Information Technology

HISTORY OF INTERNET
The internet's history is a fascinating journey of innovation and collaboration that
has transformed the world. Here's a brief overview:

1. Origins (1960s-1970s):
• ARPANET: The precursor to the internet, ARPANET, was developed by the
U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
in 1969. It aimed to enable secure communication between government and
academic institutions.
• Packet Switching: Pioneered by researchers like Leonard Kleinrock, packet
switching technology allowed data to be broken into packets, sent
independently, and reassembled, forming the backbone of the internet.

2. Development of Key Protocols (1970s-1980s):

• TCP/IP Protocols: In 1974, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn introduced the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which
became the fundamental communication protocols for the internet.
• Inter-networking: By 1983, ARPANET adopted TCP/IP, allowing diverse
networks to connect and communicate seamlessly.

3. Expansion to Academia and Beyond (1980s):

• NSFNET: In 1986, the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET)
replaced ARPANET, connecting universities and research institutions, and
expanding access to more users.
• Domain Name System (DNS): Introduced in 1983, DNS simplified
addressing on the internet by translating numerical IP addresses into user-
friendly domain names (e.g., ".com", ".org").

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4. The World Wide Web (1990s):

• Tim Berners-Lee: In 1989-1991, Tim Berners-Lee developed the World
Wide Web at CERN, combining hypertext with the internet. He introduced
HTML, HTTP, and the first web browser.
• Commercialization: The mid-1990s saw the privatization of the internet and
the birth of commercial services. Companies like AOL, Yahoo!, and Amazon
emerged, and the web became a household utility.

5. The Modern Internet (2000s-Present):

• Broadband & Mobile: High-speed broadband and mobile internet
transformed accessibility. Smartphones, Wi-Fi, and 4G/5G networks made
the internet ubiquitous.
• Social Media & Cloud Computing: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube redefined communication, while cloud services enabled scalable,
remote storage and computing.
• IoT & AI: The internet now connects billions of devices (Internet of Things)
and leverages AI to enhance services.

Impact:
Today, the internet is central to communication, commerce, education, and
entertainment, serving over 5 billion users globally. It continues to evolve with
technologies like AI, blockchain, and quantum computing shaping its future Web
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WEB BROWSER

A software application used to access information on the World Wide Web is

called a Web Browser. When a user requests some information, the web browser
fetches the data from a web server and then displays the webpage on the user’s
screen.

>>Functions of web browser

A web browser is a medium through which you can basically access different
websites.
• The main function of a web browser is to provide an interface to the user for
sending requests and fetching data/information from the web servers.
• It also displays the information to the user including multimedia elements
(images and videos) in the form of webpages, using CSS and JavaScript.
• A web browser acts as a platform to access various websites. Users can visit
different websites by just entering the URL of the website on the web browser.
• Browsers also have navigation features like a navigation bar, tabs, and other
tools which make surfing the net easier. One can also open multiple web pages
at the same time, reload, and navigate forward and backward between web
pages.
• Another function of web browsers is to ensure secure and safe access to websites.
This is accomplished by pop-up warnings, scanning for malicious software and
other safety measures.
• The functionality of browsers can also be improved by adding extensions or
plugins to the browser. Most commonly installed extensions include AdBlock,
Calendar and other constructive tools.

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• The data accessed by a user frequently is stored by the web browsers in the form of
cache. This saves the loss of data and time while accessing the data again and again.

>> WebFeatures of Browser

A web browser consists of several features which provide a user-friendly
environment in a browser. Some of the features are listed below:
• Home Page: Whenever we open a browser, the first web page which loads is
called the home page. Although the home page of a browser has some default
setting, it can be changed according to user’s preference.
• Address (URL) Bar: The URL of the website that has to be accessed is
entered here. Through this bar user can access different websites or search
anything on browser.
• Navigation Buttons: Using the forward and backward buttons user can revisit
previously opened web pages. These buttons provide convenience to retrieve
data previously accessed.
• History: If you visited a website and want to revisit it after a few days but
have forgotten the address of website then don’t worry as every browser has a
history where it collects all previously visited data. This is a very handy feature
to revisit websites.
• Bookmark: This feature helps in quickly accessing websites. If you come
across some important web page you can always bookmark it for easy access in
future.
• Refresh Button: The refresh button reloads the page and shows updates if any.
• Home Button: It brings the user to home page which can be set by user.
• Tabbed Browsing: Using this feature a user can open multiple web pages in the
same web browser so that they can easily switch between them.

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>>History of web browser

The history of web browsers reflects the evolution of how we access the internet:
Early Days (1990s):
•In 1990, Tim Berners-Lee created the first web browser,
Worldwide Web (later renamed Nexus), while developing the World
Wide Web at CERN.
• In 1993, Mosaic, developed at the University of Illinois, became the
first widely-used browser with a graphical interface, making the web
accessible to the public.
Browser Wars (Mid-1990s):
• Netscape Navigator dominated the early web but faced competition
when Microsoft launched Internet Explorer in 1995, bundled with
Windows.
• This led to the "browser wars," where rapid development and
competition shaped new features.

Modernization (2000s):
Mozilla Firefox emerged in 2004 as an open-source alternative to Internet
Explorer.
• In 2008, Google Chrome entered the scene, emphasizing speed, simplicity, and
performance, quickly becoming the most popular browser.

Mobile and Beyond (2010s-Present):

• Browsers like Safari (for Apple devices) and Chrome expanded to mobile
platforms.

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• Modern browsers focus on speed, security, and features like syncing across
devices and supporting advanced web technologies.

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Types of web browser

There are many types of web browsers, including:

• Google Chrome
The most popular web browser in the world, with 65.12% of the global market share in
2024. It's fast, easy to use, and offers a safe browsing experience.

• Apple Safari
The native web browser for Apple Mac and iOS devices, with 18.17% of the
global market share in 2024. It has a classic design and protects user privacy.

• Microsoft Edge
The third most popular web browser in the world, with 5.21% of the global
market share in 2024.

• Mozilla Firefox
The fourth most popular web browser in the world, with 2.82% of the global
market share in 2024.

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• Opera
The sixth most popular web browser in the world , with 2.54% of the global market
share in 2024

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Blog

A blog (a truncation of "weblog") is an informational website consisting of

discrete, often informal diary-style text entries (posts). Posts are typically
displayed in reverse chronological order so that the most recent post appears first,
at the top of the web page. In the 2000s, blogs were often the work of a single
individual, occasionally of a small group, and often covered a single subject or
topic. In the 2010s, "multi-author blogs" (MABs) emerged, featuring the writing

of multiple authors and sometimes professionally edited. MABs from newspapers,

other media outlets, universities, think tanks, advocacy groups, and similar
institutions account for an increasing quantity of blog traffic. The rise of Twitter
and other "microblogging" systems helps integrate MABs and single-author blogs
into the news media. Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add
content to a blog.
Many blogs provide commentary on a particular subject or topic, ranging from
philosophy, religion, and arts to science, politics, and sports. Others function as
more personal online diaries or online brand advertising of a particular individual
or company. A typical blog combines text, digital images, and links to other blogs,
web pages, and other media related to its topic. Most blogs are primarily textual,
although some focus on art (art blogs), photographs (photoblogs), videos (video
blogs or vlogs), music (MP3 blogs), and audio (podcasts). In education, blogs can
be used as instructional resources; these are referred to as edublogs.
Blog and blogging are now loosely used for content creation and sharing on social
media, especially when the content is long-form and one creates and shares
content on regular basis, so one could be maintaining a blog on Facebook or
blogging on Instagram. A 2022 estimate suggested that there were over 600
million public blogs out of more than 1.9 billion websites.

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>> History of blog

Main articles: History of blogging and online dairy

An early example of a "diary" style blog consisting of text and images transmitted
wirelessly in real-time from a wearable computer with head-up display, February
22, 1995
The term "weblog" was coined by Jorn Barger on December 17, 1997. The short
form "blog" was coined by Peter Mercola, who jokingly broke the word weblog
into the phrase we blog in the sidebar of his blog Peterme.com in May 1999.
Shortly thereafter, Evan Williams at Pyra Labs used "blog" as both a noun and
verb ("to blog", meaning "to edit one's weblog or to post to one's weblog") and
devised the term "blogger" in connection with Pyra Labs' Blogger product, leading
to the popularization of the terms.

• Origins
Before blogging became popular, digital communities took many forms, including
Usenet, commercial online services such as GEnie, Byte Information Exchange
(BIX) and the early CompuServe, e-mail lists, and Bulletin Board Systems (BBS).
In the 1990s, Internet forum software created running conversations with
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"threads". Threads are topical connections between messages on a virtual
“corkboard”

Berners-Lee also created what is considered by Encyclopedia Britannica to be "the

first 'blog'" in 1992 to discuss the progress made on creating the World Wide Web
and software used for it.
From June 14, 1993, Mosaic Communications Corporation maintained their
"What's New" list of new websites, updated daily and archived monthly. The page
was accessible by a special "What's New" button in the Mosaic web browser.
The earliest instance of a commercial blog was on the first business to consumer
Web site created in 1995 by Ty, Inc., which featured a blog in a section called
"Online Diary". The entries were maintained by featured Beanie Babies that were
voted for monthly by Web site visitors.
The modern blog evolved from the online diary where people would keep a
running account of the events in their personal lives. Most such writers called
themselves diarists, journalists, or journalers. Justin Hall, who began personal
blogging in 1994 while a student at Swarthmore College, is generally recognized
as one of the earlier bloggers, as is Jerry Pournelle. Dave Winer's Scripting News
is also credited with being one of the older and longer running weblogs. The
Australian Netguide magazine maintained the Daily Net News on their web site
from 1996. Daily Net News ran links and daily reviews of new websites, mostly in
Australia.
Another early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary of a
person's personal life combining text, digital video, and digital pictures transmitted
live from a wearable computer and EyeTap device to a web site in 1994. This
practice of semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was
referred to as sousveillance, and such journals were also used as evidence in legal
matters. Some early bloggers, such as The Misanthropic Bitch, who began in
1997, referred to their online presence as a zine, before the term blog entered
common usage.
The first research paper about blogging was Torill Mortensen and Jill Walker
Rettberg's paper "Blogging Thoughts", which analysed how blogs were being used
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to foster research communities and the exchange of ideas and scholarship, and
how this new means of networking overturns traditional power structures.

• Technology
Early blogs were simply manually updated components of common Websites. In
1995, the "Online Diary" on the Ty, Inc. Web site was produced and updated
manually before any blogging programs were available. Posts were made to
appear in reverse chronological order by manually updating text-based HTML
code using FTP software in real time several times a day. To users, this offered the
appearance of a live diary that contained multiple new entries per day. At the
beginning of each new day, new diary entries were manually coded into a new
HTML file, and at the start of each month, diary entries were archived into their
own folder, which contained a separate HTML page for every day of the month.
Then, menus that contained links to the most recent diary entry were updated
manually throughout the site. This text-based method of organizing thousands of
files served as a springboard to define future blogging styles that were captured by
blogging software developed years later.

• Rise in popularity
After a slow start, blogging rapidly gained in popularity. Blog usage spread during
1999 and the years following, being further popularized by the near-simultaneous
arrival of the first hosted blog tools:
>launched Open Diary in October 1998, which soon grew to thousands of online
diaries. Open Diary innovated the reader comment, becoming the first blog
community where readers could add comments to other writers' blog entries.
>Brad Fitzpatrick starteBruce Ablesond LiveJournal in March 1999.
>Andrew Smales created Pitas.com in July 1999 as an easier alternative to
maintaining a "news page" on a Web site, followed by DiaryLand in September
1999, focusing more on a personal diary community.
>Blogger (blogspot.com) was launched in 1999

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• Political impact

On December 6, 2002, Josh Marshall's talkingpointsmemo.com blog called

attention to U.S. Senator Lott's comments regarding Senator Thurmond. Senator
Lott was eventually to resign his Senate leadership position over the matter.
An early milestone in the rise in importance of blogs came in 2002, when many
bloggers focused on comments by U.S. Senate Majority Leader Trent Lott.
Senator Lott, at a party honoring U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond, praised Senator
Thurmond by suggesting that the United States would have been better off had
Thurmond been elected president. Lott's critics saw these comments as tacit
approval of racial segregation, a policy advocated by Thurmond's 1948
presidential campaign. This view was reinforced by documents and recorded
interviews dug up by bloggers. (See Josh Marshall's Talking Points Memo.)
Though Lott's comments were made at a public event attended by the media, no
major media organizations reported on his controversial comments until after
blogs broke the story. Blogging helped to create a political crisis that forced Lott
to step down as majority leader.

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Similarly, blogs were among the driving forces behind the "Rathergate" scandal.
Television journalist Dan Rather presented documents on the CBS show 60
Minutes that conflicted with accepted accounts of President Bush's military service
record. Bloggers declared the documents to be forgeries and presented evidence
and arguments in support of that view. Consequently, CBS apologized for what it
said were inadequate reporting techniques (see: Little Green Footballs). The
impact of these stories gave greater credibility to blogs as a medium of news
dissemination.
In Russia, some political bloggers have started to challenge the dominance of
official, overwhelmingly pro-government media. Bloggers such as Rustem
Adagamov and Alexei Navalny have many followers, and the latter's nickname for
the ruling United Russia party as the "party of crooks and thieves" has been
adopted by anti-regime protesters. This led to The Wall Street Journal calling
Navalny "the man Vladimir Putin fears most" in March 2012.

• Mainstream popularity
By 2004, the role of blogs became increasingly mainstream, as political
consultants, news services, and candidates began using them as tools for outreach
and opinion forming. Blogging was established by politicians and political
candidates to express opinions on war and other issues and cemented blogs' role as
a news source. (See Howard Dean and Wesley Clark.) Even politicians not
actively campaigning, such as the UK's Labour Party's Member of Parliament
(MP) Tom Watson, began to blog to bond with constituents. In January 2005,
Fortune magazine listed eight bloggers whom business people "could not ignore":
Peter Rojas, Xeni Jardin, Ben Trott, Mena Trott, Jonathan Schwartz, Jason
Goldman, Robert Scoble, and Jason Calacanis.
Israel was among the first national governments to set up an official blog. Under
David Saranga, the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs became active in adopting
Web 2.0 initiatives, including an official video blog and a political blog. The
Foreign Ministry also held a microblogging press conference via Twitter about its
war with Hamas, with Saranga answering questions from the public in common

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text-messaging abbreviations during a live worldwide press conference. The

questions and answers were later posted on IsraelPolitik, the country's official
political blog.
The impact of blogging on the mainstream media has also been acknowledged by
governments. In 2009, the presence of the American journalism industry had
declined to the point that several newspaper corporations were filing for
bankruptcy, resulting in less direct competition between newspapers within the
same circulation area. Discussion emerged as to whether the newspaper industry
would benefit from a stimulus package by the federal government. U.S. President
Barack Obama acknowledged the emerging influence of blogging upon society by
saying, "if the direction of the news is all blogosphere, all opinions, with no
serious fact-checking, no serious attempts to put stories in context, then what you
will end up getting is people shouting at each other across the void, but not a lot of
mutual understanding".

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>>Types of blogs

There are many different types of blogs, differing not only in the type of content,
but also in the way that content is delivered or written.

I) Personal blogs
The personal blog is an ongoing online diary or commentary written by an
individual, rather than a corporation or organization. While the vast majority of
personal blogs attract very few readers, other than the blogger's immediate family
and friends, a small number of personal blogs have become popular, to the point
that they have attracted lucrative advertising sponsorship. A tiny number of
personal bloggers have become famous, both in the online community and in the
real world.

II) Collaborative blogs or group blogs

A type of weblog in which posts are written and published by more than one
author. The majority of high-profile collaborative blogs are organised according to
a single uniting theme, such as politics, technology or advocacy. In recent years,
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the blogosphere has seen the emergence and growing popularity of more
collaborative efforts, often set up by already established bloggers wishing to pool
time and resources, both to reduce the pressure of maintaining a popular website
and to attract a larger readership.

III) Microblogging
Microblogging is the practice of posting small pieces of digital content—which
could be text, pictures, links, short videos, or other media—on the internet.
Microblogging offers a portable communication mode that feels organic and
spontaneous to many users. It has captured the public imagination, in part because
the short posts are easy to read on the go or when waiting. Friends use it to keep in
touch, business associates use it to coordinate meetings or share useful resources,
and celebrities and politicians (or their publicists) microblog about concert dates,
lectures, book releases, or tour schedules. The resulting profusion of functionality
is helping to define new possibilities for this type of communication. Examples of
these include Twitter, Facebook, Tumble and, by far the largest, Weirdo.

IV) Corporate and organizational blogs

A blog can be private, as in most cases, or it can be for business or not-for-profit
organization or government purposes. Blogs used internally and only available to
employees via an Intranet are called corporate blogs. Companies use internal

corporate blogs to enhance the communication, culture and employee engagement

in a corporation. Internal corporate blogs can be used to communicate news about
company policies or procedures, build employee esprit de corps and improve
morale. Companies and other organizations also use external, publicly accessible
blogs for marketing, branding, or public relations purposes. Some organizations
have a blog authored by their executive; in practice, many of these executive blog
posts are penned by a ghostwriter who makes posts in the style of the credited
author.

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V) Aggregated blogs
Individuals or organization may aggregate selected feeds on a specific topic,
product or service and provide a combined view for its readers. This allows
readers to concentrate on reading instead of searching for quality on-topic content
and managing subscriptions. Many such aggregations called planets from name of
Planet (software) that perform such aggregation, hosting sites usually have planet.

By genre
Some blogs focus on a particular subject, such as political blogs, journalism
blogs, health blogs, travel blogs, gardening blogs, house blogs, Book Blogs,
fashion blogs, beauty blogs, lifestyle blogs, party blogs, wedding blogs,
photography blogs, project blogs, psychology blogs, sociology blogs,
education blogs, niche blogs, classical music blogs, quizzing blogs, legal
blogs, or dream logs. How-to/Tutorial blogs are becoming increasing popular.
Two common types of genre blogs are art blogs and music blogs. A blog
featuring discussions, especially about home and family is not uncommonly
called a mom blog.

By media type

A blog comprising videos is called a vlog, one comprising links is called a

link log, a site containing a portfolio of sketches is called a sketch blog or one
comprising photos is called a photoblog. Blogs with shorter posts and mixed
media types are called tumblelogs. Blogs that are written on typewriters and
then scanned are called typecast or typecast blogs. A rare type of blog hosted
on the Gopher Protocol is known as a phlox.
By device
A blog can also be defined by which type of device is used to compose it. A blog
written by a mobile device like a mobile phone or PDA could be called a
moblog. One early blog was Wearable Wireless Webcam, an online shared diary
of a person's personal life combining text, video, and pictures transmitted live
from a wearable computer and EyeTap device to a web site. This practice of
semi-automated blogging with live video together with text was referred to as
sousveillance. Such journals have been used as evidence in legal matters.
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VI) Reverse blog

A reverse blog is composed by its users rather than a single blogger. This system
has the characteristics of a blog and the writing of several authors. These can be
written by several contributing authors on a topic or opened up for anyone to
write. There is typically some limit to the number of entries to keep it from
operating like a web forum.

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• Community and cataloging

An artist's depiction of the interconnections between blogs and blog authors in the
"blogosphere" in 2007
Blogosphere
The collective community of all blogs and blog authors, particularly notable
and widely read blogs, is known as the blogosphere. Since all blogs are on the
internet by definition, they may be seen as interconnected and socially
networked, through blogrolls, comments, linkbacks (refbacks, trackbacks or
pingbacks), and backlinks. Discussions "in the blogosphere" were
occasionally used by the media as a gauge of public opinion on various issues.
Because new, untapped communities of bloggers and their readers can emerge
in the space of a few years, Internet marketers pay close attention to "trends in
the blogosphere".

Blog search engines

Several blog search engines have been used to search blog contents, such as
Bloglines (defunct), BlogScope (defunct), and Technorati (defunct).

Blogging communities and directories

Several online communities exist that connect people to blogs and bloggers to
other bloggers. Interest-specific blogging platforms are also available. For
instance, Blogster has a sizable community of political bloggers among its
members. Global Voices aggregates international bloggers, "with emphasis on
voices that are not ordinarily heard in international mainstream media."[40]
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Blogging and advertising

It is common for blogs to feature banner advertisements or promotional
content, either to financially benefit the blogger, support website hosting
costs, or to promote the blogger's favourite causes or products. The popularity
of blogs has also given rise to "fake blogs" in which a company will create a
fictional blog as a marketing tool to promote a product.

As the popularity of blogging continued to rise (as of 2006), the commercialisation

of blogging is rapidly increasing. In the book Fans, Bloggers, and Gamers, Henry
Jenkins stated that "Bloggers take knowledge into their own hands, enabling
successful navigation within and between these emerging knowledge cultures.
One can see such behaviour as co-optation into commodity culture insofar as it
sometimes collaborates with corporate interests, but one can also see it as
increasing the diversity of media culture, providing opportunities for greater
inclusiveness, and making more responsive to consumers."

Early popularity
➢ Before 2006: The blogdex project was launched by researchers in the MIT
Media Lab to crawl the Web and gather data from thousands of blogs to
investigate their social properties. Information was gathered by the tool for over
four years, during which it autonomously tracked the most contagious information
spreading in the blog community, ranking it by recency and popularity. It can,
therefore, be considered the first instantiation of a memetracker.

➢ 2006: Blogs are given rankings by Alexa Internet (web hits of Alexa Toolbar
users), and formerly by blog search engine Technorati based on the number of
incoming links (Technorati stopped doing this in 2014). In August 2006,
Technorati found that the most linked-to blog on the internet was that of Chinese
actress Xu Jinglei. Chinese media Xinhua reported that this blog received more
than 50 million page views, claiming it to be the most popular blog in the world at
the time.[better source needed] Technorati rated Boing Boing to be the most-read
group-written blog.

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➢ 2008: As of 2008, blogging had "become such a mania that a new blog was
created every second of every minute of every hour of every day" .Researchers
have actively analyzed the dynamics of how blogs become popular. There are
essentially two measures of this: popularity through citations, as well as popularity
through affiliation (i.e., blogroll). The basic conclusion from studies of the
structure of blogs is that while it takes time for a blog to become popular through
blogrolls, permalinks can boost popularity more quickly and are perhaps more
indicative of popularity and authority than blogrolls since they denote that people
are reading the blog's content and deem it valuable or noteworthy in specific cases.

Blurring with the mass media

Many bloggers, particularly those engaged in participatory journalism, are amateur
journalists, and thus they differentiate themselves from the professional reporters
and editors who work in mainstream media organizations. Other bloggers are
media professionals who are publishing online, rather than via a TV station or
newspaper, either as an add-on to a traditional media presence or as their sole
journalistic output. Some institutions and organizations see blogging as a means of
"getting around the filter" of media "gatekeepers" and pushing their messages
directly to the public. Many mainstream journalists, meanwhile, write their own
blogs—well over 300, according to CyberJournalist.net's J-blog list. The first
known use of a blog on a news site was in August 1998, when Jonathan Dube of
The Charlotte Observer published one chronicling Hurricane Bonnie.
Some bloggers have moved over to other media. The following bloggers (and
others) have appeared on radio and television: Duncan Black (known widely by
his pseudonym, Atrios). In counterpoint, Hugh Hewitt exemplifies a mass media
personality who has moved in the other direction, adding to his reach in "old
media" by being an influential blogger.
Blogs have also had an influence on minority languages, bringing together
scattered speakers and learners; this is particularly so with blogs in Gaelic
languages. Minority language publishing (which may lack economic feasibility)
can find its audience through inexpensive blogging. There are examples of
bloggers who have published books based on their blogs.

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Consumer-generated advertising
Consumer-generated advertising is a relatively new and controversial
development, and it has created a new model of marketing communication from
businesses to consumers. Among the various forms of advertising on blog, the
most controversial are the sponsored posts. These are blog entries or posts and
may be in the form of feedback, reviews, opinion, videos, etc. and usually contain
a link back to the desired site using a keyword or several keywords. Blogs have
led to some disintermediation and a breakdown of the traditional advertising
model, where companies can skip over the advertising agencies (previously the
only interface with the customer) and contact the customers directly via social
media websites. On the other hand, new companies specialised in blog advertising
have been established to take advantage of this new development as well.
However, there are many people who look negatively on this new development.
Some believe that any form of commercial activity on blogs will destroy the
blogosphere's credibility.

Legal and social consequences

Blogging can result in a range of legal liabilities and other unforeseen
consequences.

Defamation or liability
Several cases have been brought before the national courts against bloggers
concerning issues of defamation or liability. U.S. payouts related to blogging
totalled $17.4 million by 2009; in some cases these have been covered by
umbrella insurance. The courts have returned with mixed verdicts. Internet Service
Providers (ISPs), in general, are immune from liability for information that
originates with third part. In a bizarre twist, the Cahills were able to obtain the
identity of John Doe, who turned out to be the person they suspected: the town's
mayor, Councilman Cahill's political rival. The Cahills amended their original
complaint, and the mayor settled the case rather than going to trial.

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In January 2007, two prominent Malaysian political bloggers, Jeff Ooi and
Ahirudin Attan, were sued by a pro-government newspaper, The New Straits
Times Press (Malaysia) Berhad, Kalimullah bin Masheerul Hassan, Hishamuddin
bin Aun and Brenden John a/l John Pereira over alleged defamation. The plaintiff
was supported by the Malaysian government. Following the suit, the Malaysian
government proposed to "register" all bloggers in Malaysia to better control
parties against their interests. This is the first such legal case against bloggers in
the country. In the United States, blogger Aaron Wall was sued by Traffic Power
for defamation and publication of trade secrets in 2005. According to Wired
magazine, Traffic Power had been "banned from Google for allegedly rigging
search engine results." Wall and other "white hat" search engine optimization
consultants had exposed Traffic Power in what they claim was an effort to protect
the public. The case was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction, and Traffic
Power failed to appeal within the allowed time.
In 2009, NDTV issued a legal notice to Indian blogger Kunte for a blog post
criticizing their coverage of the Mumbai attacks. The blogger unconditionally
withdrew his post, which resulted in several Indian bloggers criticizing NDTV for
trying to silence critics.

• Employment
Employees who blog about elements of their place of employment can begin to
affect the reputation of their employer, either in a positive way, if the employee is
praising the employer and its workplaces, or in a negative way, if the blogger is
making negative comments about the company or its practices.
In general, attempts by employee bloggers to protect themselves by maintaining
anonymity have proved ineffective. In 2009, a controversial and landmark
decision by The Hon. Mr Justice Eady refused to grant an order to protect the
anonymity of Richard Horton. Horton was a police officer in the United Kingdom
who blogged about his job under the name "NightJack".
Delta Air Lines fired flight attendant Ellen Simonetti because she posted
photographs of herself in uniform on an aeroplane and because of comments

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posted on her blog "Queen of Sky: Diary of a Flight Attendant" which the
employer deemed inappropriate. This case highlighted the issue of personal
blogging and freedom of expression versus employer rights and responsibilities,
and so it received wide media attention. Simonetti took legal action against the
airline for "wrongful termination, defamation of character and lost future wages".
The suit was postponed while Delta was in bankruptcy proceedings.
In early 2006, Erik Ringmar, a senior lecturer at the London School of Economics,
was ordered by the convenor of his department to "take down and destroy" his
blog in which he discussed the quality of education at the school.
Mark Jen was terminated in 2005 after 10 days of employment as an assistant
product manager at Google for discussing corporate secrets on his personal blog,
then called 99zeros and hosted on the Google-owned Blogger service. He blogged
about unreleased products and company finances a week before the company's
earnings announcement. He was fired two days after he complied with his
employer's request to remove the sensitive material from his blog.
In India, blogger Gaurav Sabnis resigned from IBM after his posts questioned the
claims made by a management school. Jessica Cutler, aka "The Washingtonienne",
blogged about her sex life while employed as a congressional assistant. After the
blog was discovered and she was fired, she wrote a novel based on her experiences
and blog: The Washingtonienne: A Novel. As of 2006, Cutler is being sued by one
of her former lovers in a case that could establish the extent to which bloggers are
obligated to protect the privacy of their real life associates.
Catherine Sanderson, a.k.a. Petite Anglaise, lost her job in Paris at a British
accountancy firm because of blogging. Although given in the blog in a fairly
anonymous manner, some of the descriptions of the firm and some of its people
were less than flattering. Sanderson later won a compensation claim case against
the British firm, however.
On the other hand, Penelope Trunk wrote an upbeat article in The Boston Globe in
2006, entitled "Blogs 'essential' to a good career". She was one of the first
journalists to point out that a large portion of bloggers are professionals and that a
well-written blog can help attract employers.

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• Business owners
Business owners who blog about their business can also run into legal
consequences. Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks, was fined during the
2006 NBA playoffs for criticizing NBA officials on the court and in his blog.
• Political dangers
Blogging can sometimes have unforeseen consequences in politically sensitive
areas. In some countries, Internet police or secret police may monitor blogs and
arrest blog authors or commentators. Blogs can be much harder to control than
broadcast or print media because a person can create a blog whose authorship is
hard to trace by using anonymity technology such as Tor. As a result, totalitarian
and authoritarian regimes often seek to suppress blogs and punish those who
maintain them.
In Singapore, two ethnic Chinese individuals were imprisoned under the country's
anti-sedition law for posting anti-Muslim remarks in their blogs. It is the first time
in the history of Egypt that a blogger was prosecuted. After a brief trial session
that took place in Alexandria, the blogger was found guilty and sentenced to
prison terms of three years for insulting Islam and inciting sedition and one year
for insulting Mubarak .

• Personal safety
One consequence of blogging is the possibility of online or in-person attacks or
threats against the blogger, sometimes without apparent reason. In some cases,
bloggers have faced cyberbullying. Kathy Sierra, author of the blog "Creating
Passionate Users",was the target of threats and misogynistic insults to the point
that she cancelled her keynote speech at a technology conference in San Diego,
fearing for her safety. While a blogger's anonymity is often tenuous, Internet trolls
who would attack a blogger with threats or insults can be emboldened by the
anonymity of the online environment, where some users are known only by a
pseudonymous "username" (e.g., "Hacker1984").

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Search engine

For a search provider, its engine is part of a distributed computing system that can
encompass many data centers throughout the world. The speed A search engine is
a software system that provides hyperlinks to web pages and other relevant
information on the Web in response to a user's query. The user inputs a query
within a web browser or a mobile app, and the search results are often a list of
hyperlinks, accompanied by textual summaries and images. Users also have the
option of limiting the search to a specific type of results, such as images, videos,
or news and accuracy of an engine's response to a query is based on a complex
system of indexing that is continuously updated by automated web crawlers. This
can include data mining the files and databases stored on web servers, but some
content is not accessible to crawlers.
There have been many search engines since the dawn of the Web in the 1990s, but
Google Search became the dominant one in the 2000s and has remained so. It
currently has a 90% global market share. Other search engines with a smaller
market share include Bing at 4%, Yandex at 2%, and Yahoo at 1%. Other search
engines not listed have less than a 3% market shareThe business of websites
improving their visibility in search results, known as marketing and optimization,
has thus largely focused on Google.

>History
Timeline (full list)
Year Engine Current status
W3Catalog Inactive
ALIWEB Inactive
1993
JumpStation Inactive
WWW Worm Inactive
1994 WebCrawler Active
Go.com Inactive, redirects to Disney

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Year Engine Current status

Lycos Active
Infoseek Inactive, redirects to Disney
Yahoo! Search Active, initially a search function for Yahoo! Directory
Daum Active
Search.ch Active
1995 Magellan Inactive
Excite Active
MetaCrawler Active
AltaVista Inactive, acquired by Yahoo! in 2003, since 2013 redirects to Yahoo!
RankDex Inactive, incorporated into Baidu in 2000
Dogpile Active
1996
HotBot Inactive (used Inktomi search technology)
Ask Jeeves Active (rebranded ask.com)
AOL NetFind Active (rebranded AOL Search since 1999)
goo.ne.jp Active
1997
Northern Light Inactive
Yandex Active
Google Active
Ixquick Active as Startpage.com
1998
MSN Search Active as Bing
empas Inactive (merged with NATE)
AlltheWeb Inactive (URL redirected to Yahoo!)
GenieKnows Inactive, rebranded Yellowee (was redirecting to justlocalbusiness.com)
1999
Naver Active
Teoma Inactive (redirect to Ask.com)
Baidu Active
2000 Exalead Inactive
Gigablast Inactive
2001 Kartoo Inactive
2003 Info.com Active
A9.com Inactive
Clusty Inactive (redirect to DuckDuckGo)
2004
Mojeek Active
Sogou Active
SearchMe Inactive
2005
KidzSearch Active, Google Search

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Year Engine Current status

Soso Inactive, merged with Sogou
Quaero Inactive
Search.com Active
2006
ChaCha Inactive
Ask.com Active
Live Search Active as Bing, rebranded MSN Search
wikiseek Inactive
Sproose Inactive
2007
Wikia Search Inactive
Blackle.com Active, Google Search
Powerset Inactive (redirects to Bing)
Picollator Inactive
Viewzi Inactive
Boogami Inactive
2008
LeapFish Inactive
Forestle Inactive (redirects to Ecosia)
DuckDuckGo Active
TinEye Active
Bing Active, rebranded Live Search
Yebol Inactive
Scout (Goby) Active
2009
NATE Active
Ecosia Active
Startpage.com Active, sister engine of Ixquick
Blekko Inactive, sold to IBM
2010 Cuil Inactive
Yandex (English) Active
Parsijoo Active
2011 YaCy Active, P2P
2012 Volunia Inactive
2013 Qwant Active
Egerin Active, Kurdish / Sorani
2014 Swisscows Active
Searx Active
Yooz Inactive
2015
Cliqz Inactive

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Year Engine Current status

2016 Kiddle Active, Google Search
2017 Presearch Active
2018 Kagi Active
2020 Petal Active
Brave Search Active
2021 Queye Active
You.com Active

>Pre-1990s
In 1945, Vannevar Bush described an information retrieval system that would
allow a user to access a great expanse of information, all at a single desk. He
called it a memex. He described the system in an article titled "As We May Think"
that was published in The Atlantic Monthly.The memex was intended to give a
user the capability to overcome the ever-increasing difficulty of locating
information in ever-growing centralized indices of scientific work. Vannevar Bush
envisioned libraries of research with connected annotations, which are similar to
modern hyperlinks.
Link analysis eventually became a crucial component of search engines through
algorithms such as Hyper Search and PageRank.

>1990s: Birth of search engines

The first internet search engines predate the debut of the Web in December 1990:
WHOIS user search dates back to 1982, and the Knowbot Information Service
multi-network user search was first implemented in 1989. The first well
documented search engine that searched content files, namely FTP files, was
Archie, which debuted on 10 September 1990.
Prior to September 1993, the World Wide Web was entirely indexed by hand.
There was a list of webservers edited by Tim Berners-Lee and hosted on the
CERN webserver. One snapshot of the list in 1992 remains,[11] but as more and
more web servers went online the central list could no longer keep up. On the
NCSA site, new servers were announced under the title "What's New!".

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The first tool used for searching content (as opposed to users) on the Internet was
Archie. The name stands for "archive" without the "v". It was created by Alan
Emtage, computer science student at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec,
Canada. The program downloaded the directory listings of all the files located on
public anonymous FTP (File Transfer Protocol) sites, creating a searchable
database of file names; however, Archie Search Engine did not index the contents
of these sites since the amount of data was so limited it could be readily searched
manually.
The rise of Gopher (created in 1991 by Mark McCahill at the University of
Minnesota) led to two new search programs, Veronica and Jughead. Like Archie,
they searched the file names and titles stored in Gopher index systems. Veronica
(Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computerized Archives) provided
a keyword search of most Gopher menu titles in the entire Gopher listings.
Jughead (Jonzy's Universal Gopher Hierarchy Excavation And Display) was a tool
for obtaining menu information from specific Gopher servers. While the name of
the search engine "Archie Search Engine" was not a reference to the Archie comic
book series, "Veronica" and "Jughead" are characters in the series, thus
referencing their predecessor.
In the summer of 1993, no search engine existed for the web, though numerous
specialized catalogs were maintained by hand. Oscar Nierstrasz at the University
of Geneva wrote a series of Perl scripts that periodically mirrored these pages and
rewrote them into a standard format. This formed the basis for W3Catalog, the
web's first primitive search engine, released on September 2, 1993.
In June 1993, Matthew Gray, then at MIT, produced what was probably the first
web robot, the Perl-based World Wide Web Wanderer, and used it to generate an
index called "Wandex". The purpose of the Wanderer was to measure the size of
the World Wide Web, which it did until late 1995. The web's second search engine
Aliweb appeared in November 1993. Aliweb did not use a web robot, but instead
depended on being notified by website administrators of the existence at each site
of an index file in a particular format.

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JumpStation (created in December 1993 by Jonathon Fletcher) used a web robot to

find web pages and to build its index, and used a web form as the interface to its
query program. It was thus the first WWW resource-discovery tool to combine the
three essential features of a web search engine (crawling, indexing, and searching)
as described below. Because of the limited resources available on the platform it
ran on, its indexing and hence searching were limited to the titles and headings
found in the web pages the crawler encountered.
One of the first "all text" crawler-based search engines was WebCrawler, which
came out in 1994. Unlike its predecessors, it allowed users to search for any word
in any web page, which has become the standard for all major search engines
since. It was also the search engine that was widely known by the public. Also, in
1994, Lycos (which started at Carnegie Mellon University) was launched and
became a major commercial endeavor.
The first popular search engine on the Web was Yahoo! Search. The first product
from Yahoo!, founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994, was a Web
directory called Yahoo! Directory. In 1995, a search function was added, allowing
users to search Yahoo! Directory It became one of the most popular ways for
people to find web pages of interest, but its search function operated on its web
directory, rather than its full-text copies of web pages.
Soon after, a number of search engines appeared and vied for popularity. These
included Magellan, Excite, Infoseek, Inktomi, Northern Light, and AltaVista.
Information seekers could also browse the directory instead of doing a keyword-
based search.
In 1996, Robin Li developed the RankDex site-scoring algorithm for search
engines results page ranking and received a US patent for the technology. It was
the first search engine that used hyperlinks to measure the quality of websites it
was indexing, predating the very similar algorithm patent filed by Google two
years later in 1998. Larry Page referenced Li's work in some of his U.S. patents
for PageRank. Li later used his Rankdex technology for the Baidu search engine,
which was founded by him in China and launched in 2000.

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In 1996, Netscape was looking to give a single search engine an exclusive deal as
the featured search engine on Netscape's web browser. There was so much interest
that instead, Netscape struck deals with five of the major search engines: for $5
million a year, each search engine would be in rotation on the Netscape search
engine page. The five engines were Yahoo!, Magellan, Lycos, Infoseek, and
Excite.
Google adopted the idea of selling search terms in 1998 from a small search
engine company named goto.com. This move had a significant effect on the search
engine business, which went from struggling to one of the most profitable
businesses in the Internet.[citation needed]
Search engines were also known as some of the brightest stars in the Internet
investing frenzy that occurred in the late 1990s. Several companies entered the
market spectacularly, receiving record gains during their initial public offerings.
Some have taken down their public search engine and are marketing enterprise-
only editions, such as Northern Light. Many search engine companies were caught
up in the dot-com bubble, a speculation-driven market boom that peaked in March
2000.

>2000s–present: Post dot-com bubble

Around 2000, Google's search engine rose to prominence. The company achieved
better results for many searches with an algorithm called PageRank, as was
explained in the paper Anatomy of a Search Engine written by Sergey Brin and
Larry Page, the later founders of Google. This iterative algorithm ranks web pages
based on the number and PageRank of other web sites and pages that link there, on
the premise that good or desirable pages are linked to more than others. Larry
Page's patent for PageRank cites Robin Li's earlier RankDex patent as an
influence. Google also maintained a minimalist interface to its search engine. In
contrast, many of its competitors embedded a search engine in a web portal. In
fact, the Google search engine became so popular that spoof engines emerged such
as Mystery Seeker.
By 2000, Yahoo! was providing search services based on Inktomi's search engine.
Yahoo! acquired Inktomi in 2002, and Overture (which owned AlltheWeb and

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AltaVista) in 2003. Yahoo! switched to Google's search engine until 2004, when it
launched its own search engine based on the combined technologies of its
acquisitions.
Microsoft first launched MSN Search in the fall of 1998 using search results from
Inktomi. In early 1999, the site began to display listings from Looksmart, blended
with results from Inktomi. For a short time in 1999, MSN Search used results from
AltaVista instead. In 2004, Microsoft began a transition to its own search
technology, powered by its own web crawler (called msnbot).
Microsoft's rebranded search engineBing, was launched on June 1, 2009. On July
29, 2009, Yahoo! and Microsoft finalized a deal in which Yahoo! Search would be
powered by Microsoft Bing technology.

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Correct posture for typing

Here are some tips for proper typing posture:

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• Posture: Keep your back and neck straight, feet flat on the ground, and wrists
neutral.
• Elbows: Elbows should be at a 90–110° angle. If your elbows are closed, the
keyboard may be too close. If your arms are straight out, you may be too far away.
• Monitor: Position your monitor so the top is at eye level.
• Keyboard: Position your keyboard directly in front of you and aligned with your
monitor.
• Wrist: Keep your hands over the keyboard in a neutral position. You can also
stretch your fingers, hands, and forearms before and after typing.
• Chair and desk: Adjust your chair and desk height so that your keyboard is at the
right height.
• Accessories: Use ergonomic typing accessories.

Poor typing posture can lead to chronic pain, headaches, and overuse injuries like
carpal tunnel syndrome.

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Touch typing technique

Some techniques for touch typing include:

• Finger placement: Place your fingers on the home row, which is the middle row
of the keyboard. The home row for the left hand is the asdf keys, and the home
row for the right hand is the jkl; keys.
• Use all ten fingers: Use all ten fingers to type quickly and accurately.
• Maintain good posture: Sit up straight with your elbows at a 90 degree angle or
wider and your wrists as straight as possible.
• Avoid looking at the keyboard: Try not to look at the keyboard while typing.
• Focus on accuracy: Focus on accuracy first, and speed will follow.
• Practice: Practice regularly to build muscle memory and improve your speed and
accuracy.
• Track your progress: Use typing speed tests and accuracy assessments to
measure your progress and set goals.
• You can learn touch typing through software programs and online tutorials. These
programs use exercises, games, and interactive lessons to teach you proper finger
placement and typing techniques.
• Touch typing can be a valuable skill for technology, computing, and
communications. It can also have health benefits, such as reducing strain on your
hands, wrists, and shoulders.

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Chart
A chart is a graphical representation of data. Visualizing data through charts helps
to uncover patterns, trends, relationships, and structure in data.

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Types of chart
1.Area chart
Area charts can be used to plot change over time and draw attention to
the total value across a trend. By showing the sum of the plotted
values, an area chart also shows the relationship of parts to a whole

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2. Column chart
A column chart is a data visualization where each category is represented by a
rectangle, with the height of the rectangle being proportional to the values being
plotted. Column charts are also known as vertical bar charts.

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3. Bar chart
A bar chart is a graphical representation used to display and compare discrete
categories of data through rectangular bars, where the length or height of each bar
is proportional to the frequency or value of the corresponding category.

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4. Pie chart
A pie chart is a type of graph that represents the data in the circular graph. The
slices of pie show the relative size of the data, and it is a type of pictorial
representation of data. A pie chart requires a list of categorical variables and
numerical variables.

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5. Dounut chart
A donut chart is a type of pie chart that features a hole in the center, similar to a
donut. Donut charts present categories in the form of arcs instead of slices.

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6. XY(scatter) Chart
A XY (scatter) chart, commonly referred to as a scatter plot, is a graphical
representation used to explain the relationship between two continuous variables
within a dataset

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7. Net chart
A net chart is a graphical representation of a network topology, which shows a set
of items connected by lines based on peer relationships.

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What is computer?

A computer is an electronic device that can store and process data, and produce
information based on a set of instructions:

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characteristics of a computer

Speed: Computers can perform millions of calculations per second.

Accuracy: Computers are capable of performing operations and computations
with a high degree of exactness.
Storage capacity: Computers have a large storage capacity.
Automation: Computers can be programmed to operate automatically.
Versatility: Computers are versatile machines.
Reliability: Computers are reliable machines.
Memory: Computers have some form of memory.
Data bus: Computers have a data bus that allows them to input and output data.
Sensors: Many computers have sensors that allow them to input data from their
environment.

Strengths of computer
* Ability to learn and adapt through artificial intelligence and machine learning
* High-speed processing and data transmission
* Ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously
* Ability to interact with humans through user interfaces and voice assistants

weakness of computer

* zero IQ
* lack of decision making
* computer can not decide their own

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ICT
Information and communications technology (ICT) is an extensional term for
information technology that stresses the role of unified communications and the
integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals) and
computers, as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage.

IMPACT OF ICT

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have had many impacts on

society, including:
Improved communication
ICT has made it easier to communicate with people around the world through
email, social networks
Increased access to services
ICT has made it easier to access services and information through mobile devices,
such as banking transactions and online shopping.
Enhanced education
ICT has improved learning through online tutorials, distance learning, and other
methods. Students can also use ICT to share content and collaborate with each
other
Economic growth
ICT has helped the economy grow by making it easier for people to interact and
work more productively
Social benefits
ICT has made it easier to meet new people, build friendships, and learn about
different cultures

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ICT tools
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools are hardware and
software resources that allow users to store, manage, and communicate
information. Some examples of ICT tools include:
Computers: Laptops, desktops, and other computers
Software: Google Meet, Google Spreadsheets, Microsoft Office PowerPoint
Devices: Tablets, smartphones, and other devices
Projectors: Overhead projectors and other projectors that can display images on a
screen
Social media: WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, and Twitter
Online tools: Google Classroom, which allows teachers to set assignments, collect
student work, and grade papers
Other tools: Video conferencing, email, blogs, and the internet

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Role of ICT
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is important for businesses,
society, and education:

Business
ICT can help businesses improve their efficiency, competitiveness, and customer
service. ICT tools like cloud computing, data analytics, and telecommunication
systems can help businesses streamline processes, reduce costs, and improve
productivity. ICT can also help businesses adapt to changing market dynamics and
consumer preferences
Society
ICT has led to broad shifts in society, with more people moving from face-to-face
interactions to digital interactions. This new era is often called the digital age.
Education
ICT tools like multimedia presentations, videos, and online educational resources
can help students learn in more engaging ways. ICT can also help students access
educational resources from anywhere in the world, and learn at their own pace.

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Importance of ICT

ICT enables organizations to enhance their operational efficiency, foster

innovation, and improve competitiveness in the market. By leveraging ICT tools
like cloud computing, data analytics, and telecommunication systems, businesses
can streamline their processes and deliver enhanced services to customers

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