC are more thor­
charging. This statement is likewise demonstrated in [148] that the oughly reviewed than TCS, and a PFC-based mode driving strategy
access of BEVs in the grid does affect its stability. Moreover, a solution is proposed by Wang et al. [159] in their article states that peak electrical
proposed to reduce the power loss, and voltage deviation, and enhance power can also be reduced when the vehicle is moving without sacri­
the stability of the grid by setting different objective functions under the ficing electrical energy usage. In [157], it is also verified that PFC en­
condition of ensuring the charging and discharging management of sures the stability of the on-board power supply. PFC is also applicable to
electric vehicles. In [149] it is pointed out from microgrids that the BEVs, and Song et al. [160] not only applied PFC to range-extended
power system has problems with the quality of the produced power, electric vehicles in an urban driving cycle but also compared it with a
which increases the sensitivity of the grid to harmonic distortions and programmable electric vehicle with TCS applied under the same
conditions.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

Fig. 17. Classification of EMS.

5.1.2. Fuzzy rule-based strategies This type of EMS does not involve precise mathematical modeling
Fuzzy logic control (FLC) is one of the most widely used strategies in and is robust and has strong fault tolerance when used, but is prone to
Rule-based EMS. The flowchart of FLC is shown in Fig. 18 [152]. the problem of reduced control accuracy. Therefore, FLC is often

Fig. 18. Process diagram of fuzzy reasoning.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

synergized with other optimization methods to improve the precision article focuses on reflecting the dynamic performance of an electric
and accuracy of the outcome. Yang et al. [161] proposed a cyber- vehicle through the basic allocation of power, this section focuses on the
physical optimization-based fuzzy EMS, which was used in conjunc­ description of the optimization-based EMS. This category of EMS is
tion with the Iterative Modified Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm, mainly based on optimizing for the best solution by establishing an
and the results indicated that the strategy reduced the capacity loss of objective function for the objectives such as hydrogen consumption and
the battery; extended the cycle life of the battery; and also reduced the operating efficiency in the fuel cell, and then constraining some vari­
fuel consumption as compared to the FLC alone. Zhou et al. [162] ables. This type of optimization can be divided into two categories:
enhanced the energy management during the driving cycle by devel­ global optimization and transient optimization. The global and transient
oping a dynamic planning-based FLC. Yang et al. [163] designed a rule- optimization of EMS is analyzed next.
based energy management strategy using reverse thinking fuzzy logic
optimized energy management strategy to rationally distribute the en­ 5.2.1. Global optimization of EMS
ergy flow and improve the energy utilization and output torque stability. Global optimization is an attempt to find the minimum or maximum
Li et al. [164] suggested a rule-based dynamic energy management value of a function on a given set and is a method that has global opti­
strategy to manage the real-time energy distribution and dynamic mization performance, is general and suitable for parallel processing.
switching, and combined with FLC to rationally distribute the torque Currently, the most used methods in global optimization EMS are Dy­
scheme as a way to minimize the impact on the powertrain of electric namic Programming (DP), Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
vehicles. Jia et al. [165] also proposed the RB's EMS for energy distri­ (PSO) and so on.
bution and switching of the vehicle's operation modes, and designed a DP is a global optimization theory formulated by American mathe­
fuzzy control strategy to optimize the motor's torque and the battery's matician R. Bellman for solving optimization problems with multi-stage
charging state. Rule-based EMS is designed to optimize motor torque decision-making processes. As shown in Fig. 19, it divides the initial
and battery state of charge. Lin et al. [166] proposed a fuzzy inference problem into sub-problems for solving and then finds the optimal solu­
system based on reinforcement learning, and the corresponding model tion of the initial problem according to the solutions of all sub-problems
with the objective function was developed for simulation verification. [105]. At present, this theory has been applied in the fields of engi­
The simulation results show that the method improves the dynamic neering technology, industrial production, economy and automation
performance and fuel economy of the vehicle. control, and has achieved remarkable results in some sophisticated
Although the fuzzy rule-based EMS in collaboration with the neural problems.
network system can boost the fuel economy of the vehicle, the algo­ Although DP can accomplish the effect of global optimization, the
rithms in the neural network are no longer applicable when the pa­ optimization results and computational speed of the DP method are
rameters in the FLC are changed, which may result in a downward trend easily influenced by the control and state variable grid structure. Tang
in the fuel economy. However, a separate rule-based EMS can only et al. [167] proposed a hierarchical EMS for ADP, where the upper layer
achieve a basic distribution of power and modify the dynamic perfor­ builds a speed prediction model of the vehicle by means of a backward
mance of the vehicle, but it cannot minimize or optimize the function, neural network, and plans the speed of the vehicle in real-time based on
and it does not have much effect on the fuel economy of the electric heuristic dynamic planning to guarantee its good following perfor­
vehicle. mance. The lower layer rationalizes the power allocation based on dual-
heuristic dynamic planning to reduce the energy consumption of the
vehicle. The results show that the results of hierarchical optimization are
5.2. Optimization-based EMS affected by a backward neural network. Wang et al. [168] based DP
algorithm for powertrain systems decreased the complexity during
While the description of the rule-based EMS in Section 5.1 of the

Fig. 19. Dynamic Programming solution.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

computation by choosing a reasonable grid structure and control pa­ et al. [179] proposed MPC based on hierarchical predictive control
rameters in conjunction with neural networks. This means the method considering the control framework of the vehicle as economic and
can be used for real-time control to improve the fuel economy of the control layers, and the prediction methods based on wavelet variation
vehicle. In addition, the coordination of DP with other optimization and Levenberg-Marquardt optimization neural network were proposed
methods is also studied. Lei et al. [169] proposed a synergistic optimi­ for the load prediction of BEVs, which were proposed to achieve the
zation strategy for speed planning and energy management, DP ensures optimization of the dynamics and economy of the vehicle. Yan et al.
the best economy of the vehicle with a reasonable distribution of speed [180] proposed a layered MPC with integrated traffic information,
and torque and sets up time-domain and air-domain synergistic opti­ where one layer controls the vehicle's start-up time based on deep
mization models for the travel time and the travel distance of the reinforcement learning, and the other layer rationally allocates the
vehicle, respectively, and then simulated and analyzed the models. The power distribution of the battery and based on the MPC. This hierar­
results show that the proposed co-optimization strategy suggests that the chical MPC reduces the vehicle energy consumption and improves the
energy economy of the vehicle is better under different constraints in the energy efficiency of the vehicle and the equivalent hydrogen con­
time and air domains. Shen et al. [170] proposed a two-stage control sumption is reduced by 4.87 %. Hu et al. [181] proposed an optimal
strategy with ADP and A-ECMS, setting the PI controller to modify the energy saving control strategy for BEVs based on dynamic traffic in­
equivalence factor, the A-ECMS to convert the consumed charge to the formation flow, and the same hierarchical prediction method was car­
equivalent fuel consumption, and the ADP to select the minimum value ried out to predict the traffic information for intelligent driving vehicles,
of the equivalent fuel consumption to make the stability of the battery's and the simulation results verified that the proposed method can enable
SOC. In addition, the goal of reducing the equivalent fuel consumption the vehicle to drive economically with optimal energy consumption.
can be realized by this method. Through the above intelligent driving and energy management strate­
Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm (PSO) is a commonly used gies can improve the performance of the vehicle, but it is found that
heuristic global optimization method. It iterates through the movement although MPC has a more obvious optimization effect for electric ve­
of swarm particles to find the best solution [171]. Today's vehicles are hicles, because the vehicle will be affected by many uncertain factors in
becoming increasingly electrified and automated, and the conflicting the actual operation process. Therefore, how to further improve the
goals of power, safety, and economy require a reliable EMS as a solution. accuracy of MPC prediction performance becomes one of the next
Zhao et al. [172] proposed EMS for real-time dynamic flow prediction, problems to be solved.
which predicts the global driving conditions of the vehicle through a Currently the neural network (NN) has gradually matured and re­
wavelet neural network, and uses PSO to optimize the parameters in the searchers have begun to integrate NN into the MPC, because the high
wavelet neural network to plan the SOC of the global on-board battery, nonlinearity makes it possible to solve some complex nonlinear prob­
and the experimental results show that EMS based on real-time dynamic lems. According to the proposed method of integrating NN into MPC, it
flow prediction improves the fuel consumption rate by 17.57 %. PSO can is found that NN can significantly improve the economic performance of
also be used to train neural networks to make accuracy improvements electric vehicles.
[161,173] or to tune the control parameters of the controller [174]. ECMS is an algorithm applied to the transient optimization of hybrid
electric vehicles. It is based on the concept of an equivalent cost of fossil
5.2.2. Instantaneous optimization EMS fuel and battery energy, where the equivalent factor determines the
Instantaneous optimization has a smaller scope compared to global equivalent hydrogen consumption of the battery. Lee et al. [182] pro­
optimization, is relatively less computationally intensive, and is easy to posed a transient optimization methodology that combines ECMS and
implement for applications. It is to find the minimum value in a finite DRL to validate the simulation results of HEVs by determining the
region on a given set. For transient optimization EMS, it optimizes and equivalence factor through DRL. The results demonstrated that the
controls the energy flow mainly for the transient conditions of the method yields near-optimal solutions and improves performance by an
vehicle and will not be constrained by the specific cyclic conditions. The average of 4.3 % compared to AECMS.
most common transient optimizations are Model Predictive Control With the technical barriers overcome, ECMS is also used in BEVs. Yao
(MPC), Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS) and et al. [157] proposed A-ECMS for add-on electric vehicles, an approach
Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (A-ECMS). that uses Pontryagin's Minimum Principle to perform simulations
MPC is implemented by modeling the optimization problem, making through adaptive equivalent factors with SOC feedback and a Propor­
iterative predictions for each time step, and solving that optimization tional Integral controller. The simulation results in fuel consumption
issue to get the best optimization result for the controller. MPC considers savings of 6.2 % and 3.4 % compared to TCS and PFC, respectively,
future optimization in a finite time domain. Carignano et al. [175] along with extended battery cycle life. Xie et al. [183] introduced an
proposed an MPC-based EMS to estimate the future EV energy demand Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy applying artificial
with a corresponding model to sustain the FC/SC energy state. Based on neural network involvement in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles by
Carignano's study Nguyen et al. [176] proposed in their paper a novel simulating the SOC of different initial states of the on-board batteries,
MPC-based EMS that can be implemented as a stand-alone system that and the simulation results showed that this method has similar fuel ef­
predicts SC voltage and battery current limits and performs online ficiency as global optimization methods such as DP and PMP when
optimization. MPC also includes optimization studies for the future ve­ applied. In the literature [184–186] in the study of EMS consisting of
locity of the vehicle. Zhang et al. [177] investigated the model predic­ battery/FC/SC an optimization method for ECMS based on wavelet
tion optimization of BEVs during vehicle following with a multi- transform is proposed, where wavelet transform separates the high-
objective optimization algorithm for adaptive cruise control system in frequency power and recovers the regenerative braking energy gener­
intelligent driving, and concluded that the speed of the vehicle was ated by the vehicle, and the low-frequency power allocated by ECMS to
optimized and energy consumption was reduced through the combina­ the battery/FC separation minimizes the hydrogen consumption. Li et al.
tion of intelligent driving and EMS. Since the change of vehicle speed [187] proposed A-ECMS based on ECMS, which utilizes an NN-based
during driving is a stochastic process, Zhang et al. [178] offered an MPC equivalent factor predictor to anticipate the equivalent factors in real
based on battery packs and supercapacitors to predict the future speed time, ensuring the adaptability and robustness of the proposed method.
cycles of an electric vehicle, then optimized it with a DP, and verified the The energy loss of this method is 3 % less than that of DP and 8 %–10 %
robustness through several typical driving cycles. The results show that lower than that of RB. From the experimental simulation results, either
the proposed MPC can boost the economy of the vehicle. The above- DPC, ECMS, or A-ECMS which method has verified the effectiveness of
mentioned proposed MPCs are single-layer and do not satisfy the need the above-proposed control strategy.
for multi-objective optimization in the control process. Therefore, Li

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

5.3. Learning-based EMS energy management strategy based on multiple neural networks in their
investigation of online energy management optimization for PHEVs. The
Most of the EMS'S methods proposed in the two parts of article 5.1 method first trains the modal identification neural network by the
and 5.2 are based on predefined rules and some predictive algorithms to optimal results of DP and PMP and then solves the optimal control
boost the dynamic and economic performance of vehicles. However, sequence of the speed online Model Predictive Control framework by
they are not able to find the best solution under complex and changing supply state correction and slack constraints. The simulation results
real-time driving environment conditions. As shown in Fig. 20, the show that the proposed strategy improves the vehicle economy
Learning-based strategy due to the large data set with real-time and compared to ECMS, and the strategy greatly reduces the computation
historical information can derived optimal control laws to ensure that time compared to PMP. Kong et al. [192] proposed a deep recurrent
the processing speed of the reinforcement learning-based EMS can be neural network (DRNN)-based EMS model for the torque allocation of
realized in the actual operation of the vehicle in the process of rapid HEVs, which is a time-series forecasting problem, and the input of
response, so that the problem can be well resolved [105,188]. The DRNN's historical data in the EMS can obtain the dynamic characteris­
learning-based strategy has strong adaptive and learning capabilities as tics of the inputs and outputs easily; the proposed EMS model can realize
well as does not require the construction of a specific model for opti­ the real-time output of the torque allocation results, avoiding the
mization. This makes it faster to process and it can also be optimized to interference of other factors. After a lot of simulation analysis, it is
meet the fast response of vehicle operation under different conditions by concluded that the proposed EMS has better performance in terms of
changing the parameters in the model in synergy with MPC [189]. accuracy and economy compared with other EMS.
The analysis in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 shows that neural networks are
5.3.1. Neural network-based EMS commonly used for vehicle travel speed prediction and operating state
A neural network can be thought of as an imitation of human neu­ classification (power allocation, torque allocation), and are often syn­
rons, which are connected into a “web” by a large number of nodes. It ergized with other energy strategies when applied to vehicle energy
can model and analyze different types of behavior just like a human management.
being. It can be observed through the optimization- based EMS in 5.2 in
concert with the NN to optimize the economy of the vehicle that the NN 5.3.2. Reinforcement learning-based EMS
requires to output the optimal power by needing to select the feature Reinforcement learning-based EMS is different from NN in that it
parameters through training [163]. Hou et al. [190] proposed a neural does not require a large amount of data also the optimal EMS can be
network-based vehicle speed prediction strategy, which uses an online- acquired from the data. When the vehicle uses reinforcement learning-
trained radial basis function neural network with the Akaike Informa­ based EMS, it can optimize the EMS by learning the control rules by
tion Criterion neural network structure determination method to build using the vehicle's speed, environment, and operating conditions as the
an online vehicle speed prediction model and analyze it in simulation. objective function. The current reinforcement learning algorithms
The simulation results indicate that the prediction accuracy of the pro­ commonly used in reinforcement learning-based EMS mainly contain Q-
posed online speed prediction model is greatly increased compared with learning, deep Q-learning (DQN), and deep deterministic policy gradient
the fixed structure. Wu et al. [191] proposed a multimodal predictive (DDPG).

Fig. 20. Flowchart of reinforcement learning.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

The Q-learning algorithm solves stochastic working conditions development.

through a powerful active exploration capability that maximizes the
reward for each action of the output. The most important step in Q- 6. Developments and solutions
learning is the learning agent, which records the state-action values
through a two-dimensional matrix and changes the corresponding ele­ 6.1. Current status of development of BEVs
ments to update their values directly [193]. Xu et al. [194] recorded
three different factors, vehicle load, road and traffic conditions, in a real In recent years, the emergence of a series of problems such as global
driving scenario and then controlled the torque distribution by the resource shortages, rising temperatures, and changes in the surrounding
proposed Q-learning-based supervisory control method. This proposed environment caused by conventional internal combustion vehicles has
method results in increased adaptability of the vehicle under different attracted the attention of more and more countries around the world.
operating conditions. The method proposed by Xu mainly focuses on the The emergence of HEVs and BEVs is exactly the measures they have
energy flow control of the vehicle and does not consider the energy loss taken to minimize the emergence of these problems. There were >16
of the battery. Therefore, Xu et al. [195] proposed a Q-learning-based million electric vehicles on the road globally in 2022, which is an in­
strategy to minimize battery degradation and energy consumption in crease of 60 % compared with the year 2021. The International Energy
their study of battery/SC-based electric vehicles. The proposed EMS was Agency predicts that global sales of BEVs could reach 14 million units in
also optimized using PSO. The results show that the proposed strategy 2023, and penetration could reach nearly 20 % [199].
not only slows down the battery degradation by 13 %–20 %, but also Reviewing the global sales of new energy models, China is the
increases the range of the vehicle by 1.5 %–2 %. Q-learning is a discrete “frontrunner” in electric vehicle sales, with production and sales of new
optimization method that solves the problem of dimensional catastro­ energy vehicles completing 7.058 million and 6.887 million units
phe, and it will become difficult to converge when the discretization respectively, up 96.9 % and 93.4 % year-on-year, with a market share of
accuracy of state-action values increases [196]. Therefore, the DNQ al­ 25.6 %. By 2022, China's new energy vehicle sales will account for 60 %
gorithm based on Q-learning is proposed. As shown in Fig. 21, DNQ is of global sales [12]. Today, China has more than half of the world's
different from the learning agent of Q-learning, DNQ realizes the indi­ electric vehicles on its roads. Outside of China, the world's second-
rect update of state S-action value A to state S′-action value A' by largest EV market is Europe, where EV sales are growing by >15 % in
updating the parameters of the neural network [105]. DNQ has better 2022. Compared to the United States, where electric vehicle sales have
convergence speed, dynamic performance and economy compared to Q- increased by 55 % in 2022, other developing countries are still lagging,
learning. Tang et al. [197] proposed a dual DRL-based EMS in order to with <0.5 % of electric vehicles sold in Brazil, India, and Indonesia
advance Deep Reinforcement Learning studies in the field of EMS. This [200]. But with government investment and policies, electric vehicle
approach utilizes DQN to learn a strategy for vehicle gear shifting, and ownership in these regions will also show “signs of promise”. In China,
DDPG to change throttle opening as a way to achieve multi-objective electric two- and three-wheelers account for about half of all electric
synchronous control. This proposed approach ensures the potential for vehicle sales and 95 % of new registrations of electric two- and three-
optimization implementation with real-time efficiency. With the rising wheelers globally. For the year 2022, electric buses and heavy and
demand for optimization, the DDPG algorithm based on the DNQ algo­ medium duty trucks sold in China will still dominate sales with about
rithm has been used to solve continuous state-action optimization 4.5 % of global bus sales and 1.2 % of truck sales [183]. For single-source
problems due to its ability to handle continuous action space. He et al. electric vehicles are still the most sold new energy models. As for multi-
[198] proposed a hierarchical prediction EMS incorporating DDPG, source electric vehicles, compared with single-source electric vehicles, it
which realizes the optimal allocation of power flow by tracking the SOC can theoretically maximize the use of energy and increase the range of
reference trajectory. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed electric vehicles, but there are not many practical applications in reality.
method improves the vehicle economy with validated robustness and Taking FCEVs as an example, Luo et al. [88] analyzed the current situ­
adaptivity. ation, policies, and market prospects of FCEVs, discussed a series of
Through the analysis of the above three different RL algorithms, with problems that may exist in the development process of FCEVs, and
the gradual increase in the number of control objectives that need to be pointed out that these are factors that hinder the development of FCEVs.
optimized, a single optimization algorithm can no longer meet the de­ The vigorous development of the electric vehicle market cannot be
mand, and combining different optimization algorithms and com­ isolated from the policy support of governments, which includes the
plementing their characteristics to achieve the optimization of the provision of subsidies and financial incentives for the electric vehicle
demanded objectives. This will become a key aspect of future EMS industry. According to the literature [201,202], many countries around

Fig. 21. Flowchart of the DQN algorithm.

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

the world have established electric vehicle development goals, not only norms to promote the development of energy technologies. Duan et al.
providing nearly $30 billion in support for electric vehicles for the [213] analyzed the hazards that would be eliminated by recycling used
research and development of new electric vehicles and the corre­ batteries as well as the benefits it would bring. It gives an opinion on the
sponding charging infrastructure investment but also setting more future research direction of recycling waste electrical devices. Shao et al.
stringent standards for automobile energy efficiency and carbon dioxide [214] analyzed the relationship between the government and manu­
emissions to support the development of electric vehicles. These initia­ facturers in the recycling process by applying a game theory approach in
tives will increase the number of electric vehicles and, at the same time, their study, and found that government regulation of manufacturers'
will play a significant role in reducing resource scarcity, rising tem­ recycling of electrical devices as well as reasonable subsidies during
peratures, and environmental change [203]. recycling can effectively increase the recycling rate of batteries.
Mohammed et al. [215] analyzed the charging technologies for BEVs in
6.2. Responding to BEVs development issues terms of wired charging (DC charging, AC charging) [216,217] and
wireless charging (configurations, topologies) [218–220], highlighting
In recent years, along with the transformation of industries and the the future research trends in terms of charging technology and its in­
enhancement of people's awareness of environmental protection, energy dustrial applications. Literature [14] introduced the classification of
storage technology for BEVs has become a new research direction in charging technologies in detail; illustrated the advantages and disad­
many countries. Part 6.1 describes the current stage of electric vehicle vantages of charging technologies through the comparison of different
development, but does not describe the problems that have arisen in the charging technologies, and proposed that smart grid integration and
development process and the solutions. First, for BEVs, mileage is a non- dynamic charging can better realize the charging effect of BEVs. In
negligible aspect of developing BEVs. The use of energy synergies in [221,222], a methodology for fast charging technology is proposed,
BEVs can improve the mileage of the vehicle [204–206]. For different which analyzes the influences on the battery system and the corre­
electric vehicle types, corresponding charging facilities need to be built sponding limitations. In addition, some new approaches on power
to charge or fuel BEVs, which is an important measure to enhance the electronic converters are proposed to advance the charging technology.
range of electric vehicles. According to data from a recent report, China's
new energy vehicle sales in 2022 will be 6,887,000 units, while the 7. Conclusions
related charging infrastructure increment will be 2,593,000 units, which
is far from meeting the corresponding charging demand in terms of The research in this paper is based on an overview of BEV energy
quantity [12,199]. In response to the above situation, the government technologies in the context of a range of issues such as climate warming,
has taken a series of measures. For example, it has increased investment air pollution, and energy crisis. Energy technology is an integral part of
in the management of charging infrastructure, subsidized the con­ the BEV development process. This paper analyzes the lack and in­
struction of private charging posts, introduced policies and measures for adequacy of the current development of energy technology and de­
the construction of charging stations to clarify the operational re­ scribes the future solutions and development trends. The article is
quirements for the management of charging infrastructure, further centered on energy technologies, with energy types, storage technolo­
upgraded the capacity of charging infrastructure services, and con­ gies, and EMS as the basic framework to build the article lineage. Based
structed a new electric power system with a gradually increasing share on the previous research and analysis, the article compares the various
of energy [207,208]. Since research on energy storage technologies for types of energy used in vehicles, and proposes that hydrogen storage
BEVs is still in the developmental stage and is susceptible to a number of technology will become the mainstream direction for the development
factors, the cost of storing different on-board energy sources is often of BEV in the future; The impacts generated by electric vehicles are
analyzed in terms of cost per kilowatt-hour [209]. Fuel cell has a rela­ analyzed through a multi-faceted research methodology, which points
tively high cost due to the difficult hydrogen storage technology; out the direction of mitigating these impacts and proposes certain so­
Compared with the BEV industry hydrogen fuel cell power system lutions; For EMS combining different optimization algorithms and
technology is still in the verification and assessment test stage, the sys­ complementing their properties to achieve the optimization of the target
tem integration, environmental adaptability, reliability and life, cost requirements. This will be a key aspect of EMS development in the
control, hydrogen storage and other aspects and foreign countries there future. Finally, it is pointed out that accelerating the breakthrough of
is still a gap, at the same time, the performance of the electric pile, the technical barriers and national policy support will lead to the rapid
performance of the key components and materials and the production of development of BEV.
components and the level of packaging of the electric pile and so on are
in urgent need of improvement. Therefore, the Government is actively CRediT authorship contribution statement
promoting high-capacity electrified public transport and clean energy
vehicles such as electric, hydrogen, advanced bio-liquid fuels and nat­ Feng Jiang: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
ural gas in the transport sector, and is continuously improving the layout Supervision, Software, Resources, Methodology. Xuhui Yuan: Writing –
of charging, refilling, hydrogen and gas (LNG) stations and service fa­ original draft, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis,
cilities. In addition, it also proposes to build national new energy labo­ Data curation, Software. Lingling Hu: Supervision, Methodology,
ratories and R&D platforms, increase investment in basic theoretical Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Guangming Xie: Writing – review
research, and ahead of the layout of cutting-edge and disruptive tech­ & editing, Supervision, Methodology. Zhiqing Zhang: Writing – review
nology initiatives, as well as providing a green channel for R&D plat­ & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology. Xiaoping
forms in related fields, so as to enable them to carry out research and Li: Resources, Conceptualization. Jie Hu: Software, Resources,
development of energy technologies more efficiently and narrow the Conceptualization. Chuang Wang: Investigation. Haichang Wang:
technology gap. By proposing relevant strategies to solve these prob­ Investigation.
lems, the government will accelerate technological progress and pro­
mote the overall progress of the vehicle power supply industry chain Declaration of competing interest
[210,211]. The disposal of electrical devices is an urgent problem for
BEVs. The current vehicle batteries contain some heavy metals, which The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
will pollute the environment and even jeopardize human health if the interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
waste electrical devices are not treated [212]. Governments have also the work reported in this paper.
taken into account the benefits of ecosystem protection, choosing a
strategic approach based on local conditions and setting standards and

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F. Jiang et al. Journal of Energy Storage 86 (2024) 111159

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