Table content Topics. Page Logic and meaning. 1 Intension and Extension of Terms, 2 Definition and Purpose. 3 ‘Techniques of Definition, 4 Lexical Rule. 5 Logic and meaningPhilosophy of language is the reasoned inquiry into the origins of language, nature of meaning, the usage and cognition of language and the relationship between language and reality. Itis an Important discipline in its own right and hence, it poses questions like “what is meaning?”,” how does language refer to the world? “and etc. Language is a body of standard meanings of words and the form of speech used as a means of expressing the feeling, emotion, desire, thought etc. in 2 consistent pattern of communication. Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein thought that the number of functions of language to be virtually unlimited. Language can be used in every aspects of everyday life. ie. “To form hypothesis ~ Give command + Argue with others ~Tell jokes For our purpose, two linguistic functions of language are particularly important:(i) to convey information ( i) to express feelings ‘+ Terminology that conveys information is said to have cognitive meaning. * Terminology that expresses feeling is said to have emotive meaning. Logic is concerned chiefly with cognitive meaning. While, emotive meanings encompasses value claim. Value claim is that something is good, bad right, wrong, better, worse, more important, less important than some other thing. For purpose of logic, we must be able to disengage the value claims of emotively charged statements. In arguments, emotive terminology accomplishes basically the same function as it does in statements. Definition Hf we consider cognitive meaning specifically from emotive meaning, two defectives may raise Namely they are vagueness and ambiguity. ‘Avague expression: is one that allows for borderline cases in which itis impossible to tell the expression applies or does not apply. Trouble arises only when the language is not sufficiently precise for what the situation demands. ‘An ambiguous expression: is one that can be interpreted as having more than one clearly distinct meaning in given context. It can affect entire statement. Such ambiguity and vagueness is that vague terminology allows for a relatively continuous range of interpretations. A vague Due to those blurred and mixed up expressions a conflict may occurred. The role of vagueness and ambiguity in arguments may be conveniently explored in the context of conflicting arguments between individuals. Such conflicts are called disputes. Disputes are generally classified into two. Namely * Verbal disputes : are disputes from vagueness or ambiguity of words. + Factual dispute : are disputes from given fact. The Intension and Extension of TermsAterm is any word or arrangement of words that may serve as the subject of the statement. Terms consists of proper names, common names and descriptive phrases. Here are some examples; - Proper names: Napoleon, North Dakota etc. - Common names: Animal, restitution, activity... etc. + Descriptive phrases: President of CBE, Captain of St, George.. etc. Words that are not terms include verbs, non-substantive adjectives, adverbs, propositions, conjunctions, and all non-syntactic arrangements of words. Itis important to- distinguish the use of, word from the mention of a word, without this distinction any word can be imagined to serve as the subject of a statement and, therefore count asa term, Words are unusually considered to be symbols and the entities they symbolized are usually called meaning. Terms being made of words, are also symbols, but the meaning they symbolize are of two kinds. The Intensional meaning: consists of the qualities or attributes the term connotes. ‘The Extensional meaning: consists of the members of the class that the term denotes. For instance, the intension of the tern “ cat “ consists of the attributes of being furry, of having four legs, of moving in a certain way, of emitting certain sounds and so on. And the extension consists if the cats themselves, all the cats in the universe, Intention and Extension are roughly equivalent to the modern terms “sense” and “reference” respectively. Because of subjective elements inevitably lead to confusion when it comes to identifying the connotation of specific terms, logicians typically restrict the meaning of connotation to what may be called conventional connotation. The conventional connotation of aterm consists of the properties or attributes that the term remains more or less the same from person to person and from time totime. The denotation of a term also typically remains the sane form person to person, but it may change with passage of time. Sometimes the denotation of a term can change radically with the passage oftime. Accordingly, these terms at specific time have what is called empty extension. ‘The intensional meaning of a term serve as the criterion for deciding what the extension consists of. One kind of term that raises problems for the intension determine the extension rule is proper names. For example, the name “John” might not appear to have any intension, but it denotes the person who has this name. The possible solution for such like intensional meaning problems is Proper names consists of the casual chain of events leading from the point at which certain person learns about the name, Aseries of terms maybe either increasing or decreasing in meaning if it arranged in such order. Increasing intension meaning is the same as decreasing extension. Increasing intension is connoting more attribute than the previous, while decreasing extension the opposite one. Example: animal, mammal, primate, homo, Decreasing intensional meaning is to mean increasing extension. Each term in the series denotes a class having more members than the preceding term. Example: homo, primate, mammal, animal. Definition and Purpose Refinition means a group of words that assigns a meaning to some word or a groups of word.© Ithas two parts: Definiendum and Definies * Definiendum is group of word that is supposed to be defined. 4 Definies is a group of words that does the defining. For Example: “Bachelor” is defined as Unmarried man. The word "Bachelor" is definiendum and Unmarried man is Definies. % Based on function (usage) they have definition is classified in to five 1 Stipulative definition 4 Assigns a meaning to word for first time Its assignment is arbitrary (random) and has no truth value(true er false Caused by new phenomena and development Itused to simplify complex expression Itused to set new secret code. For Example: “operation sunset"Ethio_Eritrea war in (1998). 2.laxical Definition (reportive Definition) ++ tt > Itreport the meaning of words actually exist in dictionary. > It provides dictionary meaning of terms > It hastruth value > Itisimportant to avoid ambiguity by listing various meaning of word that have. For example: “Prime number" Number divisible by 1 and itsef. 3.precising Definition > Itmake a vague term more precise, often for specific purpose. 4 Reduce blurredness of words 4 Aword used in systematic context such as science, medicine, Mathematics, law are. Precising Definition For example, “Antique” means atleast 100 years old 4.Theorical Definition ¥ Assigns a meaning to word by suggesting theory that gives a certain characterization thas no truth value ¥ Helpin general understanding and scientific practice For example: “light” is form electromagnetic radiation 5.Persuasive Definition + Endanger favorable or unfavourable attitude toward what is denoted by Definiendum + Htused to win acceptance of audience < 1" Itused to change attitude of audience + Topersuade listeners " Tostiremation "= For Example:"Federalism’is s political intrigue that provides legitimate ground For emergence of new regional warlord’. chniques Of DefinitionExtensional Definition: assign meaning to a term by indicating a member. There are many ways of indicating extensional meaning of a term. 1.Demonstrative(ostensive) Definition-It uses pointing as a technique to define terms. Example 2.Enumerative Definition-assign meaning by naming partial or complete member of class. Example 3.Definition by sub class -Assign a meaning to a term by naming subclass of class. "Chair" means &This this and & this by pointing. "Actor" means person such as Mahder Asefa, Samson Taddese... Example. "Fiction" means poem, a novel, short story... intentional (connatative} Definitional Technique ‘The intentional Definition-assign meaning by indicating the quality or attributes of term. Synonymous Definition -define with other similar word. Example-"Observe" means see. 2.£tymological meaning-assign meaning by disclosing the word ancestry. Example-"License" means derived from Latin word which means permitted. 3.0perational Definition-assign a meaning by specifying certain experimental procedure, Example- a solution is an “acid” if and only if litmus paper turned red when dipped into it. 4.Definition by genus and difference -assign a meaning by identifying species genus and difference. Example-"Ice“means Species Difference Genus ee frozen water Itis the most effective way from all intentional definition. Criteria for lexical definition Itis appropriate that we have a set of rule to construct our own lexical definition and to evaluate others. Those rules specifically intended for lexical definition, Rule 1: 4 lexical definition should conform to the standards of proper grammar. - A definition like any other form of expression, should be grammatically correct.Rule 2: lexical definition should convey the essential meaning of the word being defined. - If we defined the word “stone” as type of substance it says nothingabout the “stone” specific features rather the word “stone” defined as ; hard solid non metallic minerals matter of which stone is made Rule 3: lexical definition should be neither too broad nor too narrow. - _ Hfadefinition istoo broad, the definiens include too much f it is too narrow, the efiniens includes too little. Only synonymous definition and definition by genus and difference prone to this daficiency. Rule 4: A lexical definition should not be circular + Sometimes circularity appears with pairs of definitions. However, sometimes definition maybe intrinsically circular. - Example: “ silence “ means the state of being silent Rule 5: lexical definition should not be negative when it can be affirmative. - To be definitions paulisable, the definition should be affirmative as possible Example: “ Equilibrium “ is absence of unbalanced forces. (less paulisable ) ~ Equilibrium “is a state of balanced influence. (more paulisable ) Rule 6: lexical definition should not be, expressed in figurative, obscure, vague, or ambiguous language + Adefinition is figurative ifit involves metaphors or intended to paint a picture instead of exposing the essential meaning of aterm + Adefinition is obscure fits meaning is hiddenas a result of defective or inappropriate language + Adefinition is vague if it lacks precision o meaning is blurred that is, there is no way of telling exactly what class of things the definition refers to. - Adefinition is ambiguous ifit lends # seif to more than one distinct interpretation. Rule 7: lexical definition should avoid affective terminology - Affective terminology is any kind of word usage that plays upon emotions of the reader or listener. Rule 8: A lexical definition should indicate the context to which the context of the definiens pertains. + This rule applies to any definition in which the context of the definiens is important to the meaning of the definiendum.