UNIT 2: ENERGY

Nuclear Chemistry
Engr. Jose Nicko C. Rodriguez
CONTENT 01 History of Radioactivity

02 The Atomic Mass Unit

03 Nuclear Stability and

Radioactive Decay

04 Radioactive Decay Series

and Half-Life

05 Application of Nuclear
Chemistry
NUCLEAR
CHEMISTRY
Nuclear chemistry is the study of
reactions involving changes in atomic
nuclei. This branch of chemistry began
with the discovery of natural
radioactivity.
HISTORY OF RADIOACTIVITY
WILHELM CONRAD ROENTGEN MARIE AND PIERRE CURIE
Successfully discovered X-ray Studied the intensity of radiation of
uranium

ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL ERNEST RUTHERFORD

Father of radioactivity. Discovered He discovered alpha, beta, and
that the element uranium emits gamma decay; redefined
radiation radioactivity as spontaneous
transmutation of elements.
CHEMICAL VS. NUCLEAR REACTION
CHEMICAL REACTION NUCLEAR REACTION
Atoms are arranged by the breaking and Elements (or isotopes of the same
forming of chemical bonds. elements) are converted from one to
another.
Only electrons in atomic or molecular Protons, neutrons, electrons, and other
orbitals are involved in the breaking and elementary particles may be involved.
forming of bonds.
Reactions are accompanied by Reactions are accompanied by
absorption or release of relatively small absorption or release of tremendous
amounts of energy. amount of energy.
Rates of reaction are influenced by Rates of reaction normally are not
temperature, pressure, concentration, affected by temperature, pressure, and
and catalysts. catalysts.
NATURE OF NUCLEAR REACTION
Protons and neutrons are
lumped tightly together in a
very compact and dense
nucleus while the electrons
surround the nucleus and
occupy most of the atom’s
volume.
 NUCLEUS VS. ELECTRON
NUCLEUS ELECTRON
99.9% of the mass (1.6 x 1014 g/cm3) of the Electrons in the orbitals (electron cloud)
atom is concentrated in the nucleus contribute 0.01% of the mass.

Positively charged Negatively charged

Strong nuclear force which hold the Weak electrostatic force (between
protons together. electron and nucleus).

Responsible for the nuclear reactivity Responsible for chemical reactivity

ATOMIC MASS UNIT
One atomic mass unit, 1 amu, is
one twelfth of the mass of an
atom of carbon with six protons
and six neutrons.

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g

PROPERTIES OF SUBATOMIC
PARTICLES
Mass
Particle Atomic Mass Charge Symbol
Grams
Units

Electron 9.109383 x 10 -28 0.0005485799 1- e-, 0-1β

Proton 1.672622 x 10 -24 1.007285 1+ 1

+1p or p+

Neutron 1.674927 x 10 -24 1.008665 0 1

0n or n
EXERCISE
A nickel atom with 32 neutrons has mass of 59.930788 amu. What is its
mass in grams?
EXERCISE
What is the mass of 64Zn (63.9929 amu) relative to 12C?
 the sum of the number of protons
MASS NUMBER and neutrons for an atom
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND ISOTOPES
Atomic weight of an element is the average mass of a
representative sample of atoms.

% 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 1 +

% 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 2 + … .
100%
DETERMINING ATOMIC MASS AND ISOTOPE
ABUNDANCE
The masses of isotopes and their percent abundance are
determined experimentally using a mass spectrometer.
EXERCISE
Verify that the atomic weight of chlorine is 35.45, given the following
information:
35Cl: mass = 34.96885; % abundance = 75.77%
37Cl: mass = 36.96590; % abundance = 24.23%
EXERCISE
Antimony, Sb, has two stable isotopes: 121Sb, 120.904 u, and 123Sb, 122.904 u.
What are the relative abundances of these isotopes?
RADIOACTIVE
DECAY
Unstable isotopes can become
stable isotopes by releasing atomic
particles in a process called
radioactive decay.
ALPHA PARTICLE PRODUCTION
Alpha particle is 4 2 He. Nuclide produced has a mass number lower by
four but has a higher n/p ratio than its mother nuclide.

92U → 4 2 He + 234 90 Th Thorium has higher n/p ratio

238

230
90 Th → 4 2 He + 226 88 Ra Radon has higher n/p ratio

84Po → 4 2 He + 206 82 Pb Lead has higher n/p ratio

210
 BETA PARTICLE PRODUCTION
This radioactive decay does not change the mass number of the
decaying nucleus. Nuclide which produces beta particles have high n/p
ratio. The net effect of beta-particle production is to change a neutron
to a proton.

1
0 n → 1
1 p + 0 -1 e
 GAMMA RAY PRODUCTION
Gamma ray is emitted when the nucleus has excess energy. The high
energy photon given off can relax the nucleus to its ground state
(reduces the energy of the nucleus). Gamma ray has no mass and
atomic number.

92U He + Th + 𝛾 rays
238 → 4 234
2 90
 ELECTRON CAPTURE
One of the inner-orbital electrons is captured by the nucleus. Since
electron has negligible mass, the original nuclide and the nuclide
produced will have the same mass number.

201
80 Hg + 0
-1 e → 201
79 Au + 0
0 𝛾

73
33 As + 0 -1 e → 73
33 Ge + 0 0 𝛾
 POSITRON PRODUCTION
This are nuclides with small n/p ratio. The net effect of positron
emission is to change a proton to a neutron

1p n + +1 e
1 → 1 0
0

ANNIHILATION: PARTICLE – ANTIPARTICLE COLLISION

0
-1 e + 0
+1 e → 2 [0 0 γ ]
EXERCISE
Balance the following nuclear reaction:
1. 254 Cf
98 → 11846Pd + 13252Te + ?
2. 7
3Li + 10n → 31H + 10n + ?
3. Positron emission from K-37
EXERCISE
Complete each of the following equations by adding the missing species:
1. 27
13Al + 42He → ? + 10n
2. 239
94Pu + ? → 24296Cm + 10n
3. 14 N
7 + 42He → ? + 11H
4. 235
92U → ? + 13555Cs + 410n
EXERCISE
Write equations for the following nuclear reactions, and confirm that they
are balanced with respect to nuclear mass and nuclear charge.

a. The emission of an α particle by Radon-222 to form polonium-218.

b. The emission of a β particle by polonium-218 to form astatine-218.

EXERCISE
Write a balanced equation for each of the following nuclear reactions:

a. The production of O-17 from N-14 by a alpha particle bombardment

b. The production of C-13 from N-14 by a neutron bombardment

c. The production of Th-233 from Th-232 by a neutron bombardment

d. The production of U-239 from U-238 by a H-2 bombardment

EXERCISE
Technetium-99 is prepared from 98Mo. Molybdenum-98 combines with a
neutron to give molybdenum-99, an unstable isotope that emits a β
particle to yield an excited form of technetium-99, represented as 99Tc*.

This excited nucleus relaxes to the ground state, represented as 99Tc, by

emitting a γ ray. The ground state of 99Tc then emits a β particle. Write the
equations for each of these nuclear reactions.
NUCLEAR STABILITY
Stable isotopes are those that do not
undergo spontaneous nuclear
decay. Unstable isotopes are the
opposite, and they may also be
referred to as radioactive isotopes,
or radioisotopes, or radioactive
nuclides, or radionuclides.
 RULES OF NUCLEAR STABILITY
1. Isotopes with atomic number > 83 have an unstable nucleus
2. Isotopes with atomic number < 83 have a stable nucleus when the ratio of
n:p is 1:1 in isotopes with atomic number (or protons) ≤ 20.
3. Pairs of protons and neutrons provide increased stability. This means that
isotopes with nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are
more stable than those with odd numbers of both protons and neutrons.
4. Isotopes with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 protons or neutrons in their nucleus
are generally more stable than those with other numbers of protons or
neutrons.
RULES OF NUCLEAR STABILITY
RULES OF NUCLEAR STABILITY

INCREASING STABILITY
As the size of the nucleus
increase, so does the n/p ratio
that indicates stability.
 RADIOACTIVE DECAY SERIES
• Radioisotopes or radionuclides undergo nuclear decay in order to turn into
a new atom which is called a daughter nuclide
• If the daughter nuclide is stable or non-radioactive the disintegration/decay
will stop. If the daughter nuclide is radioactive then the disintegration/decay
process will continue until a stable final nuclide is produced.
• Radioactive decay series is a natural process which produces several
unstable nuclides with varying decay rates. The mode of decay an isotope
will employ can be predicted based on the n/p ratio of the radionuclide.
 HALF – LIFE
The time it takes for an exactly one-half of an unstable nuclide to decay.
Different radionuclides have different half-lives as a consequence of their
different decay rates.

Isotopes Half-life Isotopes Half-life

1H
(tritium) 12.26 years Plutonium-242 3.79 x 105 years
3

Carbon-14 5,730 years Plutonium-240 6,760 years

Strontium-90 28 years Plutonium-239 24,360 years
Iodine-131 8 days Radium-223 11.2 days
Xenon-133 5.27 days Radium-224 3.64 days
Uranium-238 4.51 x 109 years Radium-226 1620 years
Potassium-40 1.3 x 109 years Radium-228 6.7 years
HALF – LIFE COMPUTATION
𝑛
𝑁 1
=
𝑁𝑜 2

𝑁
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝑁𝑜

𝑙𝑛2 0.693
𝑡1 = =
2 𝑘 𝑘
EXERCISE
Radon-226 has a half -life of 1620 years. How many years will it take for 1.0
g of Radon-226 to be reduced to 0.25 g? how much remains after the third
half life?
EXERCISE
The half life of a sample is 8-1 days- How long will it take for 3/4 of a
sample to decay?
EXERCISE
The half-life of Zn-71 is 2.4 minutes. If one had 100.0 g at the beginning,
how many grams would be left after 7.2 minutes has elapsed?
EXERCISE
After 24.0 days, 2.00 milligrams of an original 128.0 milligram sample
remain. What is the half-life of the sample?
EXERCISE
A radioactive isotope decayed to 17/32 of its original mass after 60
minutes. Find the half-life of this radioisotope.
EXERCISE
How much time will be required for a sample of H-3 to lose 75% of its
radioactivity? The half-life of tritium is 12.26 years.
EXERCISE
Fermium-253 has a half-life of 0.334 seconds. A radioactive sample is
considered to be completely decayed after 10 half-lives. How much time
will elapse for this sample to be considered gone?
 TRANSMUTATION
• Transmutation or Nuclear Transformation is a process in which a
nuclide is converted to a new element by bombardment with a high
energy nuclear particle.
• The bombarding particles to effect nuclear transformation could be
positive ions (42He) or neutrons.
• Production of proton from alpha particle: Lord Ernest Rutherford
• Production of neutron from alpha particle: Irene Curie and Frederic
Joliot
TRANSMUTATION
A type of particle accelerator called
cyclotron is employed to accelerate
the positive ions. The high energy of
the accelerated positive ions can
overcome the repulsion with
positively charge nucleus and
penetrate the target nucleus thus
effecting transformation.
NUCLEAR FUSION
Several small nuclei react to form a
larger nucleus. The nuclei of light
elements collide at velocities high
enough to overcome the mutual
repulsion of the nuclear protons and
fuse to form larger atomic number.
 NUCLEAR FISSION
The heavy nuclide split into lighter nuclides. Otto Hann and Fritz
Strassman isolated and identified Barium from the bombarding products
of Uranium with neutron. Nuclear fission produce more neutrons than are
used to initiate the process.
 NUCLEAR FISSION’S CHAIN
REACTION
• INITIATION: Fission of U-235 start with the absorption of neutron.
• PROPAGATION: This process repeats over and over. If one of the
neutrons produced in the fission of U-236 is absorbed by U-235, the
process is continued.
• TERMINATION: The chain reaction end when U-235 is consumed or
when the neutrons escaped without being absorbed by U-235.
NUCLEAR FISSION’S CHAIN
REACTION
NUCLEAR REACTOR
TWO GENERAL TYPES OF
TRADITIONAL NUCLEAR REACTOR:
1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
2. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Both reactors work by producing

steam from the energy released by
the fission.
NUCLEAR REACTOR

PARTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

1. CORE: contains fuel elements and
the moderator; it is where the
nuclear reaction occurs.
2. MODERATOR: reduces the speed
of neutrons; usually light-water.
NUCLEAR REACTOR
PARTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR
3. CONTROL RODS: control the rate
of nuclear reaction by absorbing
excess neutrons; they are
generally made up of cadmium or
boron
4. STEAM GENERATOR: a heat
exchanger that is used to produce
the steam
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
• Binding energy, Eb, is the energy required to separate the nucleus of
an atom into its constituent nucleons: its protons and neutrons.
• Experimental observations show that the mass of a nucleus is always
less than the sum of the masses of its individual protons and neutrons.
This difference in mass is called the mass defect

𝑬𝒃 = ∆𝒎𝒄𝟐
EXERCISE
What is the mass of helium-4 nucleus compared to the sum of its
nucleons?
EXERCISE
What is Binding Energy for Fe-56 (55.9934 amu)?
EXERCISE
Calculate the BE (J/mol) of U-239 if the mass of this nuclide is 235.0349
amu?
EXERCISE
What is the energy change associated with the fusion of protons and
neutrons into a helium-4 nucleus? What is the energy required per mole of
helium-4?
 THANK YOU!!!
ENGR. JOSE NICKO C. RODRIGUEZ