MANIFESTO

 Is a document publicly declaring the position or program of it's issuer. It

advances a set of ideas, opinions or views but it can also lay out a plan of
action. While it can address any topic, it most often concerns art,
literature or politics.
 It is generally written in the name of a group sharing a common perspective,
ideology or purpose rather than in the name of a single individual.

MANIFESTO
 A manifesto is a published declaration of the intentions, beliefs, motives, or
views of someone, be it an individual, group, political party, or government.
 It is usually political (for election purposes) or artistic in nature. However, there
are also other types of manifestos that may or may not contain an argument
like:

 - Educational manifestos
 - Creeds (religious beliefs)
 - Scientific and technological manifestos
 - Personal manifestos
 - Professional manifestos (pertaining to an individual or organization)
 - Political
 - Artistic

EXAMPLES

Political
Katie Sipiora
I believe that every child has potential. Regardless of race, socioeconomic class, or 10,
every child has the ability to contribute to our world. It can be intellectual-- the next
brilliant math or physics theorem, the next great poem of our time- it can be athletic-•
representing fair play and competition-- it can be artistic-- a song, a dance, a play. Every
child has potential. No child is confined by where they live, who their parents are, what
society expects of them. Every child can contribute something beautiful to our world. It
can be a smile, a laugh, one good thought. That is all it takes to change someone's life.

Political
Lona Williams
My goal is to restore full services at our local hospital and create free parking for visitors.
I will make sure to provide better care for the elderly and the most vulnerable in our town.
I shall strive to create jobs in Westwend by lowering taxes and red tape. Together we will
help families overcome the high cost of living by tackling job insecurity and extending
free childcare for working parents. I will fight for our services and to keep our streets safe.
I will support our rural communities and local businesses. My priority is you.

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MAJOR CATEGORIES OF MANIFESTO

1. Goal - A goal can be a manifesto when we share it with other people. It's
public, it's a declaration and it's about what one intends to have happened.

2. List and Rules - A manifesto containing set of rules for behaving within a
specific context or a list of items to be achieved or tasks to be fulfilled.

3. World - This type of manifesto aims to create a new world. It's not about
simple rules, instead, it presents a vision for the future. A solemn declaration
by the constituted authorities of a nation which contains the reason for its
public acts towards another. On the declaration of war, a manifesto is usually
issued in which the nation declaring war states the reasons for so doing.

ARGUMENTS
In academic writing, you can never establish a point without an argument. In fact,
making an argument-expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with
evidence- is the aim of academic writing. It is a reason or set of reasons given with the
aim of letting others believe with you that an action or an idea is right or wrong backed
up with evidence to support it. It has premises and a conclusion.

WHAT IS A PREMISE THEN?

It is a proposition statement in an argument that rationalizes or supports the conclusion
by providing some evidence.

Example 1:
"All mammals are warm-blooded [major premise]; whales are mammals [minor
premise]; therefore, whales are warm- blooded [conclusion]."

Example 2:
Nonrenewable resources do not exist in infinite supply. [premise 1] Coal is a
nonrenewable resource. [premise 2] Coal does not exist in infinite supply.
[conclusion]

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DEDUCTIVE
 For a deductive argument, you start with a premise that is assumed to be true
or correct and there is no more logical reason than a true premise.
 For example, you assume that God exists, and He is kind, and then determine
what would logically follow from such an assumption. You can begin by
assuming that if you think of it, then it must exist.
 With deduction, you can provide absolute proof of your conclusions, given that
your premises are correct. However, remember that the premises themselves
remain unproven and disprovable.

Examples:
 All men are mortal. Ronald is a man. Therefore, Ronald is mortal.
 The first two statements are true and the conclusion must be true. &
Bachelors are unmarried men. Billy. not married. Therefore, Billy is a
bachelor
 To hold a Bachelor's degree at Mindanao State University, a student
must earn 120 credits. Lily has more than 130 credits. Therefore, Lily
has a bachelor's degree.

INDUCTIVE
This type of inferences doesn't have to be true but probably are. This is most likely the
useful and practical argument we can use.

Examples:
 It usually takes me an hour to get to work, so if I leave at 8:00 I'll
probably get there by 9.
 My best friend advised me not to skip class, and her advice is usually
good, so I'll follow it.
 True education makes us behave in the most acceptable manner. If
your ways are objective, you're not truly educated.

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VOCABULARY LIST

Let's enrich your vocabulary with these terms that you will encounter throughout this
lesson.
 STAND - viewpoint
 CLAIMS - these are statements that support the author's stand; ARGUMENT
 EVIDENCES - these are proofs or evidences to strengthen the author's claim
 COUNTERCLAIMS - arguments opposing a stand
 FALLACY - an error in reasoning which weakens an argument

A. LOGICAL FALLACIES

What are these logical fallacies?

Why is there a need for you to be familiar with it?

LOGICAL FALLACIES are ERRORS IN REASONING that INVALIDATE AN

ARGUMENT. As a critical thinker you have to identify and examine fallacies and
manipulative language. It is therefore important that you know some of the
common fallacies.

STUDY THE TYPES OF FALLACY AND ITS EXAMPLE:

1. False Dilemma - Occurs when an arguer presents his/her argument as one of

only two options despite the presence of multiple possibilities
example: Either you fully devote yourself to company or you quit.

2. Appeal to Ignorance - Occurs when something is instantly concluded to be

true just because it is not proven to be false, and vice versa
example: The writer does not talk about the connection between the
victim's c killer and his sister, so there must be none

3. Slippery Slope - Occurs when a series of increasingly superficial and

unacceptable consequences is drawn
example: If we ban computer shops, then students will not be able to
do research. And if they do not have tools for research, these students
will fail their subjects.

4. Complex Question - Occurs when two or more points are rolled one and the
reader is expected to accept or reject both at the same time, when one point
may be satisfactory while the other is not.
example: "Have you stopped cheating on exams?"

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5. Appeal to Force - Occurs when a threat, instead of reasoning is used to
argue
example: If you do not admit that evolution is not real, we will isolate
you from the group.

6. Appeal to Pity - Occurs when the element of pity is used instead of logical
reasoning
example: Please do not fire me for being absent all month; I have a
sick mother and a special child to support.

7. Appeal to Consequences - Occurs when unpleasant consequences of

believing something are pointed out to show that the belief is false
example: You can't believe that colonialism is bad, because if it were,
then we would not be civilized.

8. Bandwagon - Occurs when an argument is considered to be valid because it

is what the majority thinks
example: Most Filipinas want to have fair skin because they think they
look beautiful. Therefore, having fair skin must be the real standard of
beauty.

9. Attacking the Person - Occurs when someone tries to refute an argument by

attacking the character of a person instead of attacking the ideas of the
argument
example: I cannot accept your argument because, unlike me, you were
not educated at Harvard University

10. Appeal to Authority - Occurs when the argument quotes an expert who's not
qualified in the particular subject matter
examples: Bill Gates, the co-founder of Microsoft, recommends the
effective fabric softening properties of Downy fabric softener

11. Anonymous Authority - The authority in question is not mentioned or named

examples: Experts claim that eating peanuts causes pimples.

12. Hasty Generalization - Occurs when a sample is not significant enough to

support a generalization about a population
example: Martha, the foreigner from France is very impolite. French
people are mean and rude.

13. False Analogy - Occurs when a writer assumes that two concepts that are
similar in some ways are also similar in other ways
example: Drugs are like massages: they make you feel good.

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14. Accident - Occurs when a general rule is applied to a situation, even when it
should be an exception
example: Jaywalking is not allowed, so you should not have done that
even when you were being chased by terrorists

15. Post Hoc - It is an informal fallacy that states: "Since event A followed event B,
event A must have been caused by event B."
example: Dina saw cat when they went home. Along the way, they
crashed into a tree. The black cat must be the reason why they met an
accident.

16. Wrong Direction - Occurs when the direction between cause and effect is
reversed
example: Liver damage leads to alcoholism.

17. Complex Cause - Occurs when the explanation for an event is reduced to one
thing when there are other factor which also contributed to the event
example: We were not able to solve the problem because of limited
time, even if all the other groups were able to do so.

18. Irrelevant Conclusion - Occurs when an argument which is supposed to

prove something concludes something else instead
example: We must support the fight for gender equality between men
and women. Women have suffered enough violence at home. Violence
against women must be stopped.

19. Straw Man - Occurs when the position of the opposition is twisted so that it is
easier to refute
example: Opponent: We should relax the Law governing the allowed
smoking areas in the city. Fallacy: We should not do so, because the
number of smokers might increase.

20. Affirming the Consequent - Any argument of the form: If A is true then B is
true; If B is true therefore A is true
example: If you are drinking wine, you have a problem. Therefore, if
you have a problem, you are drinking wine.

21. Denying the Antecedent - Any argument of the form: If A is true then Bid
true; IF A is not true then B is not true
example: If you are drinking wine, you have a problem. Therefore, you
are not drinking wine, you do not have a problem.

22. Inconsistency - Occurs when arguments contradict one another

example: Frank is older than Jake, Jake is older than Noli and Noli is
older than Frank.

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WARNING: Do not use these kinds of logical fallacies when you defend your stand. It
weakens your arguments. So, what are the things that you hare to do in order to refrain
from these fallacies? Study the next topic.

B. FACTORS ON AUTHENTICITY AND VALIDITY OF EVIDENCES/INFORMATION

The following an some of the criteria assessing whether the source is suitable to use for
academic purposes. The criteria include relevance, authority, currency, contents and
location of sources

1. Relevance of the Source

 How well does the source support your stand?
 You can check the title, table of contents, summary, introduction or headings
of the text to have a sense of its content.

2. Authority/ Author's Qualifications

 Is the author's name identified?
 Is the author's background, education or training related to the topic?
 If the source does not have an author, think twice before using it.
 Legitimate academic texts must include citations. Citations demonstrate that
the writer has thoroughly researched the topic and is not plagiarizing the
material.

3. Currency/ Date of Publication

 What is the date of the publication?
 In most fields, the data from the older publications may no longer be valid. As
much as possible, the date pf publication should be at most five years earlier.

4. Contents/ Accuracy of Information

 Does the author have a lot of citations in his or her text and/or bibliography or
works cited section?
 You do not want to use source that is disputable, so make sure to verify your
findings with multiple sources.

5. Location of Sources
 Where was the source published? Was it published digitally or in print?
 Is it a book, an academic journal or a reputable news source as
www.nytimes.com or www.cconomist.com?
 Does it provide complete publication information such as author/s, editor/s, title,
date of publication and publisher?
 What is the URL of the website?
 Avoid using blogs or personal homepage and wiki sites (Wikipedia, Wiktionary,
Wikiquotes)

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  If the URL includes the top-level domain .edu, then that means that it has been
published by an academic institution such as university
 Common URLs include .gov (government), .org (organizations), .com
(commercial sites) and net (network infrastructures). In academic writing,
reputable sites are those with edu, gov, .net and .org in URL.

Add on pieces of evidence to strengthen the author's claims: Evidence from surveys,
library research and experiments Evidence from informant interviews (those who have
direct experience related to the problem/issue Evidence from expert interviews Source:
Valdez, P. N. M. (2016). English for the Globalized Classroom Series: English for
Academic and Professional

Remember: Aside from your claim/ argument, you hare to discuss counter arguments.
These are the arguments opposing a stand.

C. PRESENTATION OF REASONABLE ARGUMENTS AND ACTUAL EVIDENCES

TO DEFEND A STAND

Guidelines in presentation of reasonable arguments and factual evidences to defend a

stand:

C - ontains a clear proposition or statement that must be defended

A - ssesses conflicting opinions or opposing views on the issue
T - akes a firm stand on the issue
L - ists arguments in an organized manner to defend the stand
C - onsider your audience/reader

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WRITES VARIOUS KINDS OF POSITION PAPERS.

 POSITION PAPER: A formal, usually detailed written statement,

especially regarding a single issue, that articulates a position, view
point, or policy, as of government, organization, or political candidate.
 ARGUMENT: A process of reasoning; series of reasons; a statement,
reason, or facts for or against a point.
 OPINION: A view or judgment formed about something, not necessarily
based on fact or knowledge.
 LOGICAL APPEAL: Refers to a reasonable approach in developing an
argument.
 ETHICAL APPEAL: Refers to your credibility or reliability and
competence as a writer.
 EMOTIONAL APPEAL: Uses arguments in a way that evokes or
uncovers feelings.
 FALLACIES: Errors in reasoning; a false or mistaken idea.

As a student, you are continuously taking sides and forming opinions on

anything that involves them. However, defending your point by simply saying
"because I think so", won't help you make a case. It is therefore important that
you learn how to properly outline your thoughts and make valid argument.

A position paper presents the writer's stand or viewpoint on a particular

issue. Writing a position paper entails outlining arguments and proposing the
course of action; by doing so, you are already taking part in a large debate.

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 The primary goal of a position paper is to declare a "position" on a
certain matter or an issue. Its secondary goal is to convince or persuade others
to take that side of an issue or matter.

Writing with style and clarity Many students make the mistake of thinking
that the content of their paper is all that matters. Although the content is
important, it will not mean much if the reader can't understand what you are
trying to say, You may have some great ideas in your paper but if you cannot
effectively communicate them, you will not receive a very good mark. Keep the
following in mind when writing your paper:

Aside from this, you also have the power to change the opinions and
attitude of others when you write a position paper. Because of this, a position
paper can be essential tool in bringing about societal change.

Like a debate, a position paper presents one side of an arguable opinion

about an issue. The goal of a position paper is to convince the audience that
your opinion is valid and defensible. Ideas that you are considering need to be
carefully examined in choosing a topic, developing your argument, and
organizing your paper.

Issue Criteria To take a side on a subject, you should first establish the
arguability of a topic that interests you. Ask yourself the following questions to
ensure that you will be able to present a strong argument:
 Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy and uncertainty?
 Can you identify at least two distinctive positions?
 Are you personally interested in advocating one of these positions?
 Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be manageable?

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I. INTRODUCTION
a. Analyze the source/quote: pull it apart sentence by sentence and
explain the meaning of the source both in general terms and more
specifically
b. Identify the perspective the source/ quote reflects:
c. Explain your understanding of that ideology (discuss key underlying
beliefs or political principles or economic principles)
d. State your position. Do you agree with the ideological perspective or
not?
NOTE: If taking a qualified position, state it clearly and precisely

II. BODY
a. Explain your first reason to support your position
b. Factual, relevant and accurate evidence to prove your first argument
c. Explain your second argument/reason
d. Factual, relevant and accurate evidence to prove your second
argument
e. Explain your third argument/reason f) Factual, relevant and accurate
evidence to prove your last argument
NOTE: In General, the strongest/best argument should be the
last. Others would advise the first argument by the strongest/best;
never the middle argument.

III. CONCLUSION
(Summarize, restate in a forceful manner your position)
NOTE: Please remember that the conclusion should not merely
be a brief repetition of your results - in that case your discussion
would seem fairly pointless. Focus instead on what your results
may imply after careful consideration (consideration that you
have outlined in your discussion).

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SAMPLE OUTLINE

I. INTRODUCTION
A. Introduce the topic
B. Provide background on the topic to explain why it is important
C. Assert the thesis (your view of the issue). More on thesis statements
can be found below.

Your introduction has a dual purpose:

to indicate both the topic and your approach to it (your thesis statement),
and to arouse your reader's interest in what you have to say.

One effective way of introducing a topic is to place it in context - to supply a kind

of backdrop that will put it in perspective. You should discuss the area into
which your topic fits, and then gradually lead into your specific field of
discussion (re: your thesis statement)

II. COUNTER ARGUMENT

A. Summarize the counterclaims
B. Provide supporting information for counterclaims
C. Refute the counterclaims
D. Give evidence for argument

III. YOUR ARGUMENT

A. Assert point #1 of your claims
1. Give your educated and informed opinion
2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably
three)
B. Assert point #2 of your claims
1. Give your educated and informed opinion
2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably
three)
C. Assert point #3 of your claims.
1. Give your educated and informed opinion
2. Provide support/proof using more than one source (preferably
three)

You may have more than 3 overall points to your argument, but you
should not have fewer.

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IV. CONCLUSION
A. Restate your argument
B. Provide a plan of action but do not introduce new information

The simplest and most basic conclusion is one that restates the thesis in
different words and then discusses its implications.

1. CHOOSE AN ISSUE. When choosing one, keep the following guidelines in

mind.
 The issue should be debatable because you won't be able to make a
stand if the topic is not debatable.
 The issue should be current or relevant.
 The issue should be written in a question from and answerable by yes
or no.
 The issue should be narrow and manageable.
2. Begin the writing process by conducting an in-depth research on the issue.
3. Make sure to define unfamiliar terms when you first mention them.
4. Be aware of the various positions about the issue and explain and analyze
them objectively.
5. Reflect on your position and identify its weaknesses.
6. Cite valid and reliable sources (3 or more) to establish the credibility of your
arguments.
7. View the issue in a different perspective so you can present unique
approach.
8. Limit your position paper in two pages.
9. Analyze your target readers and align your arguments to their beliefs,
needs, interests, and motivations.
10. Summarize the other side's counterarguments and use various evidence
and data to refute them
11. Use an active voice as much as possible to achieve dynamic and firm one.
12. Arrange your evidence logically using an inductive or deductive approach.
13. Check your argument for fallacies and eliminate them. Fallacies, or errors in
reasoning weaken your argument.
14. Use ethical, logical, and emotional appeal. An ethical appeal relates to your
credibility and competence as a writer; a logical appeal refers to a rational
approach in developing an argument; while an emotional appeal uses
arguments in a way that evokes feelings.

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 Writing with style and clarity. Many students make the mistake of
thinking that the content of their paper is all that matters. Although the content is
important, it will not mean much if the reader can't understand what you are
trying to say, You may have some great ideas in your paper but if you cannot
effectively communicate them, you will not receive a very good mark. Keep the
following in mind when writing your paper:

DICTION refers to the choice of words for the expression of ideas, the
construction, disposition, and application of words in your essay, with regard to
clearness, accuracy, variety, etes mode of expression; and language. There is
often a tendency for students to use fancy words and extravagant images in
hopes that it will make them sound more intelligent when in fact the result is a
confusing mess. Although this approach can sometimes be effective, it is
advisable that sou choose clear words and be as precise in the expression of
your idea as possible.

PARAGRAPHS CREATING CLEAR PARAGRAPHS IS ESSENTIAL

Paragraphs come in so many sizes and patterns that no single formula could
possibly cover them all. The two basic principles to remember are these:
1) A paragraph is a means of developing and framing an idea or
impression. As a general rule, you should address only one major idea
per paragraph.
2) The divisions between paragraphs aren't random, but indicate a shift in
focus. In other words you must carefully and clearly organize the order
of your paragraphs so that they are logically positioned throughout your
paper. Transitions will help you with this.

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TRANSITIONS
In academic writing your goal is to convey information clearly and concisely, if
not to convert the reader to your way of thinking. Transitions help you to achieve
these goals by establishing logical connections between sentences, paragraphs,
and sections of your papers. In other words, transitions tell readers what to do
with the information you present them.

GRAMMAR AND SPELLING

You must make certain that your paper is free from grammar and spelling
mistakes. Mechanical errors are usually the main reason for lack of clarity in
essays, so be sure to thoroughly proofread your paper before handing it in.

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PLAGIARISM AND ACADEMIC HONESTY
Plagiarism is a form of stealing; as with other offenses against the law,
ignorance is no excuse. The way to avoid plagiarism is to give credit where
credit is due. If you are using someone else idea, acknowledge it, even if you
have changed the wording or just summarized the main points.

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VOCABULARY LIST
 SCHOLAR - a specialist in a particular branch of study, especially the
humanities; a distinguished academic.
 ESSAY - a short piece of writing on a particular subject.
 HARD SCIENCES - any of the natural or physical sciences, as
chemistry, biology, physics, or astronomy, in which aspects of the
universe are investigated by means of hypotheses and experiments.

Many scholars have defined report as any informational work made with
an intention to relay information or recounting certain events in a presentable
manner. These are often conveyed in writing, speech, television, or film.

A key feature of report is that it is formally structured in sections. Hence,

the use of sections makes it easy for the reader to jump straight to the
information they need. Unlike an essay which is written in a single narrative
style from start to finish, each section of a report has its own purpose and will
need to be written in an appropriate style to suit - for example, the methods and
results sections are mainly descriptive, whereas the discussion section needs to
be analytical.

Reports communicate information which has been compiled as a result

of research and analysis of data and of issues. Please note however that
reports can cover a wide range of topics, but usually focus on transmitting
information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience.

Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete.
They should also be well-written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that
holds the reader's attention and meets their expectations.

GUIDE QUESTIONS
1. What are the different types of report writing?
2. What are its purposes?
3. Who are its target audience?
4. How is a particular type of report being written?

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1. TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS disciplines with an applied focus such as
Engineering, Information Technology, Commerce, Accounting and Finance,
will set report writing assignments that simulate the process of report writing
in industry. Assignments are set in the form of a problem or a case study.
The students research the problem, and present the results of the research
in a report format

Technical writing is form of writing technical communication or

documentation in science and technology technology or applied science
that helps people understand a product or service. The main purpose of
technical writing is to inform and to trigger the person into action such as
purchasing a product or service. Its purpose may also be instruct
persuade, but never to entertain. The content is factual and
straightforward. It is expressed in formal, standard or academic
language.

2. FIELD REPORTS are common in disciplines such as Law, Industrial

Relations, Psychology, Nursing, History and Education. These types of
reports require the student to analyse his or her observations of
phenomena or events in the real world in light of theories studied in the
course

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the

observation of people, places, and/or events and to analyze that
observation data in order to identify What are the different types of report
writing? What are its purposes? Who are its target audience? How is a
particular type of report being written? Guide Questions
www.shsph.blogspot.com 6 and categorize common themes in relation
to the research problem underpinning the study. The content represents
the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data that has been
gathered during one or more observational events.

WHEN WRITING A FIELD REPORT YOU NEED TO:

 Systematically observe and accurately record the varying
aspects of a situation. Always approach your field study with a
detailed protocol about what you will observe, where you
should conduct your observations, and the method by which
you will collect and record your data.

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  Keep the report's aims in mind while you are observing.
Recording what you observe should not be done randomly of
haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to details.

 Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and

see in the context of a theoretical framework. This is what
separates data gatherings from reporting. The theoretical
framework guiding your field research should determine what,
when, and www.shsph.blogspot.com 7 how you observe and
act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings in
relation to the underlying assumptions embedded in the
theoretical framework.

Techniques to record your observations: Although there is no limit to the

type of data gathering techniques you can use, these are the most
frequently used methods:

NOTE TAKING
This is the most common and easiest method of recording your observations.
Tips for taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand
so that recording basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to
observe, using many small paragraphs, which reflect changes in activities, who
is talking, etc., and, leaving space on the page so you can write down additional
thoughts and ideas about what's being observed, any theoretical insights, and
notes to yourself that are set aside for further investigation.

PHOTOGRAPHY
With the advent of smart phones, an almost unlimited number of high quality
photographs can be taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a
field study. Photographs can help capture an important moment in time as well
as document details about the space where your observation takes place.
Taking a photograph can save you time in documenting the details of a space
that would otherwise require extensive note taking.

VIDEO & AUDIO RECORDINGS

Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving you
an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated analysis
of your observations. This can be particularly helpful as you gather additional
information or insights during your research.

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ILLUSTRATIONS
This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible
need, for example, to draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating
objects in relation to people's behavior.

REMEMBER
Please note that techniques of deliberate observation and data gathering are not innate
skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency .

3. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS are another kind of report. They are common in all
the Sciences and Social Sciences. These reports use a standard scientific
report format describing methods, results and conclusions to report upon an
empirical investigation. The purpose of a science report is to clearly
communicate your key message about why your scientific findings are
meaningful

REMEMBER
The scope and style of reports varies widely.
It depends on three key factors: the report's intended audience, the report's purpose and the
type of information/subject to be communicated.

Although the exact nature will vary according to the discipline you are studying,
the general structure is broadly similar for all disciplines. Now, one good
example of report that you should know which is commonly used in the field of
hard sciences is referred as Research Report.

THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE RESEARCH REPORT INCLUDE THE

FOLLOWING:
1) Introductory Phase
2) Review of Literature
3) Research Methodology
4) Body of the Report
5) Conclusion
6) Recommendation

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INTRODUCTORY PHASE
Introduction is as important as the main parts of a research report. It
contextualizes and sets the tone and direction of research writing. It is like a
road map that guides you in your research journey. According to Reidman
(2001), it answers the following questions.
 What was I was studying?
 What did we know about this topic before we study?
 And, how this study advance new knowledge or new ways of
understanding?

RESEARCH TITLE
A research title has to get the attention of the readers. In other words, it must be
"catchy." Being catchy does not mean sacrificing the main message or idea of
your report. Hence, according to Silverman (2006, 339) choose "a title that
catches the reader's attention while properly informing them about the main
focus on your rescarch." Siverman (2006, 206) is suggesting a "two-part title"
containing a stimulating title applying a present participle signifying action and a
subtitle which is more descriptive. Example: Stimulating utle: Have you ever
experience being bullied? Descriptive utle: A study on the perception of the
victims of bullying in the primary schools.

A research abstract has a word limit. The most common word limit is 100.
This is a challenging part of writing a report because it is difficult to write
the many things that you want to impart in just a few words

LIST OF CONTENTS
A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to
find their way through the different parts of the report. Hence, the consistency of
the page numbers with the parts of the report is vital. Inconsistent page
numbering would result to the reader's confusion.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The Review of Related Literature (RRI) provides study background and
environment. The intention of the RRL is to locate the study in its area of
discipline and reveal its relevance and significance in the environment. The RRL
would indicate if your topic is building on previous researchers or if it is a new
area of inquiry. The RRL should make one realize that a study is worth pursuing
or not.

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In research, the research process is as important as the research content. Thus,
a research report must also contain a description of the research strategy. The
readers will be interested in finding how you arrived at a particular study result.
Siverman (2008) pointed out that the readers would be interested to know the
following.
1. Research topic
2. Case (s) you have studied
3. Research methods you have chosen to use www.shsph.blogspot.com
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4. How you have analyzed the data

WRITING YOUR DATA

The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected through
your research. There are two important areas of consideration in the writing up
of the data, namely, data analysis, and data presentation. In the data analysis,
there is no right or wrong way. Creswell (1994, 153) only requires the
researcher to:
1. “be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons
and contrast"
2. "be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanations for
the findings”

WRITING THE CONCLUSION

How do you characterize conclusions?
Conclusion are inferences, deductions, abstraction, implications, interpretations,
general statements, and/or generalization based on findings. An example of
which is: "All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high school but the
majority of them were not qualified to teach science." (Khemer, 2009)

WRITING THE RECOMMENDATION

The research recommendation is a part of the paper where you make
suggestions about some resolutions as a response to the research problem. It
must be consistent part of the conclusion. It proposes specific solutions
connected with the findings and must be supported by relevant data and specific
data from the findings

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