International Journal of Mathematical Education in

Science and Technology

ISSN: 0020-739X (Print) 1464-5211 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tmes20

Exploring pre-university students’ mathematical

connections when solving Calculus application
problems

Javier García-García & Crisólogo Dolores-Flores

To cite this article: Javier García-García & Crisólogo Dolores-Flores (2020): Exploring
pre-university students’ mathematical connections when solving Calculus application
problems, International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, DOI:
10.1080/0020739X.2020.1729429

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2020.1729429

Published online: 24 Feb 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tmes20
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2020.1729429

Exploring pre-university students’ mathematical connections

when solving Calculus application problems
Javier García-García and Crisólogo Dolores-Flores
Research Centre of Mathematics Education, Autonomous University of Guerrero, Chilpancingo, Mexico

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Mathematical connections play an important role in achieving math- Received 1 October 2018
ematical understanding. Therefore, in this article, we report research KEYWORDS
whose objective was to identify mathematical connections that pre- Mathematical connections;
university students make when they solve problems that involve the Calculus; derivative and
derivative and the integral. In this research, we consider a math- integral; problem solving;
ematical connection like a true relationship between two or more pre-university
concepts, definitions, theorems, or meanings amongst themselves,
with other disciplines or with real life. Task-based interviews that
included four application problems were used to collect data from
25 students (18 males and 7 females) and Thematic Analysis was
used to analyse them. Our results indicate that mathematical con-
nections are dependent on each other, and because of this, they
form systems of mathematical connections around the reversibility
connection between the derivative and the integral. We found con-
nections of five types: different representations, procedural, features,
reversibility and meaning as a mathematical connection.

1. Introduction
Making mathematical connections is a frequently established goal for mathematics educa-
tion (Evitts, 2004), which means to relate mathematics to the real world, to other disciplines
and other mathematical concepts (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019; Özgen,
2013). Mathematical connections allow mathematics to be viewed as an integrated field
and not as a collection of separate parts, which is how students regard it (Evitts, 2004;
Jaijan & Loipha, 2012; Mwakapenda, 2008) and how it is often presented in the teaching-
learning process. To avoid this, the Mexican curriculum proposes that at the pre-university
level, students need to:
Construct and interpret mathematical models through the application of arithmetic, algebraic,
geometric and variational procedures, for the understanding and analysis of real, hypothetical
or formal situations.
Formulate and solve mathematical problems applying different approaches.
Explain and interpret the results obtained through mathematical procedures and contrast
them with established models or real situations (DGB, 2013a, p. 12, 2013b, p. 13).

CONTACT Javier García-García [email protected] Research Centre of Mathematics Education, Autonomous

University of Guerrero, Av. Lázaro Cárdenas S/N, Chilpancingo, Guerrero 39086, Mexico
© 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

Furthermore, teaching ‘must leave aside the memorization of disarticulated topics and
the acquisition of relatively mechanical skills’ (DGB, 2013a, 2013b, p. 6). It aims to pro-
mote interdisciplinary work, much like how real facts are presented in everyday life. In
this sense, countries such as South Africa (Mwakapenda, 2008), Turkey (Özgen, 2013),
Israel (Leikin & Levav-Waynberg, 2007), Mexico (DGB, 2013a, 2013b), Australia (Marsh-
man, 2014; Sawyer, 2008), and the United States (NCTM, 2014) have as a curricular goal,
for students to make mathematical connections. This has led researchers to point out the
importance of connecting school mathematics with the outside world (Gainsburg, 2008)
since it offers certain advantages, according to teachers (Karakoç & Alacacı, 2015). If this is
achieved in a classroom, students will be able to improve their mathematical understanding
(Eli, Mohr-Schroeder, & Lee, 2011; Mhlolo, 2012).
Literature indicates that, while students perceive the process of connecting mathematics
with real life as important, they also recognize that it has not been sufficiently implemented
in the classroom (Baki, Çatlıoğlu, Coştu, & Birgin, 2009; Soltani, Mohammad-Hassan,
Shahvarani, & Manuchehri, 2013). Nor is there enough information about how mathemati-
cal connections (if any) are applied in the classroom nor how often (Gainsburg, 2008). One
way to make mathematical connections in the classroom could be through problem solv-
ing that promotes relationships between different concepts and, as suggested by Leikin and
Levav-Waynberg (2007), find different ways to reach the solution. However, some teachers
find it difficult to teach in this manner. Therefore, we agree with Garii and Okumu (2008)
when they point out that if teachers do not recognize the various ways math is embedded
in our daily lives, then, regardless of the depth of their mathematical knowledge, they may
be unable to help students make mathematical connections between school mathematics
and the reasons for studying mathematics.
A review of the literature indicates that there is little research that explores mathe-
matical connections that emerge when students solve problems. Entirely for reference,
we have identified the studies of Lockwood (2011), Özgen (2013), Yoon, Dreyfus, and
Thomas (2010) and Dolores and García-García (2017), although none of them focuses
on the pre-university level in Calculus. Other studies explore mathematical connections
between representations (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019; Berry & Nyman, 2003;
Dawkins & Mendoza, 2014; Haciomeroglu, Aspinwall, & Presmeg, 2010; Hong & Thomas,
2015; Mhlolo, 2012; Mhlolo, Venkat, & Schäfer, 2012; Moon, Brenner, Jacob, & Okamoto,
2013) and on the resolution of specific tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018; Eli
et al., 2011, 2013; Jaijan & Loipha, 2012; Mamolo & Zazkis, 2012). This review has moti-
vated us to explore mathematical connections that pre-university students make when they
solve problems that involve the use of the derivative and the integral – a part of the Fun-
damental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) –, in view of the fact that there is little research with
this focus. Therefore, the research question that is answered in this paper is: What mathe-
matical connections do pre-university students make when they solve problems involving
the derivative and the integral?
In this research, we seek to validate a framework to study mathematical connections
that we have built from the thematic analysis in previous research (García-García &
Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019) as well as extend its validity when we explore the mathemat-
ical connections that students make when they solve application problems of Calculus.
This is a contribution of this research. On the other hand, the importance of focusing on
the pre-university level is that, at this level of education, students profile their university
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 3

education by orienting their professional training towards the sciences, technologies or

the humanities. Therefore, mathematical connections related to Calculus are important
because they are part of the pre-university students’ preparatory training and are use-
ful for the understanding of ideas within Calculus and of more advanced courses like
Mathematical Analysis, Differential Equations and Complex Variable, just to name a few.

2. Mathematical connections and mathematical understanding

We assume that making mathematical connections is a fundamental part of achieving
mathematical understanding. In this sense, some authors consider that a student’s math-
ematical understanding is related to his or her skill in making mathematical connections
(Barmby, Harries, Higgins, & Suggate, 2009; Berry & Nyman, 2003; Boaler, 2002; Busin-
skas, 2008; Cai & Ding, 2015; Good, McCasilin, & Reys, 1992; Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992;
Noss, Healy, & Hoyles, 1997). For Hiebert and Carpenter (1992), the strongest connection
that is built is the mathematical understanding that is achieved. Meanwhile, Cai and Ding
(2015) point out that some features of mathematical understanding are: it is both a process
(or knowing) and a result of the act of understanding (sometimes called knowledge); it is
at the same time the process to make mathematical connections and the result of making
them; it is a dynamic and continuous process; it can have different levels and different types;
the aim is to achieve a deeper understanding of mathematics. So, for Cai and Ding (2015)
and Hiebert and Carpenter (1992) mathematical connections are the result of mathemat-
ical understanding, but also that mathematical understanding can be the act of making
mathematical connections.
We agree with the previous ideas and we accept that making mathematical connections
between mathematical ideas is an important indicator of mathematical understanding
(Berry & Nyman, 2003). At the same time, a student who has mathematical understanding
will be able to make mathematical connections between ideas, concepts, procedures, repre-
sentations and meanings (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019). Likewise, for Kastberg
(2002), mathematical understanding occurs in the mind of the student; she argues that,
although this may change, it may become more or less consistent with the standard math-
ematical view of the concept; the mediator of understanding is the previous knowledge of
the student.
On the other hand, for Businskas (2008) mathematical connections are those relation-
ships on which mathematics is structured and are independent of the student, but are at the
same time, those relationships by which the thought processes build mathematics. How-
ever, for Eli et al. (2011), a mathematical connection could be a link in which previous
or new knowledge is used to establish or support an understanding of the relationship(s)
between two or more mathematical ideas, concepts, strands or representations within a
mental network. According to Evitts (2004), the connected knowledge can be described
in terms of its personal construction and meaning, the multiplicity of links between con-
cepts and procedures, and the power derived from knowing connections. Mathematical
connections can be made with the everyday world, with previous knowledge, with the
familiar contexts inside and outside school, with different mathematical concepts, with
other disciplines, with the past and the future (NCTM, 2014; Presmeg, 2006). Berry and
Nyman (2003) point out, furthermore, that students need to be motivated to reflect on
mathematical connections in the classroom.
4 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

In brief, for this research, we assume that there is a strong relationship between
mathematical connections and mathematical understanding (García, 2018). Likewise, we
consider a mathematical connection as a cognitive process through which a person makes
a true relationship between two or more concepts, definitions, theorems, or meanings
(García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019) to solve application problems. Mathematical
connections are useful in improving mathematical understanding (Businskas, 2008) which
is valued as such by the expert (teacher or researcher). We can identify the mathematical
connections that students make through their written productions and verbal arguments
that they develop when they solve specific tasks.
In this research, we presented application problems to the students. We assume that,
when a mathematical model is already present in a given context because it has been intro-
duced by others, then we are talking about the application of mathematics (Niss, 2012).
That is, we are facing an application problem that may or may not evoke concepts from
other disciplines or real life. In this research, we use problems that evoke concepts of physics
and biology and that can be solved by applying the derivative or the integral.

3. A framework to study mathematical connections in Calculus

There is no consensus on how to study the mathematical connections that students make
when solving mathematical tasks. For this reason, we have adopted a framework (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Framework to study mathematical connections (Adopted from García, 2018; García-García &
Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 5

that we have previously constructed from the data collected from pre-university stu-
dents when solving algebraic tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018) and graphical
tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019) and that, in this research we extend its use
to analyse mathematical connections that pre-university students make when they solve
application problems in Calculus.
In Figure 1, we recognize as intra-mathematical connections when a student relates
or associates mathematical concepts between themselves to solve mathematical tasks or
application problems, this means that mathematical connections emerge inside mathe-
matics and among mathematical entities (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019),
but that it could involve concepts of other disciplines, as well. In this research, we assume
the following types of mathematical connections (Figure 1) as described below:

(1) Procedural: this mathematical connection occurs when ‘someone uses rules, algo-
rithms or formulas to complete any mathematical task’ (García-García & Dolores-
Flores, 2019, p. 21). Likewise, include the explanations or arguments that a student
offers to use those formulas and how he or she applies them to achieve a result. For
example, a student that uses the power rule to find a derivative of a function is using
this mathematical connection.
(2) Different representations: this type of mathematical connection could be: (a) alternate
representations when a student uses two or more representations to represent a math-
ematical idea or concept (verbal–algebraic, algebraic–geometric, etc.). (b) equivalent
representations when the same mathematical concept is expressed in two different
ways within the same representation. For example, f (x) = (x − 1)2 and f (x) = x2 −
2x − 1 are equivalent representations in the algebraic representation.
(3) Features: a student makes this type when he or she identifies some invariant attribute
or quality that differentiates it from others, that is, some characteristic that allows him
or her to recognize that mathematical concept in other contexts. Likewise, this mathe-
matical connection is identified when a student defines the characteristics or describes
the properties of the mathematical concepts that make them different or similar to
others.
(4) Reversibility: a student makes this type of mathematical connection when he or she
recognizes the bidirectional relationship between derivative and integral as operations
and when he or she uses the FTC as a way of linking both concepts. So, it occurs ‘when
someone can start from a concept A to get to a concept B and invert the process starting
from B to return to A’ (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019, p. 21).
(5) Meaning: we can identify this type of mathematical connection when a student
attributes a sense to a mathematical concept, that is, what it means to him or her (that
makes it different from others). It includes those where a student gives a definition
that he or she has constructed for these concepts. It is different from the feature
type because the properties and qualities of mathematical concepts are not described.
According to Kilpatrick, Hoyles, Skovsmose, and Valero (2005), the meaning of a
mathematical concept may be limited by its definition and the context of its use.
(6) Part-whole: this ‘appears when students establish a logical relationship between math-
ematical concepts: generalization or inclusion’ (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019,
p. 21). In this sense, this mathematical connection occurs when a student identifies
that A (a general case) contains B (a particular case), or B is contained in A.
6 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

4. Fundamental theorem of Calculus

FTC is essential in the development of Calculus (Carlson, Persson, & Smith, 2003)
and establishes the mathematical connection between the derivative and the integral.
Mathematically, this theorem points out that if f is a continuous function on a closed
x
interval [a, b], then the function g defined by g(x) = ∫ f (t)dt where a ≤ x ≤ b is an
a
antiderivative of f , that is to say, g  (x) = f (x) for a < x < b. Using Leibniz’s notation, we
can write this theorem, whenever f is a continuous function (Stewart, 2010) as

x
d
f (t)dt = f (x)
dx
a

This is known as the first part of the FTC; whose use is demanded in the application
problems that we used in this research. The second part of the FTC establishes that if f is
a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b], then:

b
f (x)dx = F(a) − F(b)
a

Whenever F is any antiderivative of f , this is F  = f (Stewart, 2010). Together, the two

parts of the FTC point out that differentiation and integration are inverse processes under
certain mathematical conditions, previously explained. What one operation does, the other
undoes.
Given the theoretical complexity of the FTC, students, when moving to the higher level
in the field of mathematical modelling and applications, present difficulties such as lack
of knowledge (mathematical theory and other disciplines), difficulties in formulating pre-
cise mathematical problems, interpreting word problems, understanding processes, use of
representations, among others (Thomas et al., 2015).
On the other hand, Radmehr and Drake (2017) explored students’ – first-year univer-
sity students and Year 12 and Year 13 students’ – metacognitive experiences, metacognitive
skills, and mathematical problem solving in relation to the questions related to the FTC.
Among other findings, Radmehr and Drake (2017) reported: (1) ‘several students made
incorrect pre- and post-judgments which could have affected their success when answer-
ing the questions’ (p. 24); (2) ‘students at both levels only rarely used checking strategies
on these questions’ (p. 24); (3) the teaching of the FTC could be reconsidered with more
emphasis on understanding it conceptually, and (4) ‘several students had difficulties with
symbols and terminologies involved in the FTC’ (p. 25). Accordingly, they indicated that
‘several students had difficulty solving questions associated to the FTC and that students’
metacognitive experiences and skills could be further developed’ (Radmehr & Drake,
2017, p. 1).
Bajracharya (2014) has explored the students’ understanding of the FTC and its appli-
cation to graphically based problems. He reported that students had confusion between
the antiderivative difference and the function difference; they used three problem-solving
strategies: algebraic, graphical and integral; and the students found it difficult to connect
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7

and apply concepts such as rate, integrals, and Riemann sum, among others, to solve
physics problems.
For some authors, the concept of accumulation is central to the idea of integration and,
therefore, it is at the centre of the understanding of many ideas and applications in Calculus
(Jones, 2015; Kouropatov & Dreyfus, 2013, 2014; Thompson, 1994; Thompson & Silver-
man, 2007). Thompson (1994) added that the concepts of rate of change and infinitesimal
change are central to understanding the FTC, while Kouropatov and Dreyfus (2013, 2014)
argued that accumulation and its rate of change are two sides of the same coin. Accord-
ing to Jones (2015), student conceptualizations about the definite integral were related to
three common interpretations: (a) area under a curve, (b) as the values of an antideriva-
tive, and (c) as a limit of Riemann sums (the idea of accumulation). In this sense, Jones
(2015) inferred that conceptualizations such as the area under a curve and the value of an
antiderivative, limited students in their abilities to give meaning to the contextualized inte-
grals, whereas the sum of Riemann based on the idea of accumulation was practical and
useful to give meaning to a variety of applications, for instance, in multivariate and physical
contexts (Jones, 2013). For its part, Rösken and Rolka (2007) reported that students from
grade 12 have difficulty in distinguishing between concepts such as area and integral, they
connected the symbol of integration with a specific type of function and, they believe that
calculation of the area is restricted to a specific graph of a function. However, Kouropa-
tov and Dreyfus (2013) recognized that university students successfully work on common
integrals, such as identifying a primitive function and calculating areas, but usually fail on
non-routine questions that require a reasonable level of conceptual understanding.
Garner and Garner (2001) pointed out that the current reforms of Calculus propose
greater emphasis on conceptual understanding and practical application, above memo-
rization and in the procedural. For this reason, solving application problems in Calculus
is useful; besides, promoting mathematical understanding, it also allows for identifying
the mathematical connections that students make when trying to solve those problems.
Because of this, we propose to explore the mathematical connections from the resolution
of problems that evoke physical and biological contexts, and, with this, we can also infer
about the understanding that they have about the FTC. The latter allows us to differen-
tiate the present study from those who explore the students’ knowledge concerning the
FTC, because none of these researches explore mathematical connections in pre-university
students. Likewise, this research considered only polynomial functions (which model the
problems of application), since these are continuous, differentiable and integrable. Addi-
tionally, because they are the typical functions that are taught in a course of Calculus in
pre-university classes in Mexico.

5. Methodology
This research is qualitative and task-based interviews were used to collect data. According
to Goldin (2000), this method involves an interviewer (in our case the researcher) and an
interviewee (in this case a student) interacting in relation to one or more tasks (in this study,
we proposed four application problems and one open question) presented to the intervie-
wee in a pre-planned way. In analysing verbal and non-verbal behaviour or interactions,
the researcher hopes to make inferences about mathematical thinking, learning and prob-
lem solving of the student. Likewise, Assad (2015) recognizes that task-based interviews
8 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

provide opportunities to assess students’ conceptual knowledge, but also to extend that
understanding. According to Assad, the interview protocol can be semi-structured, allow-
ing the interviewer to judge the appropriate answer of students’ mathematical reasoning.
Through the questions, the interviewer can motivate students to self-correct when they
make mistakes or to extend or generalize a problem (Assad, 2015). Task-based interviews
allow researchers to observe, record, and interpret complex behaviours and patterns in
behaviour, including words spoken by students, interjections, movements, writing, draw-
ings, actions in and with external materials, gestures, facial expressions, etc. (Goldin,
2000).
According to Goldin (2000) some principles that we can consider important when
designing the tasks are: choose tasks that incorporate rich representational structures that
are attainable for students, encourage free problem solving, decide what could be recorded
and record as much as possible, prepare clinical interviews and pilot tests, as well as antic-
ipate new or unforeseen possibilities. These points were considered in the design of this
research.

6. Task-based interview design

For the interview, we used a semi-structured protocol which incorporated four application
problems of Calculus whose solution could be found using the derivative or the integral
and, finally, we asked an open question when students finished solving those problems.
In order to design the problems, we are guided, first to a review of the curricula
of Differential Calculus (DGB, 2013a) and Integral Calculus (DGB, 2013b) of Mexican
pre-university courses, and second, to an exploratory review of four books (Contreras,
Martínez, Lugo, & Montes, 2009; Larson, Edwards, & Hostetler, 2002; Mora & Del Río,
2009; Stewart, 2010) of Differential and Integral Calculus proposed as basic bibliography
in those programmes. In these programmes, we have found that it is suggested as a goal
in teaching, the solving of application problems that evoke physical, chemical, economic-
administrative, biological, and other contexts (DGB, 2013a, 2013b). Likewise, the four
books reviewed, present, at different levels and frequencies, problems of this type both
as illustrative examples and as tasks to be solved by the students. Finally, considering both
the revision of the curricula of Differential Calculus and Integral Calculus as to the prob-
lems proposed in the reviewed books, we designed two application problems that evoked
physical contexts (position and velocity of an object), whose data (position or velocity)
were provided by a graphical representation. Also, we consider it appropriate to design
two problems that evoke biological concepts (population and speed of growth of certain
species of animals), whose data (the function that models the total population and the
function that models the growth rate) were presented using algebraic representations. In
all problems, we used models associated with polynomial functions of grade 1, 2 and 3.
Participants were given sheets with the following problems to be solved by them:

(1) The population of certain species of animals is calculated by the expression

p(t) = 2t 3 –t 2 + 100

where t (time) is measured in years.

 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 9

Figure 2. Position of a stone thrown vertically for four seconds.

(a) Find an expression that allows you to calculate the speed of growth of the
population for any year.
(b) What is the population growth rate at t = 2?
(2) The position of a stone thrown vertically is represented in the following graph
(Figure 2), where s(t) is measured in metres and t, the time, in seconds.
(a) How can you calculate the speed of the stone at any given second?
(b) What is the speed of the stone when 2 s have elapsed, that is to say, at t = 2?
(3) A population of animals is growing at annual rate given by r(t) = 6t 2 –2t.
(a) Find the function that describes the total population at a given time.
(b) If the initial population is 100 animals, what is the function that describes the
total population?
(4) The speed v(t) of a body thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20 metres
per second is represented by the following graph (Figure 3):
(a) What is the formula of the function that gives the position that governs that
movement?
(b) What is the formula of the position function that governs that movement if, after
a second, the body is 4 metres away, that is, s(1) = 4m?

While each student solved each problem, the researcher asked auxiliary questions to iden-
tify what motivated him or her to solve the task in that way, his or her procedures and his or
her justification, as well as the meaning of his or her results. In this way, the student played
an active role in solving the proposed problems and the researcher also had relevant par-
ticipation by questioning every action that the student performed. That is, the researcher
10 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

Figure 3. Speed of a body thrown vertically upwards.

was interested in what reasoning the student had and what knowledge he used, regardless
of whether he or she was consistent from the point of view of mathematics.
For instance, some questions that researchers asked were: Do you understand the
problem in general, that is, what is asked of you? What do you think you should do to
solve the problem proposed? Why do you think the problem should be solved in that
way? Why do you use the derivative (or integral, if the students indicate the impor-
tance of using these mathematical concepts) to solve the proposed problem? Do you
know any other way to solve this problem? What does your result mean? And so on.
At the end, when the student finished solving the four problems, the researcher asked
the following question: From the problems solved by you or from your previous knowl-
edge, do you think there is any relationship between the derivative and the integral? (if your
answer is no) why do you think that? or (if your answer is yes) what is that relationship
between the derivative and the integral? Also, some personal data of the students were
collected.
Based on the results of a pilot application of the proposed problems, we consider it con-
venient to provide students the algebraic representation associated with the graphs given in
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 11

problems 2 and 4 if the students could not deduce such representation and if they asked for
this information to solve the proposed tasks. In the second problem, this is s(t) = 20t–5t 2
and in the fourth problem the algebraic representation is v(t) = 20–10t.

7. Research context and participants

The research was carried out in a high school (pre-university level) located in
Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Mexico. The curriculum of this school follows the competen-
cies approach, which promotes the know (knowledge), the know-how (the application of
knowledge) and the know how to be (behaviour, attitudes and values).
The participants were 25 students (18 males and 7 females), aged from 17 to 18. All of
them had just completed and approved Differential and Integral Calculus with high scores1
– a grade higher than 8 –, as well as physics and biology, so we assumed that the students
were familiar with the tasks that this research considered and that it was confirmed during
the interviews of each student. In this research, we use the convenience sampling; the req-
uisites were: students that passed with high scores in Calculus and, those that were willing
to participate in an interview solving mathematical problems, that is, volunteer students.
Hereafter we will refer to them as S1, S2, S3, . . . , S25.
The interviews were conducted over four working days by the first author of this
research and by a doctoral student with previous experience in interviewing, who knew
in detail its aim. The activity was recorded in audio and video formats, for later analysis.
The interviews were transcribed in their entirety to have the narratives of the students and
were analysed along with the students’ written productions.

8. Data analysis
To analyse data, we used thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2012), whose objective is
identifying patterns of meanings (themes) through a set of data provided by the answers to
research questions raised. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), ‘a theme captures some-
thing important about the data in relation to the research question and represents some
level of patterned response or meaning within the data set’ (p. 82). Thematic analysis can
be used for a wide range of frameworks and for different research questions, allows for
work with large or small data sets, and can be applied to produce theory-driven analysis
(Braun & Clarke, 2012) as we did in this research.
To identify mathematical connections in this research we followed the six phases of the
thematic analysis: (1) familiarizing yourself with the data, (2) generating initial codes, (3)
searching for themes (type of mathematical connections) and subthemes (specific math-
ematical connections), (4) reviewing potential themes and subthemes, (5) defining and
naming themes and subthemes and, (6) producing the report. In this research, we con-
sidered a theme as a type of mathematical connection (provided in the framework) and a
subtheme, a specific mathematical connection within Calculus (built from the data).
Also, from phase 3, we found that the mathematical connections made by the stu-
dents were strongly related to each other forming a system that is described in the results
section. This relationship, as well as the mathematical connections found, were discussed
in repeated work sessions between the authors and an external researcher, to gain reliability
and validity in the data analysis.
12 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

9. Results
We found a variety of mathematical connections associated with the first part of FTC in
the students’ productions (Table 1). We believe that the variability in the frequency of each
identified mathematical connection indicates that the level of understanding that students
can achieve is different in each case. Next, we describe these results.

9.1. Mathematical connection of procedural type

Three subthemes were grouped in this type of mathematical connection. The participants
d
in this study used formulas such as dx (xn ) = nxn−1 (to solve problems involving the cal-
n+1
culation of speed or the rate of growth, n = 20) and ∫ xn dx = xn+1 + C (to solve problems
involving the calculation of position or the total population, n = 16). For example, in prob-
lem 1 students used the rule of power to derive polynomial functions after they reflect on
the problem and its demand (see Figure 4).
On the other hand, when the students solved part b of problem 4 (physical problem),
they indicated that ‘finding a primitive function of the position of an object given an initial
condition implies, first, calculating an integral and then solving a linear equation (n = 7.)’.
In this sense, participants who made this mathematical connection recognized that if
v(t) models an object’s speed and s(1) = 4 is an initial position, then to find the prim-
itive function that models the position at any instant they must first solve the integral
∫ v(t)dt = s(t) + C and then solve the equation 4 = s(1) + C. With this last one, they will

Table 1. Intra-mathematical connections made by the students.

Type of mathematical connection Subtheme Frequency

dx (x )
d n
Procedural 1. The formula = nx n−1 is used to solve problems involving 20
the calculation of speed or the rate of growth.
n+1
2. The formula ∫ x n dx = xn+1 + C is used to solve problems 16
involving the calculation of position or the total population.
3. Finding a primitive function of the position of an object given an 8
initial condition implies, first, calculating an integral and then
solving a linear equation.
Different representations 4. The speed of an object at its maximum height is 0. 13
5. s (a) = 0 means that the object is motionless at t = a. 6
Feature 6. The integral of a polynomial function is an increase of its degree 2
by one and the derivative of a polynomial function is a reduction
of its degree by one.
Meaning 7. In ∫ r(t)dt = p(t) + C the integration constant C means the 11
initial population of animalsa .
8. p (2) = k means that just in the second year the population 7
increased k species.
Reversibility 9. The derivative and integral are inverse operations. 22
10. The integral of the acceleration function of an object is its 15
speed and the integral of the speed function is its position.
11. Calculating the speed of growth means finding the derivative. 14
12. The derivative of the position function of an object is its speed 14
and the derivative of its speed is its acceleration.
13. The integral of the growth rate function r(t) of a population is 12
the total population function.
Total 160
a r(t) is the function that models the rate of growth and the p(t) models the total population of certain species of animals.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 13

Figure 4. Answer for task 1 provided by S8.

Figure 5. Calculations made by S3 to answer problem 4.

find the value of C and finally, they will have the particular antiderivative function that we
asked them for (see the extract from S3 and Figure 5).

Interviewer: Do you understand the second question [of problem 4]?

S3: Yes. It is replaced. (Then, she wrote the equation 4 = −5(1)2 + 20(1) + C.
and solved it. Her solution is C = −11. Finally, she wrotehat the requested
function is s(t) = −5t 2 + 20t − 11).
Interviewer: Can you tell me what you did?
S3: If after a second the body is four meters away (points to the equation she
wrote 4 = −5(1)2 + 20(1) + C) and here what we would be looking for is
the constant [of integration], that is the unknown. By developing all this we
arrive at the result that the constant is equal to minus eleven.

9.2. Mathematical connection of different representations type

For this type of mathematical connection, we constructed two subthemes: the speed reach-
ing an object at its maximum height is 0 (n = 13) and s (a) = 0 means that the object is
motionless at t = a (n = 6, see Table 1). In the first one, for example, S4 associated his ver-
bal and numeral result s (a) (where s(t) models the position of a stone) with its graphical
representation. This student identifies this characteristic from the derivative at a point and
visualizes the behaviour of the stone in a graph (which was provided as a mathematical
model for the phenomenon described in the problem).
14 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

Interviewer: Could you solve the following problem (points to part b of problem 2)?
S4: Yes (he derives the position function and calculates the speed for t = 2 in the
derivative obtained previously). The speed would be zero meters per second.
Interviewer: How does that look on the graph or what does that result mean?
S4: For example, here are the two seconds (points to the axis of the abscissa
the value of t = 2) and here it stops (it indicates the maximum point of
the parabola), that is, here it does not have any speed. When it reaches its
maximum point is when it comes to a stop.

The second mathematical connection which relates the meaning of s (a) is like the first
one because students say that the object reaching the maximum height (has zero velocity)
there exists a moment when it stops. So, students indicated that if s(t) is a function that
models the position of an object, then s (a) = 0 means that the object is motionless at the
instant t = a (see the excerpt from S8). When the object is released there is an instant when
its speed is 0, between the time it is thrown and when it reaches the ground. Next, because
of gravity, the object begins to descend to the ground.

Interviewer: Can you answer the following question (interviewer points to the second
question of problem 2)?
S8: Yes. (Substitute for t = 2 in the function s (t) = 20 − 10t) it gives zero.
Interviewer: What does that mean?
S8: That when two seconds have elapsed, the stone that is thrown goes without
speed.
Interviewer: Interviewer: Graphically, what does it look like?
S8: It is assumed that in two seconds it must have a speed of zero (while locating
a point in (2, 0) and in (2, 20)). It is here when it begins to descend and by the
effect of gravity runs out of speed.

9.3. Mathematical connection of feature type

We found one mathematical connection associated with a characteristic of the derivative
and the integral. From students’ productions, we constructed the subtheme: ‘the integral of
a polynomial function is an increase of its degree by one and the derivative of a polynomial
function is a reduction of its degree by one’ (n = 2). This was possible because the students
d n+1
used the formula of the derivative ( dx (xn ) = nxn−1 ) and the integral (∫ xn dx = xn+1 + C)
that gives information about what happens to the degree of a polynomial function that is
derived or integrated; that is, the participants focus their attention on the variation of the
exponent. Participants who made it, explained the relationship that they identified between
the derivative and the integral (see the excerpt from S19); they argue that since the opera-
tions are opposites then the process to obtain the derivative has to do with decreasing its
exponent by one because in the integral it is adding one. From the answer that these stu-
dents offer, it is clear that they are thinking of the mathematical relationship between the
derivative and the integral for polynomial functions that they have most often worked with
in the classroom.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 15

Interviewer: from the exercises you did or from your previous knowledge do you think
there is any relationship between the derivative and the integral?
S19: Integrate [a function] is adding one to its exponent and derive [a function]
implies a reduction of its degree by one.

9.4. Mathematical connection of meaning type

When a student finds a solution to a problem it is important to know if he or she knows what
the meaning is of his or her result. In this sense, in the students’ productions we found two
meanings for them: p (2) = k means that just in the second year the population increased
k species (n = 7) and in ∫ r(t)dt = p(t) + C the integration constant C means the initial
population of animals (n = 11). The first one was possible because in part b of problem 1
we asked the students to calculate the growth rate at a specific time, at t = 2 (i.e. p (2)),
and the auxiliary question during the interview was what the result means. In this respect,
students indicated that just in the second year the population increased 20 species (see the
excerpt from S24).

Interviewer: This 20 (interviewer points to the student’s answer to part b of the problem
1), what does it mean?
S24: It’s the rate of population growth.
Interviewer: Interviewer: And, in other words, what does it mean?
S24: Growth . . . that is, according to me, if t is supposed to be time, then it could
be said that just in the second year the population grew by 20. It is what I can
observe.

In the second subtheme, r(t) is a function which models the growth rate of a certain species
of animals, p(t) models the total population and,t is measured in years. Here, students
associate the meaning of the constant of integration with the initial population of animals,
that is a biological concept (see excerpt from S13).

Interviewer: Interviewer: Let’s move on to the next question of the problem raised (part b
of problem 3).
S13: (read the question and wrote p(t) = 2t 3 − t 2 + 100). This would be it.
Interviewer: Interviewer: why?
S13: Because, if it speaks of initial population, then at t the value would be 0.
They are no longer counting anything, they are not counting how many years
passed or anything and, if it says that the initial population is 100, I must
substitute 100 in C.

9.5. Mathematical connection of reversibility type

For this type of mathematical connection, we found five subthemes in the students’ produc-
tions, that have as a main characteristic the bidirectional relation between the derivative
and the integral. In this sense, students considered that ‘the derivative and the integral are
inverse operations’ (n = 22), mathematical connections that recognize the first part of FTC.
This appeared through a question in which students were asked for a retrospective view on
16 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

solving the problems raised. The question focused on the relationship that they identified
between the derivative and the integral (see the excerpt from S2).

Interviewer: From the problems you solved or from your previous knowledge do you think
there is any relationship between the derivative and the integral?
S2: Yes, yes, I do.
Interviewer: What is that relationship?
S2: the derivative and the integral are related. Since from one we can find the
other, it´s an inverse process.

This mathematical connection has been validated performing algebraic tasks that prove
its validity according to S2. On the other hand, this allowed students to make other mathe-
matical connections with physical and biological concepts. So, the relation that the students
identified between the derivative and the integral was from two perspectives: in the mathe-
matical context (the derivative of the integral of a polynomial function is equal to the same
function and vice versa, see García-García and Dolores-Flores, 2018) and, in the physical
and biological context (as a mathematical relationship between the position and velocity of
an object and, between the rate of growth of certain species of animals and the total popu-
lation; see mathematical connections 10–13 in Table 1). In the mathematical context, this
mathematical connection allows students to make the fourth one as well (see mathematical
connection number 6 in Table 1), through the first and second (see mathematical connec-
tions number 1 and 2 in Table 1), because they said, if the derivative of a polynomial func-
tion implies a reduction of its degree by one, and the derivative and the integral are inverse
operations such as addition and subtraction, then the integral of a polynomial function
means an increase of its degree by one. Therefore, this mathematical connection allowed
students to identify the relationship between problems 1 and 3, and 2 and 4, respectively.
In this way, this mathematical connection affected how the students solved the proposed
tasks.
For instance, when the students solved the fourth problem, they said ‘the integral of
the acceleration function of an object is its speed and the integral of the speed function is its
position’ (n = 15) which relates three physical concepts: acceleration, speed and position
from the mathematical point of view, where the mediator is the integral. These students
indicated that if a(t) is a function that models the acceleration of an object and v(t) models
the speed, then ∫ a(t)dt is the speed and ∫ v(t)dt is the position of that object at a given
time (see the excerpt from S3).

Interviewer: There you can see other problems presented. Read them and try to solve them.
S3: (he read problem 4, then wrote vertically x, v, a, then he draws an arrow from
v to variable x, this is accompanied by the integral symbol. Then he wrote
v(t) = −10t + 20. Finally, he integrated this function and he obtained s(t) =
−5t 2 + 20t + C).
Interviewer: Can you tell me what you did?
S3: This is what I told you a while ago (he points to x, v, a, that he wrote on his
answer sheet) that it is as if we have x represent the position, v is speed and
here a would be acceleration. If you want to go from speed to position you
must integrate, that is, if you go here (indicates the arrow from v to x), it is
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 17

integrated. If they go to this side (points out the arrows with a different and
inverse direction) you need to derive. And here what they are giving me is the
speed graph. If I find the [function associated with the] graph I would have
what is the speed, and the speed would have to move to the position.

In the S3 answer, we identify that he recognized the reversibility between position, veloc-
ity and acceleration from the mathematical point of view, through the derivative and the
integral. This response allowed this student to make other mathematical connections when
he solved the other problems. Likewise, other students related the position, the speed and
the acceleration in an inverse sense, that is, they identified that ‘the derivative of the position
function of an object is its speed and the derivative of its speed is its acceleration’ (n = 14); an
inverse mathematical connection to the previous one. Similar to the mathematical connec-
tion identified by number 9 in Table 1, this also occurred when students were questioned
about the relationship that they identified between the derivative and the integral (see the
excerpt from S12).

Interviewer: Interviewer: From the activities you did or from your previous knowledge, do
you think there is any relationship between the derivative and the integral?
S12: Yes, to begin with, they both evaluate any function. The derivative can be
obtained from position to speed and starting from speed to acceleration. With
the integral it’s the other way around, starting from acceleration I can get to
speed and from speed to position. They are only inverse operations that if they
go together are cancelled and that one evaluates the slope of the function and
the other the area that it has underneath.

From S12’s answer, we can argue that he understands the mathematical connection
9, both in the physical and mathematical context, especially when he recognized in his
discourse the mathematical relation between the slope of a curve and the area under a
curve accepting and understanding as inverse processes the derivative and the integral,
even in the graphical contexts. Therefore, we can argue that S12 has a more complete
understanding concerning the mathematical connection between the derivative and the
integral.
Other mathematical connections that were possible because students identified that
the derivative and the integral are inverse operations were in the context of biology. For

Figure 6. Calculations performed by S5.

18 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

instance, students mentioned that if a problem gives a function that models a certain phe-
nomenon and the student is asked to calculate the speed, then the mathematical calculation
requested is the derivative. That is, they use the term ‘speed’ as a connector to decide the
use of the derivative (see the excerpt from S5 and Figure 6) and, this allows them to make
the mathematical connection ‘calculating the speed of growth means finding the derivative’
(n = 10).

Interviewer: Interviewer: Some problems arise immediately, read them calmly and try to
solve them.
S5: (reads the first problem and derives the function that models the total popu-
lation of animals. Then substitutes the value of t = 2 in the derived function
to answer the second question).
Interviewer: Can you explain what you did?
S5: To calculate the speed of some expression, it would be the first derivative,
that is what I did. As they ask me the speed of population growth and they
are giving me the value of t, I told you that the speed was the first derivative,
so I only replaced the 2 where the t was.

10. Mathematical connections system

From phase 3 on the thematic analysis, we identified that the mathematical connections
were strongly related forming a system of mathematical connections. This system was
strengthened in phase 4 of the thematic analysis through discussion in repeated work-
ing sessions. Our data indicate that there is a central mathematical connection (Figure 7)
related to a level of hierarchy and abstraction superior to other mathematical concepts that
are included in it. In our case, this was the first part of the FTC because it relates to the
derivative and the integral as inverse operations; also, this can be used in the physics and
biology fields when someone is solving application problems that involve the use of both
mathematical concepts. For this reason, the mathematical connection ‘the derivative and
the integral are inverse operations’ is the central one and it appeared in the retrospective view
that the students manifested once they solved the proposed problems, but it also appeared
during the interview at different moments to help them solve the proposed problems.
Other mathematical connections that appeared as the students solved the proposed
problems were organized around this central mathematical connection. The data indicated
that from this one, there are others that are derived immediately that we call first order
derivative connections. The characteristic of these is that they are mathematically associ-
ated with the two central concepts of Calculus: the derivative or the integral which, at a
hierarchical and abstraction level, correspond to a lower level of understanding compared
to the FTC. Among these we recognize, for example, the mathematical connections: ‘the
d
formula dx (xn ) = nxn−1 is used to solve problems involving the calculation of speed or the
n+1
rate of growth’ and ‘the formula ∫ xn dx = xn+1 + C is used to solve problems involving the
calculation of position or the total population’ (first-order derivative connections). These
mathematical connections allow one to derive the following: ‘the integral of a polynomial
function is an increase of its degree by one and the derivative of a polynomial function is
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 19

Figure 7. Mathematical connections system constructed from the data.

a reduction of its degree by one’ (second-order derivative connection). The latter connec-
tion was possible because the students worked with polynomial functions, in addition, the
support offered them through the use of the formula of the derivative and the integral.
Therefore, the data indicate that there is a system of mathematical connections that are
derived almost immediately from each other and are related to a higher and abstract level of
understanding. There are mathematical connections that explain the meaning of a result or
an algebraic symbol, or those that define some particular characteristics of a mathematical
concept (such as the variability of the exponent for the derivative and the integral), which
are of second order. Some are associated with more general concepts (such as the derivative
and the integral) or that involve the use of these to solve problems that are of first-order.
Finally, there is a central mathematical connection that is related to a superior concept of
understanding that is more abstract (such as the first part of the FTC in this research). A
student has this system of mathematical connections, but that does not mean that all reach
the same level, as shown in Figure 7. We also found logical relationships between the identi-
fied mathematical connections (Figure 7), in particular, the relationship of implication and
double implication. In the first one, the development of a mathematical connection justifies
the existence of another of the form: if A is true then B is also true. The logical relation of
implication allows us to differentiable between first and second-order derivative connec-
tions. On the other hand, the relation of double implication indicates the bidirectionality of
the mathematical connections, that is to say, the development of one justifies the presence
of the other and vice versa. In other words, they are of the form if A is true then B is also
true, and if B is true then A is true as well.
20 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

Figure 7 indicates that the students’ activities were organized around the central math-
ematical connection, through which they were able to recognize the bidirectionality of
concepts such as position-speed, speed-acceleration, total population-growth speed. When
students can create a greater number of interrelated mathematical connections that make
up the mathematical connections system of Figure 7, then we can say that they have a
better understanding of Calculus and the first part of the FTC. This results in improved
student performance in solving proposed tasks and helps them to provide consistent argu-
ments from the point of view of mathematics about why they solve the problems in the way
they do. For instance, students who made 9 (S4, S13), 10 (S3, S8, S12, S23) and 11 (S14,
S15) mathematical connections respectively, were more successful in solving the proposed
problems.

11. Discussion and conclusion

The results found in this research indicate that students made five types of mathematical
connections: procedural, different representations, feature, meaning and reversibility as we
expected in the framework. In each type, we identified specific mathematical connections
that students made when they solved the proposed problems. All of them were strongly
related, forming a mathematical connections system (as was previously presented).
The mathematical connections of procedural and reversibility type occurred with high
frequency. Procedural mathematical connection has been identified in university and pre-
university students when they solve Calculus tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018,
2019; Dolores & García-García, 2017), but it is also used by math teachers as reported by
Evitts (2004), Businskas (2008) and Eli et al. (2011, 2013). Considering the frequency with
which mathematical connections 1 and 2 emerged (Table 1), our results are consistent with
Haciomeroglu (2007), Dawkins and Mendoza (2014) and, Hong and Thomas (2015) who
point out that there is persistence in the use of the algebraic procedural, even when we
propose graphs as a procedure to find the solution.
On the other hand, we recognize that in Calculus, developing reversible thinking
in the students is important as indicated by Haciomeroglu, Aspinwall, and Presmeg
(2009), so, it was significant that the students, at least the participants in this research,
recognized during the interview, some inverse operations such as addition-subtraction,
multiplication-division and derivative-integral; in addition, concepts such as position-
velocity and velocity-acceleration whenever there is a mathematical model that helps to
predict them (position, velocity or acceleration). Due to the reversibility of thought mak-
ing available a compensatory thought that will restore the original condition after any
interruption (Sparks, Brown, & Bassler, 1970), the reversibility mathematical connection
is significant. This mathematical connection has previously been identified when pre-
university students solve algebraic and graphical tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores,
2018, 2019). As a result, its occurrence was important when students solved application
problems in this research.
Due to the latter, in this research, we found the mathematical connection of differ-
ent representations type. This result is consistent with those found by Mhlolo (2012) and
Mhlolo et al. (2012) in their research with teachers; however, they reported that this math-
ematical connection appeared on a weak and superficial level. Our results indicated that
in problem 2, not one student was able to find the algebraic representation associated with
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 21

the given parabola, whereas in problem 4 only eight students were able to deduce the alge-
braic representation from the given graph. The limitations of the students are aggravated
in the context of problem-solving, a result consistent with that reported by Özgen (2013);
however, once we provided the algebraic representation associated with the graphs then
students proceeded to derive or to integrate by establishing a variety of mathematical con-
nections just as it happened when the students solved graphical tasks (García-García &
Dolores-Flores, 2019). On the other hand, we believe that this mathematical connection
would occur possibly with major frequency if we would have proposed algebraic or graph-
ical tasks as we found in previous research (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2018, 2019).
This type has been recognized in research like Businskas (2008) and Evitts (2004) that
reveal the role of the teacher to help students to use it in the classroom.
As we expected in the framework, we found the mathematical connection of mean-
ing type. This result is consistent with those we found in previous research when students
solved graphical tasks (García-García & Dolores-Flores, 2019). This is important to high-
light because research that studies mathematical connections has not yet reported its use.
For its part, the mathematical connection of feature type appeared when the students iden-
tified the variation of the degree of the exponent of a function when they derived and
integrated it, that is, it appeared once the students made a procedural mathematical con-
nection. This result is consistent with those reported by Eli et al. (2011, 2013) who indicated
that the teachers used this mathematical connection when they were solving geometric
tasks. Likewise, this is important to achieve other mathematical connections like ‘common
features’ presented by Businskas (2008) in her results. We also believe that this mathemat-
ical connection plays an important role in achieving generalization and abstraction for
some mathematical concepts.
As we presented previously, some of the mathematical connections identified in this
research are used by math teachers as well (Businskas, 2008; Eli et al., 2011, 2013; Evitts,
2004). For this reason, we assume that one of the sources of those mathematical con-
nections that students make, is their teachers, but also, textbooks and independent work
that the students do when they solve mathematical tasks outside the classroom, as the
participants in this research recognized during the interview.
The results found in this research are also consistent with those obtained by Lockwood
(2011), in the sense that students also made unexpected mathematical connections. For
example, during the interview, we could verify that the students used, very naturally, the
reversibility connection between the position-speed concepts associated with the ideas of a
derivative and an integral. This mathematical connection allowed them to solve problems
that evoked concepts of biology. In particular, it enabled connections to emerge: ‘calculating
the speed of growth means finding the derivative’. In its turn, this allowed for the emergence
of ‘the integral of the growth rate function r(t) of a population is the total population func-
tion’. Therefore, these are unexpected mathematical connections that were made possible
because the students extrapolated their knowledge of Calculus and Physics to the field of
Biology, where the term ‘speed’ was a mediator to achieve those results.
Finally, in this research, we were able to verify the validity and effectiveness of the the-
oretical framework – which we built in previous research – to study the mathematical
connections that appear when students solve application problems. We consider that it
is important to continue exploring both the intra-mathematical and extra-mathematical
connections that students and teachers use when they are solving problems from other
22 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

disciplines or real-life that involve the use of mathematical concepts such as derivatives and
integrals. These results could be used to design learning sequences centred on the math-
ematical connections between different mathematical concepts, including these and with
those of other disciplines or in the modelling of real-life problems. We also believe that it
will be important for future research to explore the mathematical connections proposed
in the curriculum and those that math teachers make in the classroom. Likewise, it is also
important to design an analytical tool that allows the study of mathematical understanding
based on the quality of the mathematical connections that students or teachers make when
they are solving or working with mathematical tasks.

Note
1. In Mexico, the numerical scale of grades is from 0 to 10. In some pre-university schools (as in
the school where this research was done), the minimum passing grade is 6.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Javier García-García http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4487-5303
Crisólogo Dolores-Flores http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2748-6042

References
Assad, D. A. (2015). Task-based interviews in mathematics: Understanding student strategies and
representations through problem solving. International Journal of Education and Social Science,
2(1), 17–26.
García, J. (2018). Conexiones matemáticas y concepciones alternativas asociadas a la derivada y a la
integral en estudiantes del preuniversitario [Mathematical connections and alternative conceptions
associated with the derivative and the integral in pre-university students]. (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Autonomous University of Guerrero, México.
García-García, J., & Dolores-Flores, C. (2018). Intra-mathematical connections made by high school
students in performing Calculus tasks. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science
and Technology, 49(2), 227–252. doi:10.1080/0020739X.2017.1355994
García-García, J., & Dolores-Flores, C. (2019). Pre-university students’ mathematical connections
when sketching the graph of derivative and antiderivative functions. Mathematics Education
Research Journal. doi:10.1007/s13394-019-00286-x
Dolores, C., & García-García, J. (2017). Conexiones intramatemáticas y extramatemáticas que se pro-
ducen al resolver problemas de cálculo en contexto: un estudio de casos en nivel superior[Intra-
mathematical and extra-mathematical connections that occur when solving Calculus’ problems
in context: A case study at a higher level]. Boletim de Educação Matemática, 31(57), 158–180.
Bajracharya, R. R. (2014). Student application of the fundamental theorem of calculus with graphical
representations in mathematics and physics. Unpublished PhD Thesis. The University of Maine.
United States of America.
Baki, A., Çatlıoğlu, H., Coştu, S., & Birgin, O. (2009). Conceptions of high school students about
mathematical connections to the real-life. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(2009),
1402–1407.
Barmby, P., Harries, T., Higgins, S., & Suggate, J. (2009). The array representation and primary chil-
dren’s understanding and reasoning in multiplication. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 70(3),
217–241.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 23

Berry, J., & Nyman, M. (2003). Promoting students’ graphical understanding of the calculus. The
Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 22(4), 479–495.
Boaler, J. (2002). Exploring the nature of mathematical activity: Using theory, research and ‘working
hypotheses’ to broaden conceptions of mathematics knowing. Educational Studies in Mathematics,
51, 3–21.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of research methods
in psychology (vol. 2, pp. 57–71). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Businskas, A. (2008). ). Conversations about connections: How secondary mathematics teachers con-
ceptualize and contend with mathematical connections. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Faculty
of Education-Simon Fraser University. Canada.
Cai, J., & Ding, M. (2015). On mathematical understanding: Perspectives of experienced Chinese
mathematics teachers. Journal of Mathematics Teachers Education, 18(5), 1–25.
Carlson, M., Persson, J., & Smith, N. (2003). Developing and connecting Calculus students’ notions
of rate-of-change and accumulation: The fundamental theorem of Calculus. In Proceedings of
the 2003 Meeting of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education –North
America (Vol. 2, pp. 165–172). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii.
Contreras, L., Martínez, M., Lugo, O., & Montes, M. A. (2009). Cálculo diferencial e integral
[Differential and Integral Calculus]. México: Santillana.
Dawkins, P., & Mendoza, J. (2014). The development and nature of problem-solving among first-
semester calculus students. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and
Technology, 45(6), 839–862.
DGB. (2013a). Cálculo diferencial [Differential Calculus]. Retrieved on June 10, 2015 from
http://www.dgb.sep.gob.mx/02-m1/03-iacademica/01-programasdeestudio/cfp_5sem/calculo-
diferencial.pdf.
DGB. (2013b). Cálculo Integral [Integral Calculus]. Retrieved on June 10, 2015 from http://www.dgb.
sep.gob.mx/02-m1/03-iacademica/01-programasdeestudio/cfp_6sem/CALCULO_INTEGRAL.
pdf.
Dolores, C., & García-García, J. (2017). Conexiones intramatemáticas y extramatemáticas que se
producen al resolver problemas de cálculo en contexto: un estudio de casos en nivel supe-
rior [Intra-mathematical and extra-mathematical connections that occur when solving Calculus’
problems in context: A case study at a higher level]. Boletim de Educação Matemática, 31(57),
158–180.
Eli, J., Mohr-Schroeder, M., & Lee, C. (2011). Exploring mathematical connections of prospec-
tive middle-grades teachers through card-sorting tasks. Mathematics Education Research Journal,
23(3), 297–319.
Eli, J., Mohr-Schroeder, M., & Lee, C. (2013). Mathematical connections and their relationship to
mathematics knowledge for teaching geometry. School Science and Mathematics, 113(3), 120–134.
Evitts, T. (2004). Investigating the mathematical connections that preservice teachers use and develop
while solving problems from reform curricula. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Pennsylvania
State University College of Education.
Gainsburg, J. (2008). Real-world connections in secondary mathematics teaching. Journal Mathe-
matics Teacher Education, 11(3), 199–219.
Garii, B., & Okumu, L. (2008). Mathematics and the world: What do teachers recognize as mathe-
matics in real world practice? The Mathematics Enthusiast, 5(2), 291–304.
Garner, B. E., & Garner, L. E. (2001). Retention of concepts and skills in traditional and reformed
applied calculus. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 13(3), 165–184.
Goldin, G. A. (2000). A scientific perspective on structured, task-based interviews in mathematics
education research. In A. E. Kelly, & R. A. Lesh (Eds.), Handbook of research design in mathematics
and science education (pp. 517–545). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Good, T., McCasilin, M., & Reys, B. (1992). Investigating work groups to promote problem solving
in mathematics. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Planning and managing learning tasks and activities: Advances
in research on teaching (vol. 3, pp. 115–160). Greenwich, CO: JAI Press Inc.
24 J. GARCÍA-GARCÍA AND C. DOLORES-FLORES

Haciomeroglu, E., Aspinwall, L., & Presmeg, N. (2009). The role of reversibility in the learning of the
calculus derivative and antiderivative graphs. In S. L. Swars, D. W. Stinson, & S. Lemons-Smith
(Eds.), Proceedings of the 31st annual meeting of the North American Chapter of the International
Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education 5 (pp. 81–88). Atlanta, GA: Georgia State
University.
Haciomeroglu, E. S. (2007). Calculus students’ understanding of derivative graphs problems of
representations in calculus. Unpublished dissertation. The Florida State University-College of
Education. United States of America.
Haciomeroglu, E., Aspinwall, L., & Presmeg, N. (2010). Contrasting cases of calculus students’
understanding of derivative graphs. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 12(2), 152–176.
Hiebert, J., & Carpenter, T. P. (1992). Learning and teaching with understanding. In D. A. Grouws
(Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 65–97). New York, NY:
McMillan.
Hong, Y., & Thomas, M. (2015). Graphical construction of a local perspective on differentiation and
integration. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 27(2), 183–200.
Jaijan, W., & Loipha, S. (2012). Making mathematical connections with transformations using open
approach. HRD Journal, 3(1), 91–100.
Jones, S. R. (2013). Understanding the integral: Students’ symbolic forms. Journal of Mathematical
Behavior, 32, 122–141.
Jones, S. R. (2015). Areas, anti-derivatives, and adding up pieces: Definite integrals in pure mathe-
matics and applied science contexts. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 38, 9–28.
Karakoç, G., & Alacacı, C. (2015). Real world connections in high school mathematics curriculum
and teaching. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education, 6(1), 31–46.
Kastberg, S. E. (2002). Understanding mathematical concepts: The case of the logarithmic function.
Unpublished doctoral thesis. University of Georgia.
Kilpatrick, J., Hoyles, C., Skovsmose, O., & Valero, P. (2005). Meanings of meaning of mathematics.
In J. Kilpatrick, C. Hoyles, O. Skovsmose, & P. Valero (Eds.), Meaning in mathematics education
(pp. 9–16). New York: Springer.
Kouropatov, A., & Dreyfus, T. (2013). Constructing the integral concept on the basis of the idea
of accumulation: Suggestion for a high school curriculum. International Journal of Mathematical
Education in Science and Technology, 44(5), 641–651.
Kouropatov, A., & Dreyfus, T. (2014). Learning the integral concept by constructing knowledge
about accumulation. ZDM Mathematics Education, 46, 533–548.
Larson, R., Edwards, B. H., & Hostetler, R. P. (2002). Cálculo diferencial e integral [Differential and
Integral Calculus]. México: McGraw-Hill.
Leikin, R., & Levav-Waynberg, A. (2007). Exploring mathematics teacher knowledge to explain the
gap between theory-based recommendations and school practice in the use of connecting tasks.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 66, 349–371.
Lockwood, E. (2011). Student connections among counting problems: An exploration using actor-
oriented transfer. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 78(3), 307–322.
Mamolo, A., & Zazkis, R. (2012). Stuck on convention: A story of derivative relationships. Educa-
tional Studies in Mathematics, 81(2), 161–177.
Marshman, M. (2014). Using concept maps to show ‘connections’ in measurement: An example
from the Australian curriculum. Australian Mathematics Teacher, 70(4), 11–20.
Mhlolo, M. (2012). Mathematical connections of a higher cognitive level: A tool we may use to
identify these in practice. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 16(2), 176–191.
Mhlolo, M., Venkat, H., & Schäfer, M. (2012). The nature and quality of the mathematical connec-
tions teachers make. Pythagoras, 33(1), 1–9.
Moon, K., Brenner, M., Jacob, B., & Okamoto, Y. (2013). Prospective secondary mathematics
teachers’ understanding and cognitive difficulties in making connections among representations.
Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 15(3), 201–227.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL EDUCATION IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 25

Mora, E., & Del Río, M. (2009). Cálculo diferencial e integral: Ciencias sociales y económico adminis-
trativas [Differential and integral calculus: Administrative social and economic sciences]. México:
Santillana.
Mwakapenda, W. (2008). Understanding connections in the school mathematics curriculum. South
African Journal of Education, 28, 189–202.
NCTM. (2014). Principles to action: Ensuring mathematical success for all. Reston, VA: National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Niss, M. (2012). Models and modelling in mathematics education. Newsletter of the European
Mathematical Society, 86, 49–52.
Noss, R., Healy, L., & Hoyles, C. (1997). The construction of mathematical meanings: Connecting
the visual with the symbolic. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 33, 203–233.
Özgen, K. (2013). Problem çözme bağlaminda matematiksel ilişkilendirme becerisi: Öğretmen
adaylari örneği [Mathematical connection skill in the context of problem solving: The case of
pre-service teachers]. NWSA-Education Sciences, 8(3), 323–345.
Presmeg, N. (2006). Semiotics and the “connections” standard: Significance of semiotics for teachers
of mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 61, 163–182.
Radmehr, F., & Drake, M. (2017). Exploring students’ mathematical performance, metacognitive
experiences and skills in relation to fundamental theorem of calculus. International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 48(7), 1043–1071.
Rösken, B., & Rolka, K. (2007). Integrating intuition: The role of concept image and concept
definition for students’ learning of integral calculus. The Montana Mathematics Enthusiast, 3,
181–204.
Sawyer, A. (2008). Making connections: Promoting connectedness in early mathematics education.
Paper presented at the 31st annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group
of Australasia.
Soltani, S. H., Mohammad-Hassan, B., Shahvarani, A., & Manuchehri, M. (2013). Students’ concep-
tion about the relation of mathematics to real-life. Mathematics Education Trends and Research,
2013, 1–7.
Sparks, B. E., Brown, J. A., & Bassler, O. C. (1970). The Feasibility of inducing number conservation
through training on reversibility. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 1(3), 134–143.
Stewart, J. (2010). Calculus: Concepts and contexts. Belmont, CA: CENGAGE Learning.
Thomas, M. O. J., Druck, I. F., Huillet, D., Ju, M. K., Nardi, E., Rasmussen, C., & Xie, J. (2015). Key
mathematical concepts in the transition from secondary school to university. In S. J. Cho (Ed.),
The proceedings of the 12th international congress on mathematical education (pp. 265–284). New
York, NY: Springer.
Thompson, P. W. (1994). Images of rate and operational understanding of the fundamental theorem
of calculus. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 26, 229–274.
Thompson, P. W., & Silverman, J. (2007). The concept of accumulation in calculus. In M. Carlson &
C. Rasmussen (Eds.), Making the connection: Research and teaching in undergraduate mathematics
(pp. 117–131). Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America.
Yoon, C., Dreyfus, T., & Thomas, M. (2010). How high is the tramping track? Mathematising and
applying in a calculus model-eliciting activity. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 22(2),
141–157.