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Apology
references the play in his defense to illustrate that the jury
INTR
INTRODUCTION
ODUCTION might be biased against him, since he upholds that
Aristophanes’ representation of him is entirely inaccurate.
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF PLATO After all, he says, he does not accept money from people in
Plato’s father Ariston descended from Codrus, the last King of exchange for knowledge, and—in any case—doesn’t even think
Athens, and his mother Perictione had ties to Solon, one of the he knows enough to be a teacher in the first place. On another
creators of the Athenian Constitution. Plato planned a political note, it’s worth considering Plato’s other dialogues that
career until 404 BC, when Athens shifted to an Oligarchy concern Socrates, namely EuthEuthyphr
yphroo, Crito
Crito, Meno
Meno, and Phaedo
Phaedo,
controlled by wealthy men. After democracy was restored in all of which showcase Socrates’s practice of dialectical
403 BC, Plato again considered politics until Socrates, Plato’s questioning—the very practice that leads to his trial in Apology.
mentor, was accused of impiety and corruption and
subsequently put to death in 399 BC. Responding to this gross
KEY FACTS
display of injustice, Plato abandoned politics for philosophy. He
ultimately produced a volume of work that has heavily • Full Title: Apology
influenced western thought and provided the world with a • Where Written: Ancient Greece
record not only of his own philosophical thoughts, but also • When Published: Sometime in the decade proceeding
historical documentation of Socrates’s influential years in Socrates’s trial in 399 BC.
Athens. Concerned with justice, beauty, and equality, he
• Literary Period: Ancient Greek Philosophy
influenced many important thinkers by founding the Academy,
a philosophy school where Aristotle was a student for twenty • Genre: Philosophy, Philosophical Dialogue, Fiction
years before establishing his own institution when Plato died in • Setting: Athens, Greece in 399 BC
348 or 347 BC. • Climax: Having made his defense, Socrates is sentenced to
death.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT • Antagonist: Meletus
After Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War in 404 • Point of View: Although Socrates speaks in the first-person
BC, Spartans overtook the city and installed an oppressive for the vast majority of Apology, the document is technically
oligarchy made up of thirty men. This group became known as presented as a dialogic transcript.
“the Thirty” or “the Thirty Tyrants,” quickly gaining notoriety for
their violent ways, as they killed 1,500 Athenians during their EXTRA CREDIT
short nine-month rule. In his apologia, Socrates references the Socrates & Democracy. Experts debate whether or not
Thirty, explaining that they “summoned” him and four other Socrates believed in democracy, since he disparages the system
Athenians and ordered them to capture a well-known Athenian in Plato’s The Republic but apparently respects it in Apology.
general and bring him to “the Hall” to be executed. Because his Citing the fact that Plato—who was himself deeply critical of
“whole concern is not to do anything unjust or impious,” though, democracy—wrote The Republic long after Socrates died, many
Socrates refused to capture the general, instead going home uphold that the text is not an accurate reflection of the man’s
while the other four Athenians carried out the task. “I might political beliefs, ultimately suggesting that Socrates’ attitude
have been put to death for this, had not the government fallen toward democracy in Apology is probably the more authentic
shortly afterwards,” Socrates says, referencing the fact that the portrayal of his views.
Thirty Tyrants were overthrown within the year by Athenian
rebels who restored the city’s democratic system. Socrates
Influence on Christianity. In addition to Aristotle, Plato taught
uses this as an example of his unwillingness to undermine his
people like Plotinus and Proclus, Neoplatonists who developed
values.
his ideas and eventually laid the groundwork for early Christian
thinkers like Saint Augustine.
RELATED LITERARY WORKS
Early in his apologia (or defense), Socrates mentions a play
called The Clouds by Aristophanes. Produced in 423 BC, this PL
PLO
OT SUMMARY
was a satirical play that parodied Sophists and intellectuals in
Plato’s Apology—a transliteration of the Ancient Greek word
Athens, specifically singling out Socrates as a greedy and
apologia, meaning “defense”—is supposedly a historical record
fraudulent teacher who manipulated rich people. Socrates

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of the speech Socrates gave to the Athenian jury after being think I know what I do not know.”
accused of “corrupting the young and of not believing in the Still addressing the jury, Socrates tells his listeners that he
gods in whom the city believes.” Socrates begins his apologia by decided to visit other supposedly wise men, hoping to find
commenting on how his accusers have spoken about him. “I do someone truly knowledgeable. Going to the city’s most well-
not know, men of Athens, how my accusers affected you; as for respected poets, though, Socrates was disappointed to
me, I was almost carried away in spite of myself, so persuasively discover that they, too, were not truly wise, though they
did they speak,” he begins. However, he notes, these thought highly of themselves and believed wholeheartedly in
accusers—who include Meletus and Anytus—have not spoken their own intelligence. At this point, Socrates visited the city’s
the truth. Indeed, Socrates insists that although his detractors craftsmen. “They knew things I did not know,” he says, “and to
have warned the jury about his cunning rhetorical trickery, he is that extent they were wiser than I. But, men of Athens, the
not an accomplished orator. In fact, he asks the jury to excuse good craftsmen seemed to me to have the same fault as the
his manner of speaking, since he is seventy years old and has poets: each of them, because of his success at his craft, thought
never appeared in court. As such, he says, he has decided to himself very wise in other most important pursuits, and this
speak as he normally does, using simple, straightforward error of theirs overshadowed the wisdom they had, so that I
language. asked myself, on behalf of the oracle, whether I should prefer to
Socrates says many people have spoken ill of him over the be as I am, with neither their wisdom nor their ignorance, or to
years, and so he decides to address their accusations first. He have both. The answer I gave myself and the oracle was that it
fears this slander more than he fears what Meletus and Anytus was to my advantage to be as I am.”
have said about him, since his unknown accusers have been Since then, Socrates says, he has been working to spread the
working for a long time to “persuade” the people of Athens to Delphic oracle’s message that human wisdom is “worthless.” To
distrust him. “They spoke to you at an age when you would do this, he has continued to travel throughout Athens and
most readily believe them, some of you being children and unveil the ignorance of men who are supposedly wise. In doing
adolescents, and they won their case by default, as there was so, though, he has gained an unfavorable reputation, one that
no defense,” Socrates says. Nevertheless, he says he will defend frames him as impious and philosophically contrarian, though
himself against these slanderous remarks, beginning by he’s only working in service of the Delphic oracle (and, thus, the
refuting the idea that he has “busie[d] himself studying things in god Apollo). This, he upholds, is why he has been accused of
the sky and below the earth” and spreading these problematic “corrupting the young.”
ideas throughout Athens.
Having addressed these accusations made by unnamed
To this end, he makes it clear that he is not a Sophist detractors, Socrates turns his attention to the claims made by
(intellectuals in ancient Greece who taught philosophy to the Meletus and Anytus—namely, that he is “guilty of corrupting
sons of rich men in exchange for large amounts of money). the young and of not believing in the gods in whom the city
Unlike the Sophists, Socrates has never accepted money for his believes, but in other new spiritual things.” Speaking directly to
teachings, for he believes he doesn’t possess the “knowledge” Meletus, he begins to question the man about the specifics of
necessary to do such a thing. To that end, he upholds that he these accusations, asking if he can name anyone in particular
merely has “human wisdom.” He then says that his friend, who “improve[s]” the youth of Athens. In response, Meletus
Chaerephon, traveled to Delphi and asked the oracle if there is says that everyone—the jury, the assembly, etc.—improves the
anyone wiser than Socrates, and the oracle told him there isn’t. youth; everyone, that is, except Socrates. As such, he states that
When Socrates himself heard this, he explains, he was deeply Socrates “alone corrupt[s] them.” To this Socrates says, “Tell me:
confused, since he understands that he is not truly wise. does this also apply to horses, do you think? Or is quite the
Wanting to test the Delphic oracle’s assertion, Socrates visited contrary true, one individual is able to improve them, or very
a man he considered wiser than himself. After speaking to him, few, namely, the horse breeders, whereas the majority, if they
though, he realized the man was not as knowledgeable as he have horses and use them, corrupt them? Is that not the case,
believed. “I thought that he appeared wise to many people and Meletus, both with horses and all other animals?” Going on, he
especially to himself, but he was not,” Socrates says, explaining says that if he himself “make[s] one of [his] associates wicked,”
that he then decided to help this man understand his own he himself “run[s] the risk of being harmed by him.” As such, he
ignorance. Unsurprisingly, this upset the man, as well as a posits that if he does “corrupt the young,” he must do so
handful of bystanders who were listening to the conversation. unwillingly. And if this is the case, then it follows that Meletus
As Socrates walked away, he thought to himself, “I am wiser should not be punishing him but rather teaching him to
than this man; it is likely that neither of us knows anything improve.
worthwhile, but he thinks he knows something when he does Focusing now on Meletus’s claim that he does not believe in
not, whereas when I do not know, neither do I think I know; so I gods, Socrates again questions him about the nature of his
am likely to be wiser than he to this small extent, that I do not accusations. Although Meletus says Socrates doesn’t believe in

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gods at all, he concedes that he thinks Socrates believes in and Emphasizing the fact that he has only tried to help his fellow
teaches “spiritual things.” This, Socrates points out, is a Athenians remain moral, he asks his listeners to make sure they
contradiction, since Meletus eventually admits that spirits are hold his sons accountable if they ever become greedy or
“either gods or the children of gods.” As such, if Socrates foolish. “Reproach them as I reproach you,” he says. “If you do
believes in “spiritual things,” then he must also believe in gods. this, I shall have been justly treated by you, and my sons also.”
In this way, Socrates shows the jury that Meletus is accusing Having said all this, Socrates acknowledges that the hour of his
him of not believing in gods while simultaneously asserting that death has come. “I go to die, you go to live,” he says. “Which of
he does believe in gods. Having unearthed these us goes to the better lot is known to no one, except the god.”
inconsistencies, Socrates suggests that his accusers don’t
actually care about corruption and piety. Rather, they simply
want to slander him. CHARA
CHARACTERS
CTERS
Next, Socrates considers the fact that he might be sentenced to
death. This, he asserts, doesn’t bother him, since he doesn’t MAJOR CHARACTERS
know what death is like. Assuming death is a bad thing would be Socr
Socrates
ates – A philosopher living in Athens, Greece in the fourth
a presumption of wisdom, he says. “To fear death, gentlemen, is century BC and the primary speaker in Apology. A clever thinker
no other than to think oneself wise when one is not, to think and shrewd conversationalist, Socrates is known for
one knows what one does not know,” he upholds. As a result, encouraging people to carefully scrutinize their beliefs. By
he’d rather maintain his values and face the possibility of death. asking a series of simple questions, he often tricks his
If the jury acquits him, he says, he will continue to behave as he interlocutors into unwittingly contradicting themselves,
always has, even if they ask him to refrain from speaking about thereby revealing the flaws in their thinking. Unsurprisingly,
wisdom and belief. “I think there is no greater blessing for the this practice has gained him a number of enemies, which is why
city than my service to god,” he says, adding that he’s delivering he is on trial in Apology. Defending himself against accusations
this defense not for his own sake, but for the jury members of impiety and corruption made by Meletus, Anytus, Lycon, and
themselves—since he knows that if they execute him, they’ll be a number of unidentified Athenians, Socrates delivers his
acting immorally. apologia—or defense—by examining the contradictions that
Before finishing his initial defense, Socrates informs the jury exist in his detractors’ logic. He upholds that the Delphic oracle
that he will not beg for innocence, nor will he call upon has stated that no one is wiser than he is, explaining that this is
witnesses to testify on his behalf. This, he explains, is because simply because he understands—unlike the city’s other wise
he respects the judicial system too much to demean it with men—that he only has “human wisdom,” which is “worthless.”
such hysterics. Because of this, he has tried to convince his fellow Athenians to
embrace their own ignorance rather than pretending to
The jury convenes and concludes that Socrates is guilty, and
understand things they don’t actually grasp. As a result, he has
Meletus “asks for the penalty of death.” At this point, Socrates is
been brought to court, where he refuses to placate his
allowed to address the jury to advocate for whatever
accusers. Indeed, Socrates is a man with a strong sense of moral
punishment he thinks he deserves. However, he remains
integrity, meaning that he’s unwilling to tell the jurors what
unfazed by the guilty verdict, pointing out that it was a very
they need to hear in order to find him innocent. Rather, he
narrow vote. He then says that, since he has done nothing but
simply explains why his detractors have slandered him, insisting
help his fellow Athenians by acting on behalf of the Delphic
that the only reason he is defending himself is because he
oracle, he believes he should be rewarded. At the same time,
wants to help the jurors avoid wading into immorality by
though, he knows the jury will disagree with this, so he suggests
executing him. However, the jury ends up sentencing him to
that he should have to pay a fine, since money means nothing to
death, and though he disagrees with the verdict, he admits that
him anyway. However, he has dedicated his life to spreading
he isn’t afraid of death, since it is an unknown. As such, he
knowledge free of charge, meaning that he lives in poverty. As
accepts his fate, merely warning the jurors that they’re acting
such, he says that his friends, Crito, Critobulus, and
against the gods by executing him.
Apollodorus, have agreed to pay a fine of thirty minas on his
behalf. Meletus – Socrates’s most outspoken accuser. There is very
little historical record concerning Meletus, other than what
After another vote, the jury sentences Socrates to death.
Socrates himself says in Plato’s writings. Given that Socrates
Socrates says they will soon regret their decision, since people
says Meletus is “vexed” at him “on behalf of the poets,” it is
who want to “denigrate” Athens will surely condemn the city for
reasonable to assume that he is a poet, though it’s worth noting
killing a wise man. However, he says he has no qualms about
that—despite what this profession might imply about his
how he has defended himself, asserting that he was convicted
linguistic or intellectual abilities—Socrates easily uncovers his
because he refused to tell the jury what they wanted to hear or
ineloquent command of language and reason. Although there is
to debase himself through “lamentations and tears.”

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no document of the actual speech, Meletus delivers remarks in since he is the one who wrote it out and preserved it. One of
court outlining Socrates’s supposed offenses—remarks to history’s most important writers, Plato is mentioned twice in
which Socrates responds during his apologia. Accusing him of Socrates’ defense—once when Socrates lists the men who
impiety and corruption of the youth, Meletus acts as the would gladly testify on his behalf, and once when he explains
spokesperson for Anytus, Lycon, and a number of unnamed that Plato—along with Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus—has
Athenians who dislike Socrates. In the end, it is Meletus who offered to lend him money so he can pay a fine of “thirty minas”
urges the jury to give Socrates the death sentence. as a penalty.
An
Anytus
ytus – One of Socrates’s accusers, along with Meletus and
Lycon. Socrates says that Anytus is “vexed” with him “on behalf MINOR CHARACTERS
of the craftsmen and the politicians.” According to the historical Lycon – One of Socrates’s accusers, along with Meletus and
record, Anytus was an Athenian politician who fought as a Anytus. Socrates says that Lycon is “vexed” with him “on behalf
general in the Peloponnesian War, though neither of these of the orators.” Other than this statement, Socrates does not
details surface in Plato’s Apology. At one point during his mention Lycon again during his apologia.
apologia, Socrates references a remark Anytus apparently made
Chaerephon – One of Socrates’s friends “from youth.” Socrates
earlier in the trial—namely, that the jury has no choice but to
explains in his apologia that Chaerephon is an “impulsive” man
execute Socrates, now that he has been brought to court. “For if
who visited the oracle at Delphi and asked if there is anyone
I should be acquitted,” Socrates says, outlining Anytus’ opinion,
wiser than Socrates. When the Pythian responded by telling
“your sons would practice the teachings of Socrates and all be
him there isn’t, he then relayed this information to Socrates
thoroughly corrupted.”
himself.
The Delphic Or Oracle
acle – A priestess known as the “Pythian,”
Critobulus – Crito’s son, and one of the Athenians—along with
whom the god Apollo uses to communicate directly to humans
Apollodorus, Plato, and many others—who believe in Socrates’s
at a shrine in Delphi (an area the Greeks believed to be the
innocence. When Socrates is found guilty, Critobulus offers to
center of the world). During his apologia, Socrates explains that
lend him money so that he can set the penalty at “thirty minas.”
his friend, Chaerephon, traveled to Delphi and asked the
Pythian if anyone is wiser than Socrates. In response, the Apollodorus – One of Socrates’s friends and “demesmen” (or
Delphic oracle informed him that there is, in fact, no one wiser member of the same township). Like Crito, Critobulus, and
than Socrates, a message Chaerephon then relayed to Socrates Plato, Apollodorus offers to lend Socrates money so that he can
himself. Upon hearing this, Socrates was quite confused, since pay a fine of “thirty minas” as a penalty.
he knows he isn’t wise. As such, he decided to test the Pythian’s Aristophanes – A playwright in Ancient Greece who wrote The
claim by going around and speaking to the wisest Athenians he Clouds, a play that includes a caricature of Socrates as a
knows. Before long, he discovered that these men are not wise, dishonest teacher. During his apologia, Socrates uses The Clouds
but only think they are. In this way, he explains to the jury, he is to illustrate the fact that his fellow Athenians have been
wiser than these people, since he does not “think he knows unfairly predisposed to distrust him.
something when he does not.” After coming upon this
Leon from Salamis – An Athenian general during the
realization, Socrates tells the jury, he set out to encourage his
Peloponnesian War.
fellow Athenians to recognize their own ignorance, believing
that he was “assisting” Apollo by spreading this important idea.
However, people like Meletus and Anytus took issue with this THEMES
message, which is why they called Socrates to court.
Crito – One of Socrates’s friends and “demesmen” (or member In LitCharts literature guides, each theme gets its own color-
of the same township), and the father of Critobulus. During his coded icon. These icons make it easy to track where the themes
apologia, Socrates refutes the claim that he has corrupted the occur most prominently throughout the work. If you don't have
Athenian youth. In doing so, he suggests that Crito—who a color printer, you can still use the icons to track themes in
knows him well and is present at the trial—would surely stand black and white.
up and speak honestly if he believed that Socrates had harmed
his son. After the jury finds Socrates guilty, he has an WISDOM, PIETY, AND BELIEF
opportunity to ask for a specific punishment. Since he has no In Plato’s Apology, Socrates upholds that true
money, he says that Crito, Critobulus, Apollodorus, and wisdom involves acknowledging one’s own
Plato—all good friends of his—have offered to lend him money ignorance. Although his detractors have brought
so that he can set the penalty at a fine of “thirty minas.” him to court because they believe he’s using his aptitude for
Plato – A philosopher, and one of Socrates’s disciples. It is critical inquiry to destabilize the city’s conventional structures
because of Plato that Socrates’s apologia has survived at all, of belief, he argues that “the god at Delphi” has shown him that

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“human wisdom is worthless,” a message he is now trying to to go through the city and prove to the supposedly wisest men
spread throughout the community. Unfortunately, though, that they are not, in fact, very wise. In turn, it’s easy to see why
when Socrates tries to impress this upon his fellow Athenians, his accusers have interpreted his contrarian spirit as a
they think he’s advocating for a completely different set of challenge to the community’s structures of belief.
beliefs. In reality, he’s trying to help them better understand the Because Socrates sets out to show his fellow Athenians their
things they already believe in, but this is lost on them because own ignorance, they assume he is challenging their firmly
they assume that any new perspective poses a threat to their established beliefs, when in reality he is only challenging their
strongly held religious and moral worldviews. As such, Socrates vanity. Indeed, he believes there is value in recognizing one’s
demonstrates how reluctant people are to embrace new ways own ignorance. “What is probable, gentlemen,” he says to the
of thinking, especially when those new ways of thinking require jury, “is that in fact the god is wise and that his oracular
humility, intellectual inquiry, and genuine self-reflection. response meant that human wisdom is worth little or nothing.”
Not long after beginning his apologia (or defense), Socrates says Rather than trying to convince his fellow citizens to embrace
that powerful men like Meletus think he has used his entirely new worldviews, he simply encourages them to admit
philosopher’s knowledge to spread confusion. This, Socrates the fact that “human wisdom” is by nature faulty and flawed. It’s
assures the jury, is not true, as he claims to “know nothing at all” worth noting that this is in fact a very pious opinion, since
about anything that might challenge the conventional systems Socrates is saying that only gods can possesses a valuable kind
of belief that prevail throughout Athens. Playing devil’s of wisdom. “So even now I continue this investigation as the god
advocate to himself, he continues by saying, “One of you might bade me,” he continues, “and I go around seeking out anyone,
perhaps interrupt me and say: ‘But Socrates, what is your citizen or stranger, whom I think wise. Then if I do not think he
occupation? From where have these slanders come? For surely is, I come to the assistance of the god and show him that he is
if you did not busy yourself with something out of the common, not wise.” By outlining the fact that he wants to “assist” the
all these rumors and talk would not have arisen unless you did Delphic god, Socrates upholds that his views—which his
something other than most people.’” This is an important accusers find challenging and, thus, impious—are actually quite
moment, as Socrates highlights the fact that his accusers are religious.
concerned about whether or not he has done “something other Far from disputing the structures of belief upon which
than most people.” Simply put, people like Meletus are troubled Athenians place so much importance, then, Socrates’s
by the mere idea that a person might act as an individual seemingly critical viewpoints are fueled by a desire to piously
thinker. As such, they are wary of the fact that Socrates is a carry out a religious mission that would, if embraced city-wide,
philosopher, since this means his job is to question the ways in only bring Athenians closer to the kind of intellectual and
which people perceive the world. religious enlightenment they claim to believe in so ardently.
In a cunning rhetorical move, Socrates acknowledges that his Unfortunately, the jury proves itself incapable of embracing
worldview is indeed “out of the common,” but he does this as a Socrates’s ideas, thereby proving that humans are often too set
way of refuting the idea that he holds alternative religious in their ways to accept new perspectives—even when those
beliefs (an important point, since one of the accusations against perspectives ultimately seek to reinforce their own beliefs.
him is that he’s impious). Indeed, he tells the jury that “the god
at Delphi” told his friend, Chaerephon, that no man is wiser MORAL INTEGRITY
than him (Socrates). Wanting to “investigate” this claim,
Socrates believes so strongly in preserving his
Socrates visited a man he knew to be much wiser than himself,
moral standards that he’s willing to sacrifice his
but after listening to him speak, was startled to find that this
own safety and wellbeing on their behalf. Although
man wasn’t actually very knowledgeable at all. “I thought that
the jury threatens him with the death penalty, he refuses to
he appeared wise to many people and especially to himself, but
betray his values, instead using his unfortunate situation as an
he was not,” Socrates explains to the jury. “I then tried to show
opportunity to teach others the importance of moral integrity.
him that he thought himself wise, but that he was not. As a
In turn, he demonstrates his unfailing confidence in the way he
result he came to dislike me, and so did many of the bystanders.
lives his life. After all, he has been brought to court in the first
So I withdrew and thought to myself: ‘I am wiser than this man;
place because he isn’t afraid to voice unpopular opinions that
it is likely that neither of us knows anything worthwhile, but he
challenge his fellow Athenians. As such, it would be out of step
thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas when I
with his entire mode of being if he were to suddenly undermine
do not know, neither do I think I know […] I do not think I know
his moral certitude by absolving himself and telling the jury
what I do not know.” Socrates’s willingness to embrace his own
what it wants to hear. What’s more, when he argues that he
ignorance is precisely what makes him the wisest man in
shouldn’t be sentenced to death, he doesn’t do so for his own
Athens. Ironically, though, this self-reflexivity actually does
benefit—for that would go against his values—but rather for
render his worldview “out of the common,” as it encourages him
the benefit of all Athenians, saying that he is delivering his

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defense because he doesn’t want the jury to commit an Socrates’s commitment to improving society becomes all the
immoral and harmful act by executing him. In this way, he not more apparent when he suggests that he’s only defending
only demonstrates his integrity, but also forces the jury to himself to preserve the jury’s moral integrity. “I am far from
reckon with its own duty to set forth an unflawed model of making a defense now on my own behalf, as might be thought,
justice. By making this argument, he proves that true moral but on yours,” he says, “to prevent you from wrongdoing by
integrity means acting ethically not only as an individual, but mistreating the god’s gift to you by condemning me; for if you
also as a member of society. kill me you will not easily find another like me.” Going on, he
Socrates makes it overwhelmingly clear in his defense that he implies that Athenians need someone who will challenge them
will not betray his values. Although the accusations made to improve like he himself has challenged them. Indeed,
against him by Meletus and Anytus put him in grave danger, he Socrates cares so strongly about the welfare of his fellow
refuses to accept the idea that he has behaved immorally by Athenians that he is willing to risk his own life and reputation in
encouraging Athenians to question their ways. In other words, order to help them see their own flaws, and this is something
even under threat of death, he acts according to his moral very few people are prepared to do.
compass. “This is the truth of the matter, Men of Athens: As such, Socrates sacrifices himself for the very people who
wherever a man has taken a position that he believes to be best, now seek to punish him, seeing his trial not as an opportunity to
or has been placed by his commander, there he must I think save himself, but as an opportunity to teach the jury the value
remain and face danger without a thought for death or of moral integrity. This is why he calls no witnesses to testify on
anything else, rather than disgrace,” he says. Although he goes his behalf, nor does he break down in tears and apologize for
on to reference several military battles, it’s worth considering his actions. In the name of teaching the jury important moral
his idea of being “placed” in a certain position by a “commander.” lessons, he says, “It is not difficult to avoid death, gentleman: it
In this case, this “commander” is no doubt the god at Delphi, is much more difficult to avoid wickedness.” Indeed, this
whose insight about the nature of wisdom Socrates has spread “wickedness” is what Socrates has tried so hard to help his
throughout Athens. Indeed, Socrates believes that “there is no community members avoid, a selfless effort that—above
greater blessing for the city than [his] service to the god”—a all—underlines the importance of contributing to society’s
service he renders by enlightening his fellow Athenians despite overall morality, even when this means standing in opposition
the fact that people like Meletus and Anytus want to execute to the community’s prevailing beliefs or practices.
him for doing so. Death, Socrates argues, is not something a
person should think about when considering the most moral or RHETORIC, PERSUASION, AND THE
virtuous way to act. As such, he does not apologize in court for TRUTH
his actions, thereby proving the strength of his moral integrity.
Although Socrates is quite convincing in his
Not only does Socrates insist that the threat of death will not apologia, he insists that he is not using rhetorical
make him recant his ways, he also upholds that he will continue
trickery to deceive the jury. Rather, he simply follows each
to enforce his values if the jury acquits him. He explains
accusation to its logical conclusion, which often contradicts
Anytus’s belief that, now that Socrates has been brought to
some previously established assertion. By questioning Meletus
court, the jury “cannot avoid executing” him. “For if I should be
and forcing him to grapple with the incongruities that exist
acquitted,” he says, “your sons would practice the teachings of
within his arguments, Socrates uses a simple form of dialectical
Socrates and all be thoroughly corrupted.” This, it seems, is one
rhetoric that ultimately advocates for the unadorned pursuit of
of his accusers’ greatest fears: that he will “corrupt” the youth.
honesty and truth. Indeed, rather than using complex modes of
However, Socrates believes so adamantly in the morality of his
persuasion, he straightforwardly thinks through each line of
“teachings” that he refuses to give them up under any
thought in order to assess its veracity. At the same time,
circumstances.
though, this is in and of itself a clever rhetorical move, as
To illustrate this point, he says, “If you said to me in this regard: Socrates’s seemingly unassuming investigations invariably
‘Socrates, we do not believe Anytus now; we acquit you, but confound Meletus and reveal his deceitfulness. And yet, unlike
only on condition that you spend no more time on this his detractors, Socrates has no ulterior motives, meaning that
investigation and do not practice philosophy […] I would say to his rhetorical calculations are in the service of a greater good,
you: ‘Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I which has only to do with uncovering the truth. In turn,
will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath Socrates implies that the only truly rhetorically sound—and
and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy […].” This, just—argument is that which genuinely strives to find the truth.
Socrates insists, is because he believes his ideas benefit society,
Socrates begins his defense by calling attention to the manner
and though his detractors disagree, nothing—except, perhaps, a
in which his accusers use language and rhetoric. “I do not know,
divine sign to the contrary—will stop him from rendering this
men of Athens, how my accusers affected you: as for me, I was
service to the community.
almost carried away in spite of myself, so persuasively did they

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speak,” he says. This attention to language is exactly the kind of does not believe in spirits?” When Meletus answers by saying
observation he is accustomed to making, as he has made a no man can believe in “spiritual activities” without believing in
name for himself by traveling through Athens and forcing spirits, Socrates says, “Now you say that I believe in spiritual
supposedly wise men to apply a higher level of scrutiny to their things and teach about them […] But if I believe in spiritual
own thoughts and words. When he says that he “was almost things I must quite inevitably believe in spirts.” Going on, he
carried away in spite of” himself, he addresses the fact that gets Meletus to admit that Athenians commonly consider
skilled speakers can often convince listeners to forget their “spirits to be either gods or the children of gods.” “Then since I
own beliefs. Even Socrates—who has ample reason to disagree do believe in spirits, as you admit, if spirits are gods, this is what
with what Meletus and his other accusers have said—can’t help I mean when I say you speak in riddles and in jest, as you state
but get swept up in the dizzying logic of his detractors’ that I do not believe in gods and then again that I do, since I do
statements. believe in spirits,” Socrates adds, ultimately revealing the
Interestingly enough, he points out, this is exactly the kind of contradictions embedded in Meletus’s claims.
confounding rhetorical finesse of which he himself stands Furthermore, Socrates also finds a contradiction in Meletus’s
accused. “Of the many lies they told, one in particular surprised statement that he (Socrates) corrupts the youth of Athens.
me,” Socrates says to the jury, “namely that you should be “[Meletus] says that I am guilty of corrupting the young, but I
careful not to be deceived by an accomplished speaker like me.” say that [he] is guilty of dealing frivolously with serious matters,
In this moment, Socrates intimates that Meletus and his cronies of irresponsibly bringing people into court, and of professing to
are themselves guilty of using persuasive techniques to trick be seriously concerned with things about none of which he has
people into getting “carried away in spite of [themselves].” In ever cared,” Socrates says. In this this way, he once again
turn, Socrates begins his defense by highlighting the inherent shames Meletus for setting forth flawed arguments aimed not
hypocrisy of his accusers and their manipulative ways. at finding the truth of a matter, but at disseminating slander.
In order to establish that he—unlike his accusers—doesn’t use Whereas Socrates himself only uses persuasive techniques in
complex rhetorical devices to confound or deceive his order to help his interlocutors better understand their own
interlocutors, Socrates makes a point of clarifying the nature of viewpoints, Meletus employs faulty rhetoric for ignoble
his persuasive skills. To that end, he says it is false that he is an purposes. And considering that Socrates’s arguments remain
“accomplished speaker,” expressing his surprise at the fact that the only ones that are both persuasive and logically sound, it’s
his accusers don’t mind being proved wrong by his simple way easy to see that the only solid form of rhetoric is that which
of addressing the jury. “That [my accusers] were not ashamed concerns itself first and foremost with uplifting the truth.
to be immediately proved wrong by the facts, when I show
myself not to be an accomplished speaker at all, that I thought DEMOCRACY, JUDGMENT, AND JUSTICE
was most shameless on their part—unless indeed they call an In his apologia, Socrates suggests that the
accomplished speaker the man who speaks the truth.” It’s truth—along with the Athenian judicial
critical to note that Socrates calls his accusers “shameless” for system—ought not to be denigrated by deceit and
not minding that they will be “proved wrong by the facts.” By frivolity. However, he also suggests that “a man who really
saying this, he implies that any argument that can be falsified fights for justice must lead a private, not a public life.” This is
this easily is something that should bring shame and dishonor because he believes it’s nearly impossible to “survive” as an
to a person. In turn, his listeners—and Plato’s readers—are honest person while participating in public affairs, thereby
forced to consider that the apparent persuasiveness of his hinting at the fact that, though he respects the importance of
accusers’ arguments has nothing to do with the veracity of their the surrounding democratic institutions, he doesn’t think
claims. “From me you will hear the whole truth, though not […] Athens has succeeded thus far in holding itself to its own
expressed in embroidered and stylized phrases like theirs,” standards. Nonetheless, he abides by the jury’s conviction,
Socrates adds, suggesting that his accusers use rhetorical ultimately demonstrating his willingness to adhere to the
techniques that have nothing to do with “truth” and everything current judicial system despite its many flaws. In this way,
to do with “style.” Socrates proves that it’s possible to be staunchly critical of
At certain points in his defense, Socrates addresses Meletus something and nevertheless believe in it. In fact, his actions hint
directly, asking him a series of questions in order to uncover at the fact that criticism and disagreement are actually
the flaws in his arguments. For example, he addresses the fact indications of just how much a person cares about something,
that Meletus has accused him of not believing in the gods “in since only those who are truly committed to a certain
whom the city believes,” asking Meletus to clarify whether or worldview or institution are willing to take the time to examine
not he thinks Socrates doesn’t “believe in gods at all.” In it thoughtfully.
response, Meletus confirms that this is what he means, and so When Socrates first begins his defense, he makes a point of
Socrates asks, “Does any man believe in spiritual activities who addressing the jury as the “men of Athens.” In doing so, he

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reminds his listeners not only that they are his fellow citizens, fellow Athenians are running the democracy, but he isn’t
but that they have been assembled to determine what’s best necessarily critical of democracy itself. Simply put, his criticism
for their polis, Athens. To understand the significance of the can actually be read as an indication that he wants this mode of
jurors’ duty to Athens itself, it’s helpful to consider editor John governance to succeed.
M. Cooper’s footnote, which appears at the beginning of In Apology, Socrates does not hesitate to express his doubts
Socrates’s defense in Hackett Publishing’s 2002 version of the about the current state of affairs, and this is the exact kind of
text. “Jurors were selected by lot from all the male citizens thinking that led to his trial in the first place, since he refuses to
thirty years of age or older who offered themselves on the shy away from criticizing what he sees as imperfect. As such, he
given day for service,” Cooper writes. “They thus functioned as now voices his opinion that the present political climate is unfit
representatives of the Athenian people and the Athenian for honest individuals. Explaining why he has neglected
democracy. In cases like Socrates’, they judged on behalf of the throughout his life to accept a role as an orator or other official,
whole citizen body whether or not their interests had been he says, “A man who really fights for justice must lead a private,
undermined by the accused’s behavior.” In light of this, it makes not a public, life if he is to survive for even a short time.” Going
sense that Socrates goes out of his way to remind the jurors on, he says that honesty is incompatible with the way public
that they are representatives of “the Athenian people,” since officials are expected to behave. “Do you think I would have
this is a subtle way of encouraging them to consider the fact survived all these years if I were engaged in public affairs and,
that they are the backbone of the city’s democratic system. acting as a good man must, came to the help of justice and
After all, democracy is a mode of governance that allows for considered this the most important thing?” he asks. “Far from it,
disagreement and free thinking. As such, Socrates frames his men of Athens, nor would any other man.” By saying this, he
attempt to challenge the city’s most complacent intellectuals as asserts that the men currently running the polis do not
nothing more than a free-thinking effort to improve consider justice “the most important thing.”
Athens—something the jurors should understand, since they
In this way, Socrates maintains that Athens is corrupt and
themselves are also presumably working to maintain a healthy
failing to live up to its potential as a just and honest democracy.
democracy.
And yet, he still has no qualms about accepting the jury’s
Just before Socrates receives the death penalty, he explains conclusion to sentence him to death, thereby suggesting that
why he hasn’t called in witnesses to speak on his behalf and he respects this model of governance at least enough to abide
why he hasn’t broken into tears and apologized for his actions. by it even when he knows it is flawed. In turn, he demonstrates
Simply put, he respects the process of judgment and the pursuit that respecting something does not preclude one from
of truth too much to denigrate it by doing anything other than criticizing it, and vice versa.
honestly presenting his case. “It is not the purpose of a
juryman’s office to give justice as a favor to whoever seems
good to him, but to judge according to law, and this he has SYMBOLS
sworn to do,” he says. “We should not accustom you to perjure
yourselves, nor should you make a habit of it.” In this moment, Symbols appear in teal text throughout the Summary and
Socrates acknowledges that using emotionally manipulative Analysis sections of this LitChart.
tactics may very well have made it easier for him to escape this
trial unharmed. However, he believes that doing this would not
only demean himself, but put the jurors in “a habit of” going
THE GADFLY
against all that their polis stands for: justice according to the At a certain point in his defense, Socrates refers to
law. This is something he’s unwilling to do. Rather, he would himself as a gadfly as a way of representing the fact
prefer to abide by the honest assessment of the jurors—despite that his philosophical investigations are annoying but
what they may decide—because this is the only way to respect necessary to the moral health of Athens. To illustrate this point,
the system of governance in which he and his fellow Athenians he says, “I was attached to this city by the god […] as upon a
currently exist. great and noble horse which was somewhat sluggish because
of its size and needed to be stirred up by a kind of gadfly.” It’s
It's worth noting that there is much debate in the scholarly
worth noting here that although Socrates says the “horse” that
community about whether or not Socrates believed in
the gadfly “stir[s]” is “somewhat sluggish,” he also suggests that
democracy. Many uphold that he was against this mode of
it is “noble.” As such, he implies that the animal possesses great
governance because of the grave misgivings he expresses in
potential—potential that need only be reawakened. This, it
Plato’s The Republic
Republic. However, others believe these ideas
seems, is what Socrates himself does for his fellow Athenians:
belong more to Plato than to Socrates himself, since The
he “rouse[s]” their virtue by forcing them to reckon with their
Republic was written long after Socrates’s death. In Apology, on
own shortcomings. As such, they see him as a nuisance, a social
the other hand, Socrates is critical of the ways in which his
gadfly that won’t leave them alone. By presenting this

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metaphor involving the gadfly and the horse, though, Socrates
reminds the jury that his seemingly annoying behavior attention to anything else.
ultimately benefits society by forcing people to try harder to
embody virtuousness.
This is my first appearance in a lawcourt, at the age of
seventy; I am therefore simply a stranger to the manner of
QUO
QUOTES
TES speaking here. Just as if I were really a stranger, you would
Note: all page numbers for the quotes below refer to the certainly excuse me if I spoke in that dialect and manner in
Hackett edition of Plato: Five Dialogues published in 2002. which I had been brought up, so too my present request seems
a just one, for you to pay no attention to my manner of
speech—be it better or worse—but to concentrate your
Apology Quotes attention on whether what I say is just or not, for the excellence
I do not know, men of Athens, how my accusers affected of a judge lies in this, as that of a speaker lies in telling the truth.
you; as for me, I was almost carried away in spite of myself, so
persuasively did they speak. And yet, hardly anything of what Related Characters: Socrates (speaker)
they said is true. Of the many lies they told, one in particular
surprised me, namely that you should be careful not to be Related Themes:
deceived by an accomplished speaker like me. That they were
not ashamed to be immediately proved wrong by the facts, Page Number: 23
when I show myself not to be an accomplished speaker at all,
that I thought was most shameless on their part—unless indeed Explanation and Analysis
they call an accomplished speaker the man who speaks the Again, Socrates emphasizes the fact that he is
truth. If they mean that, I would agree that I am an orator, but unaccustomed to using complex or fanciful rhetorical
not after their manner, for indeed, as I say, practically nothing language. Instead, he says, he will speak in the “dialect and
they said was true. From me you will hear the whole truth, manner in which” he has been “brought up.” In turn, he
though not, by Zeus, gentlemen, expressed in embroidered and hopes the jury will not hold the simplicity of his language
stylized phrases like theirs, but things spoken at random and against him, since he is “a stranger to the manner of
expressed in the first words that come to mind, for I put my speaking” that jurors are generally accustomed to hearing in
trust in the justice of what I say, and let none of you expect court. Of course, it seems rather obvious that Socrates—a
anything else. very intelligent philosopher—is purposefully underselling
himself, since he’s most likely perfectly capable of employing
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker) the kind of language that’s customary in court.
Nevertheless, Socrates accentuates his own ignorance as a
Related Themes: way of showing the jury that he is only concerned with
telling the truth, not with speaking in riddles and
Page Number: 22 purposefully deceiving his listeners. In turn, he
underhandedly suggests that, unlike his detractors, he is
Explanation and Analysis committed to presenting himself honestly, for he believes
These are the opening words of Socrates’ apologia. Right that “the excellence” of “a speaker lies in telling the truth.”
from the beginning of his defense, then, he makes it clear to
the jurors that he is not using any kind of persuasive
trickery or complicated rhetoric. His accusers, on the other
hand, have told “many lies” about him and have used
“embroidered and stylized phrases” to mask the flaws in
their arguments. By calling attention to this kind of
deception, Socrates frames himself as a morally upstanding
and unwavering person who cares first and foremost about
pursuing honesty. This is why he has decided to use
straightforward language. Indeed, because he is telling the
truth, he doesn’t need to dress his words up; instead he puts
his “trust in the justice of what [he] says” and pays no

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What is the accusation from which arose the slander in One of you might perhaps interrupt me and say: “But
which Meletus trusted when he wrote out the charge Socrates, what is your occupation? From where have these
against me? What did they say when they slandered me? I must, slanders come? For surely if you did not busy yourself with
as if they were my actual prosecutors, read the affidavit they something out of the common, all these rumors and talk would
would have sworn. It goes something like this: Socrates is guilty not have arisen unless you did something other than most
of wrongdoing in that he busies himself studying things in the people. Tell us what it is, that we may not speak inadvisedly
sky and below the earth; he makes the worse into the stronger about you.” Anyone who says that seems to be right, and I will
argument, and he teaches these same things to others. You try to show you what has caused this reputation and slander.
have seen this yourself in the comedy of Aristophanes, a Listen then. Perhaps some of you will think I am jesting, but be
Socrates swinging about there, saying he was walking on air sure that all that I shall say is true. What has caused my
and talking a lot of other nonsense about things of which I reputation is none other than a certain kind of wisdom. What
know nothing at all. kind of wisdom? Human wisdom, perhaps.

Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), Aristophanes, Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), Meletus
Meletus
Related Themes:
Related Themes:
Page Number: 25
Page Number: 24
Explanation and Analysis
Explanation and Analysis After refuting the notion that he is a Sophist who has
In this passage, Socrates outlines the charges made against accepted money to teach the sons of rich men, Socrates
him by a number of unnamed accusers—charges that once again speaks as if he’s having a dialogue, this time
Meletus has trusted and thus brought to court alongside his asking himself where, exactly, “these slanders” have
own accusations. In his defense, Socrates chooses to originated. “For surely if you did not busy yourself with
reiterate these accusations, ultimately creating a kind of something out of the common, all these rumors and talk
dialogue within his own speech. This, it’s easy to see, would not have arisen,” he says, pretending to be one of the
enables him to proceed as he normally does when it comes jurors. By saying this, Socrates illustrates just how
to investigating the truth. In other words, by repeating the uncomfortable his fellow Athenians are with the idea of
charges made against him, he’s able to slowly and someone acting “out of the common.” In other words, he
methodically take issue with the various flaws and knows that the members of the jury are wary of people who
inaccuracies that arise once he applies intellectual pressure don’t unquestioningly conform to what Athenian society
to them. deems acceptable behavior. What’s more, Socrates
When Socrates says, “You have seen this yourself in the understands that his role as a philosopher has led him to
comedy of Aristophanes,” he is referring to a play called The interrogate the conventions that prevail in his city.
Clouds, in which he appears as a swindling, dishonest Nonetheless, he upholds that his unseemly reputation
philosophical teacher. In this representation, Socrates comes from the fact that he possesses a certain kind of
resembles the Sophists, a group of teachers who charged “human wisdom.” In turn, he implies that his fellow
large sums and taught young men how to debate. Although Athenians do not possess this “wisdom,” for if they did, they
very little writing about the Sophists survives, it seems likely wouldn’t think of him as a suspicious outlier.
that Athenians had a negative association with these
teachers, since they—or Plato, at the very least—believed
the Sophists were dishonest and manipulative. By
referencing Aristophanes’ inaccurate representation of him,
then, Socrates tries to point out that the jurors have been
unfairly biased against him.

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I went to one of those reputed wise, thinking that there, if Finally I went to the craftsmen, for I was conscious of
anywhere, I could refute the oracle and say to it: “This man knowing practically nothing, and I knew that I would find
is wiser than I, but you said I was.” Then, when I examined this that they had knowledge of many fine things. In this I was not
man—there is no need for me to tell you his name, he was one mistaken; they knew things I did not know, and to that extent
of our public men—my experience was something like this: I they were wiser than I. But, men of Athens, the good craftsmen
thought that he appeared wise to many people and especially seemed to me to have the same fault as the poets: each of
to himself, but he was not. I then tried to show him that he them, because of his success at his craft, thought himself very
thought himself wise, but that he was not. As a result he came wise in other most important pursuits, and this error of theirs
to dislike me, and so did many of the bystanders. So I withdrew overshadowed the wisdom they had, so that I asked myself, on
and thought to myself: “I am wiser than this man; it is likely that behalf of the oracle, whether I should prefer to be as I am, with
neither of us knows anything worthwhile, but he thinks he neither their wisdom nor their ignorance, or to have both. The
knows something when he does not, whereas when I do not answer I gave myself and the oracle was that it was to my
know, neither do I think I know; so I am likely to be wiser than advantage to be as I am.
he to this small extent, that I do not think I know what I do not
know.” After this I approached another man, one of those
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), The Delphic
thought to be wiser than he, and I thought the same thing, and
Oracle
so I came to be disliked both by him and by many others.
Related Themes:
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), The Delphic
Oracle Page Number: 27

Explanation and Analysis

Related Themes:
Once Socrates understands that the only truly valuable
Page Number: 26 piece of wisdom a person can possess is the notion that he
or she isn’t wise at all, he seeks to test this theory by visiting
Explanation and Analysis various experts throughout Athens. After finding that the
After Socrates hears from the Delphic oracle that no one is poets suffer from the same problem—intellectual vanity—as
wiser than him, he sets out to test the idea. To do so, he the politician, he speaks to the city’s craftsmen, for he’s sure
visits an Athenian politician, but soon realizes this man is these men know many things he himself does not. And
not, in fact, all that wise. Instead, this politician is simply though he discovers he’s right to think this, he also finds
vain, as he thinks very highly of his own intellectual capacity. that this very knowledge leads the craftsmen to think
Seeing this, Socrates begins to understand that he actually themselves “very wise in other most important pursuits.”
is wiser than this politician, thereby confirming—in this case, This, Socrates upholds, is an error, since the craftsmen’s
at least—the Delphic oracle’s previous assertion. Of course, knowledge of carpentry ultimately has no influence on their
Socrates is someone who wants to help the people around overall wisdom. As such, he suggests that it is better to
him improve, which is why he tries “to show [the politician] recognize one’s own lack of knowledge than to assume that
that he thought himself wise, but that he was not.” expertise in one area gives a person an overall sense of
Unsurprisingly, this upset the politician, who clearly would wisdom.
prefer to continue thinking highly of himself.
This entire ordeal encourages Socrates to consider the
nature of his own knowledge, realizing that he is wise only
because he is willing to admit his own intellectual
insufficiencies. In turn, he presents human knowledge as
something that is often superficial and blinding, since
expertise in a certain field seems to frequently blind people
to the fact that they don’t possess more profound kinds of
wisdom.

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As a result of this investigation, men of Athens, I acquired Either I do not corrupt the young or, if I do, it is unwillingly,
much unpopularity, of a kind that is hard to deal with and is and you are lying in either case. Now if I corrupt them
a heavy burden; many slanders came from these people and a unwillingly, the law does not require you to bring people to
reputation for wisdom, for in each case the bystanders thought court for such unwilling wrong doings, but to get hold of them
that I myself possessed the wisdom that I proved that my privately, to instruct them and exhort them; for clearly, if I learn
interlocutor did not have. What is probable, gentlemen, is that better, I shall cease to do what I am doing unwillingly. You,
in fact the god is wise and that his oracular response meant that however, have avoided my company and were unwilling to
human wisdom is worth little or nothing, and that when he says instruct me, but you bring me here, where the law requires one
this man, Socrates, he is using my name as an example, as if he to bring those who are in need of punishment, not of
said: “This man among you, mortals, is wisest who, like Socrates, instruction.
understands that his wisdom is worthless.” So even now I
continue this investigation as the god bade me—and I go
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), Meletus
around seeking out anyone, citizen or stranger, whom I think
wise. Then if I do not think he is, I come to the assistance of the Related Themes:
god and show him that he is not wise.
Page Number: 30
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), The Delphic Explanation and Analysis
Oracle
Socrates addresses these words to Meletus after he has
Related Themes: begun to closely examine the accusations made against him.
Through a series of pointed but straightforward questions,
Page Number: 27 Socrates successfully proves that even Meletus can’t truly
believe he has purposefully “corrupt[ed] the young.” As such,
Explanation and Analysis he says, “Either I do not corrupt the young or, if I do, it is
In this passage, Socrates explains to the jury why he has unwillingly.” Going on, he points out that committing
earned such an unfavorable reputation. He has, after all, accidental offenses is not something that deserves
gone through the city and “acquired much unpopularity” by punishment, but rather something that should invite
forcing supposedly wise men to grapple with their own thoughtful guidance and “instruction.” In turn, Socrates
intellectual shortcomings. Indeed, he believes strongly that frames the legal accusations against him as inappropriate
the Delphic oracle’s message has very little to do with his and unnecessary. What’s more, he also underlines the
own intellectual capacity. Instead, he upholds that the oracle importance of education, ultimately providing a real life
merely recognizes that he is the only person in Athens example of why it’s critical that Athenians help one another
willing to admit his own ignorance, since he “understands learn from their mistakes. This, he implies, is what he’s been
that his wisdom is worthless.” To spread this message, he doing by encouraging supposedly wise men to admit their
has had to make a number of enemies, as people resent his own ignorance. Unfortunately, people like Meletus don’t
attempt to show them that they are “not wise.” And yet, seem to understand this. Or, more likely, they do understand
Socrates continues to do this, for he believes that “the god this but simply wish to slander Socrates because he has
bade” him to show his fellow Athenians that their challenged their vanity.
knowledge isn’t as profound as they might otherwise think.
By saying that “the god bade” him to do this work, Socrates
portrays himself as a deeply pious man—an important detail,
considering the fact that he stands accused of impiety.

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Does any man, Meletus, believe in human activities who To fear death, gentlemen, is no other than to think oneself
does not believe in humans? […] Does any man who does wise when one is not, to think one knows what one does
not believe in horses believe in horsemen’s activities? Or in not know. No one knows whether death may not be the
flute-playing activities but not in flute-players? No, my good sir, greatest of all blessings for a man, yet men fear it as if they
no man could. If you are not willing to answer, I will tell you and knew that it is the greatest of evils. And surely it is the most
these men. Answer the next question, however. Does any man blameworthy ignorance to believe that one knows what one
believe in spiritual activities who does not believe in spirits? — does not know. It is perhaps on this point and in this respect,
No one. gentlemen, that I differ from the majority of men, and if I were
Thank you for answering, if reluctantly, when these gentlemen to claim that I am wiser than anyone in anything, it would be in
made you. Now you say that I believe in spiritual things and this, that, as I have no adequate knowledge of things in the
teach about them, whether new or old, but at any rate spiritual underworld, so I do not think I have. I do know, however, that it
things according to what you say, and to this you have sworn in is wicked and shameful to do wrong, to disobey one’s superior,
your deposition. But if I believe in spiritual things I must quite be he god or man. I shall never fear or avoid things of which I do
inevitably believe in spirits. Is that not so? It is indeed. I shall not know, whether they may not be good rather than things
assume that you agree, as you do not answer. Do we not believe that I know to be bad.
spirits to be either gods or the children of gods? Yes or no? —
Of course. Related Characters: Socrates (speaker)
Then since I do believe in spirits, as you admit, if spirits are
gods, this is what I mean when I say you speak in riddles and in Related Themes:
jest, as you state that I do not believe in gods and then again
that I do, since I do believe in spirits. Page Number: 33

Explanation and Analysis

Related Characters: Meletus, Socrates (speaker) By this point in his defense, Socrates has already
established that he disapproves of the human tendency to
Related Themes: deny ignorance. Indeed, he has taken it upon himself to
show his fellow Athenians the extent of their intellectual
Page Number: 32 shortcomings, trying hard to get them to admit that
Explanation and Analysis knowledge or expertise in one area of life doesn’t make
them wise in all other areas. As such, it makes sense that he
This is a perfect example of a Socratic dialogue, in which
doesn’t presume to “fear death,” about which he knows very
Socrates asks his interlocutor simple questions that
little. “No one knows whether death may be the greatest of
eventually reveal inescapable contradictions. In this
all blessings for a man,” he says, “yet men fear it as if they
moment, Socrates seeks to prove that he believes in the
knew that it is the greatest of evils.” This, he suggests, is a
same gods his fellow Athenians believe in. To do this, he asks
“blameworthy ignorance,” since people often behave
Meletus whether or not it’s possible to “believe in spiritual
according to this foolish fear of death. In this way, their
activities” without believing in “spirits.” When Meletus says
ignorance informs their actions—something Socrates thinks
that this isn’t possible (his responses are indicated by
is shameful, since he believes people should act according to
dashes in this version of the text), Socrates reminds him that
their values.
Athenians “believe spirits to be either gods or the children
of gods.” Of course, Meletus agrees with this, and so In keeping with this, he says, “it is wicked and shameful to do
Socrates is easily able to unearth the contradiction lurking wrong,” adding that he will “never fear or avoid things of
in Meletus’ accusation—namely that a belief in spirits which [he does] not know,” since this might mean acting
necessitates a belief in the gods. And since Meletus has “wicked[ly].” After all, if he were to fear death, he would
previously asserted that he thinks Socrates believes in likely lie during his apologia and try to satisfy the jury,
spirits, it becomes clear that Socrates must also believe in thereby avoiding the death penalty. However, since he
the gods. In this way, Socrates uses Meletus’s own words to embraces the unknowability of death, he doesn’t fear it, and
make his defense, ultimately demonstrating to the jury that this enables him to adhere to his moral integrity.
the charges against him are unfounded and illogical.

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[…] if you said to me in this regard: “Socrates, we do not
believe Anytus now; we acquit you, but only on condition
Related Symbols:
that you spend no more time on this investigation and do not
practice philosophy, and if you are caught doing so you will die”; Page Number: 35
if, as I say, you were to acquit me on those terms, I would say to
you: “Men of Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I Explanation and Analysis
will obey the god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath In this passage, Socrates suggests that he is delivering this
and am able, I shall not cease to practice philosophy […].” apologia not for his own sake, but for the sake of the jury
members, since he fears they will commit a “wrongdoing” if
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker), Anytus they decide to “condemn” him to death. Since he sees
himself as a “gift” from the gods, he believes that killing him
Related Themes: would be an impious act, one that would disrespect the
religious beliefs about which his fellow Athenians claim to
Page Number: 34 care so much. “I was attached to this city by the god,” he
says, presenting himself as a “gadfly” that “stir[s]” a
Explanation and Analysis
“sluggish” horse that would otherwise be “noble” if not for
Once again, Socrates demonstrates the strength of his its own laziness. In turn, he once again addresses the fact
moral integrity, this time assuring the jurors that he will not that his philosophical investigations are widely unpopular,
change his ways even if they spare his life. This is a bold acknowledging that people dislike him and see him as a
move, one that must certainly aggravate anyone in the jury nuisance because he “never cease[s] to rouse” them.
who doesn’t want to kill Socrates but also wants to put an However, he insists that he only behaves like this because
end to his philosophical “investigation[s].” However, he cares about Athens, simply wanting his contemporaries
Socrates doesn’t allow himself to be influenced by the to behave virtuously. In keeping with this good will, he also
threat of death, and the fact that he speaks so doesn’t want them to harm themselves by killing him and
straightforwardly in this moment only emphasizes the thus wading into wickedness.
extent to which he’s committed to presenting himself
honestly. After all, it’s quite likely that he could avoid the
death sentence if only he promised to stop practicing
philosophy, but this is not an option for him, and he has no Quite apart from the question of reputation, gentlemen, I
qualms about saying this to the men who will decide his fate. do not think it right to supplicate the jury and to be
Furthermore, he believes his “investigation[s]” are in the acquitted because of this, but to teach and persuade them. It is
service of “the god,” an idea that once again underlines his not the purpose of a juryman’s office to give justice as a favor to
piety and commitment to religion. whoever seems good to him, but to judge according to law, and
this he has sworn to do. We should not accustom you to perjure
yourselves, nor should you make a habit of it. This is irreverent
conduct for either of us.
Indeed, men of Athens, I am far from making a defense
now on my own behalf, as might be thought, but on yours,
to prevent you from wrongdoing by mistreating the god’s gift to Related Characters: Socrates (speaker)
you by condemning me; for if you kill me you will not easily find
Related Themes:
another like me. I was attached to this city by the god—though
it seems a ridiculous thing to say—as upon a great and noble
Page Number: 39
horse which was somewhat sluggish because of its size and
needed to be stirred up by a kind of gadfly. It is to fulfill some Explanation and Analysis
such function that I believe the god has placed me in the city. I Socrates says this in order to explain to the jury why he
never cease to rouse each and every one of you, to persuade hasn’t called his sons to court, cried, or pled hysterically for
and reproach you all day long and everywhere I find myself in acquittal. Although he recognizes that many reputable men
your company. have behaved like this in court, he himself refuses because
he does “not think it right to supplicate the jury and to be
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker) acquitted because of” such behavior. Rather, he sees this
moment as an opportunity to “teach and persuade” the
Related Themes: jurors. Indeed, this is what he has been doing by walking

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them through his beliefs about wisdom and moral integrity. avoiding philosophical debate enables them to ignore their
In addition, he believes that trying to “supplicate the jury” own intellectual shortcomings and thus bask in their vanity.
would only harm his fellow Athenians, as it would put them In turn, Socrates understands that the jurors will “believe
in the habit of “perjur[ing]” themselves by making ethical [him] even less” when he outlines the importance of
decisions based not on the facts of a given case, but on “discuss[ing] virtue every day,” though he still tries to
emotionally manipulative rhetoric. In other words, Socrates convince them of this idea.
respects the pursuit of truth and justice too much to
demean this judicial process by making an appeal to the
jurors’ emotions.
I was convicted because I lacked not words but boldness
and shamelessness and the willingness to say to you what
you would most gladly have heard from me, lamentations and
Perhaps someone might say: But Socrates, if you leave us tears and my saying and doing many things that I say are
will you unworthy of me but that you are accustomed to hear from
not be able to live quietly, without talking? Now this is the most others. I did not think then that the danger I ran should make
difficult me do anything mean, nor do I now regret the nature of my
point on which to convince some of you. If I say that it is defense. I would much rather die after this kind of defense than
impossible for me to keep quiet because that means disobeying live after making the other kind.
the god, you will
not believe me and will think I am being ironical. On the other
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker)
hand,
if I say that it is the greatest good for a man to discuss virtue Related Themes:
every day
and those other things about which you hear me conversing Page Number: 42
and testing myself and others, for the unexamined life is not
worth living for men, you will believe me even less. Explanation and Analysis
This passage occurs after Socrates is sentenced to death.
Related Characters: Socrates (speaker) Rather than expressing anger, Socrates points out that he
could easily have avoided this outcome by saying things to
Page Number: 41 the jury that they “would most gladly have heard”—namely,
“lamentations and tears” that may have appealed to their
Explanation and Analysis emotions. This, of course, would have been rhetorically
Anticipating that the jurors will find it absurd that he’s manipulative, as such behavior relies upon a kind of
unwilling to “live quietly” in order to save his own life, persuasion that has nothing to do with honesty or virtue.
Socrates tries to explain why he will never stop carrying out This is precisely why Socrates was unwilling to act like this,
his philosophical investigations. Despite his efforts to prove since he believes doing so would have been shameful.
to his fellow Athenians that it would be “impossible” for him Furthermore, when he says that he does not “regret the
to “keep quiet because that [would mean] disobeying the nature of [his] defense,” he once again demonstrates his
god,” he acknowledges the sad fact that the jurors will unyielding sense of morality, adding that he would “much
seemingly never believe him. Still, though, he insists that “it rather die after this kind of defense than live after” making a
is the greatest good for a man to discuss virtue every day,” a mockery not only of himself, but of the truth itself.
principle he takes to heart because he believes that “the
unexamined life is not worth living.”
In keeping with this belief, it becomes obvious that he’s It is not difficult to avoid death, gentlemen; it is much more
unlikely to give up his philosophical inquiries simply because difficult to avoid wickedness, for it runs faster than death.
the people around him disagree that it is important to Slow and elderly as I am, I have been caught by the slower
“examine” and interrogate that which is usually ignored. pursuer, whereas my accusers, being clever and sharp, have
According to this worldview, intellectual rigor isn’t simply been caught by the quicker, wickedness. I leave you now,
part of being alive, but actually defines what it means to lead condemned to death by you, but they are condemned by truth
a purposeful life. Unfortunately, though, Socrates’s to wickedness and injustice. So I maintain my assessment, and
contemporaries actually celebrate the “unexamined life,” for they maintain theirs.

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Related Characters: Socrates (speaker) penalty. And yet, he knows this would be futile, since he is
bound to die someday anyway. As such, he would much
Related Themes: rather uphold his values by staying true to his moral
integrity. The jurors, on the other hand, must now reckon
Page Number: 42 with the fact that they have sentenced an innocent man to
death based on petty, slanderous, and logically unsound
Explanation and Analysis
accusations. This is why Socrates says that the jurors have
Once again, Socrates stresses the fact that death is not been “condemned by truth to wickedness and injustice,”
something to fear, this time suggesting that it is “not difficult ultimately implying that their dishonesty will no doubt lead
to avoid.” Indeed, if he were to have “supplicate[d]” the jury them into trouble in the long run.
by crying and pleading, he may well have avoided the death

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SUMMARY AND ANAL

ANALYSIS
YSIS
The color-coded icons under each analysis entry make it easy to track where the themes occur most prominently throughout the
work. Each icon corresponds to one of the themes explained in the Themes section of this LitChart.

APOLOGY
Socrates begins his apologia by calling the jury “men of Athens,” Socrates’ defense—or apologia, in Ancient Greek—begins after his
wondering aloud how his accusers have “affected” them. “As for accusers have read the deposition outlining the charges against him.
me,” he says, “I was almost carried away in spite of myself, so As such, Apology is only a partial document of the entire trial,
persuasively did they speak. And yet, hardly anything of what though Socrates meticulously addresses each of his detractors’
they said is true.” Of all the things his accusers have said about arguments, thereby making it easy to intuit what they’ve said about
him, he upholds, the most startling is that they have warned the him. By using the phrase “men of Athens” to address the jury, he also
jury to “be careful not to be deceived by an accomplished subtly reminds the jurors that they are representatives of the city’s
speaker” like Socrates. “That they were not ashamed to be inhabitants, thereby underlining their responsibility to uphold the
immediately proved wrong by the facts, when I show myself not interests of the city and its commitment to democracy. In turn, he
to be an accomplished speaker at all, that I thought was most underhandedly discourages them from siding with his accusers for
shameless on their part,” he says, adding, “unless indeed they biased reasons that aren’t based on what happens in the trial. On
call an accomplished speaker the man who speaks the truth.” another note, it’s worth noting that Socrates takes issue with the
idea that he’s an “accomplished speaker,” a small detail that helps
him establish his commitment not to rhetoric and persuasion, but to
the unadorned truth.

Socrates notes that if his accusers are insinuating that “an Socrates goes out of his way to establish that he won’t employ
accomplished speaker” is someone who “speaks the truth,” then rhetorical trickery to confuse or persuade the jurors. To make this
he should be considered an “orator.” “From me you will hear the point, he calls attention to the fact that his mode of conversing is
whole truth,” he says, “though not, by Zeus, gentlemen, actually quite colloquial, the kind of language one might use “in the
expressed in embroidered and stylized phrases like theirs, but marketplace.” By emphasizing the simplicity of his oratory skills,
things spoken at random and expressed in the first words that then, Socrates encourages the jury to focus on what he’s about say
come to mind.” This, Socrates says, is because he believes in rather than whether or not he’s being deceptive. His accusers, on
“the justice of what [he] say[s].” In turn, he has decided not to the other hand, use “embroidered and stylized phrases.” In
embellish his language in the name of persuasion, so he asks comparison to Socrates’s straightforward linguistic style, this
the jury not to judge him harshly for speaking like he’s “in the affected manner of speaking seems dubious and disingenuous.
marketplace.” After all, he is seventy years old and has never
appeared in court.

Socrates explains to the jury that he is going to address the In this moment, Socrates clarifies that there are two groups of
accusations made against him by his “first accusers,” then those people who have accused him. Unfortunately, the first group is a
made against him by “the later accusers.” These first accusers, handful of unidentified men who have marred his name over the
he explains, are going to be more difficult to argue against than course of many years. The vagueness and anonymity of this group
“Anytus and his friends,” since they have been slandering him makes it hard for Socrates to provide a solid defense of himself, as
since the jurors were mere children. Indeed, these unidentified he understands that finding the truth often means closely
people have long upheld that “there is a man called Socrates, a examining the specifics of a given matter. Since his earliest accusers
wise man, a student of all things in the sky and below the earth, are not present to answer his questions, though, he cannot
who makes the worse argument the stronger.” interrogate them in his normal fashion, a dialectical mode of
questioning now known as the Socratic Method.

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Admitting the unfortunate fact that it will be difficult to Socrates clearly lays out the charges made against him so that he
persuade the jury, Socrates says he must nevertheless “obey can systematically address each accusation. He applies this careful
the law and make [his] defense.” “Let us then take up the case and methodical approach because he knows that it is difficult to
from its beginning,” he says. “What is the accusation from which defend oneself against unknown detractors. As such, he wants to
arose the slander in which Meletus trusted when he wrote out show the jurors that he’s concerned first and foremost with finding
the charge against me? […] It goes something like this: Socrates the truth and doing so in a detailed, organized way. What’s more,
is guilty of wrongdoing in that he busies himself studying things when he says that he’s on trial because of his interest in “studying
in the sky and below the earth; he makes the worse into the things in the sky and below the earth,” it becomes clear that his
stronger argument, and he teaches these same things to fellow Athenians are uncomfortable with the idea of someone who
others.” Indeed, Socrates notes that the jurors have surely seen carefully examines their religious beliefs. In keeping with this, they
this unfavorable representation of him in a play by the are also wary of rhetorically cunning thinkers who are capable of
playwright Aristophanes, who portrayed him as someone advancing unconventional arguments. Given that Socrates is a
“walking on air and talking a lot of other nonsense.” philosopher who takes it upon himself to study the ways in which
people think, it’s unsurprising that these Athenians would find his
intellectual pursuits threatening.

Socrates insists that Aristophanes’s portrayal of him is Socrates goes out of his way to differentiate himself from
inaccurate, since he doesn’t possess the knowledge that his Aristophanes’s representation of him in a play entitled The Clouds,
character espouses in the play. Having said this, Socrates urges in which Socrates appears as an intellectual trickster who teaches
the jurors to speak up if they’ve ever heard him talk about the young men how to argue convincingly against others even when
things Aristophanes claims he talks about. Going on, he says their positions are weak and unsound. It is important for Socrates to
that he has never taught people for money. In a tongue-in- establish the fact that he does not engage in this kind of activity,
cheek manner, he says he has no problem with men who “can go since many Athenians associate him with the Sophists—teachers of
to any city and persuade the young” and charge fees as they do philosophy and rhetoric who charge exorbitant sums, take
so, but he himself does not possess the “knowledge” necessary advantage of rich families, and turn their pupils into wordsmiths
to do this. void of any true sense of morality. This, at least, is the unfavorable
opinion held by Plato, though historians and scholars remain
uncertain about whether or not all Athenians were this critical of
the Sophists. Nonetheless, it’s important to understand that
Socrates wants to separate himself from the Sophists in the minds
of the jurors, as he insists not only that he doesn’t accept money for
his teachings, but also that he isn’t clever enough to make a living in
this manner. In turn, he again presents himself as someone who
speaks and acts straightforwardly and without rhetorical
embroidery.

Socrates posits that one of the jurors might wish to ask him, When Socrates anticipates this question from the jury, he
“But Socrates, what is your occupation? From where have these emphasizes the extent to which his fellow Athenians are hesitant to
slanders come? For surely if you did not busy yourself with embrace anything that is “out of the common.” Since he is a free-
something out of the common, all these rumors and talk would thinking philosopher who—by virtue of his “occupation”—studies the
not have arisen unless you did something other than most ways in which people think, it’s unsurprising that the jurors would
people.” Answering this, Socrates says that he has gained his think he engages in activities that are “other than [how] most
reputation simply because he possesses “human wisdom.” people” behave. By highlighting this dynamic, he demonstrates just
how hesitant these men are to critically examine their own beliefs.

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As Socrates says this, the jurors begin to mumble and interrupt, The Ancient Greeks believed that the god Apollo spoke directly
but he tells them to calm down because he isn’t “boasting.” through a priestess (the “Pythian”) who lived in Delphi, which they
After all, the story he’s about to tell comes from “a trustworthy upheld was the center of the world. Socrates references the Delphic
source.” “I shall call upon the god at Delphi as witness to the oracle because, as he states in this moment, the Pythian has
existence and nature of my wisdom, if it be such,” he says, asserted that there is no one wiser than him. This is important, as it
explaining that his friend Chaerephon traveled to the Delphic contextualizes Socrates’ previous claim that he possesses “human
oracle and asked, “if any man was wiser than [Socrates].” “The wisdom,” which has gained him a certain reputation that his
Pythian replied that no one was wiser,” Socrates says, explaining accusers are now using against him. By insisting that the Delphic
that when he heard about this, he asked himself, “Whatever oracle believes in his wisdom, Socrates ultimately casts himself as a
does the god mean? What is his riddle? I am very conscious that pious man rather than someone who doesn’t believe in the gods.
I am not wise at all; what then does he mean by saying that I am
the wisest? For surely he does not lie; it is not legitimate for him
to do so.”

Continuing his story about the Delphic oracle’s assertion that When Socrates tests the Delphic oracle’s message, he learns that
no one is wiser than him, Socrates tells the jury that he sought the only truly valuable kind of “human wisdom” has to do with a
to “investigate” this information. To do this, he spoke to a person’s willingness to acknowledge and accept his or her own
politician he believed was wiser than himself, but he quickly ignorance. Indeed, the only reason Socrates is any wiser than his
discovered the man wasn’t, in truth, wise at all. “I thought that contemporaries is that he understands that he isn’t wise at all. In
he appeared wise to many people and especially to himself, but turn, he sets forth a model of wisdom that depends upon
he was not,” Socrates says. “I then tried to show him that he humility—something the politician to whom he speaks apparently
thought himself wise, but that he was not. So I withdrew and lacks.
thought to myself: ‘I am wiser than this man; it is likely that
neither of us knows anything worthwhile, but he thinks he
knows something when he does not, whereas when I do not
know, neither do I think I know; so I am likely to be wiser than
he is to this small extent.”

Socrates tells the jury that he proceeded in this manner, Once again, Socrates suggests that only those humble enough to
methodically visiting the wisest people in Athens. Speaking admit their own intellectual shortcomings are wise. Unfortunately,
with each of them, he considered the “meaning” of their though, he has found that Athenian society celebrates the
“reputation[s]” as knowledgeable men, only to uncover their community’s various experts so much that they become vain and
profound lack of wisdom. “In my investigation in the service of overly self-assured. In turn, they are unable—or perhaps
the god I found that those who had the highest reputation were unwilling—to recognize the fact that expertise in one area doesn’t
nearly the most deficient, while those who were thought to be necessarily lead to an all-encompassing sense of wisdom. Socrates,
inferior were more knowledgeable,” he says. After speaking on the other hand, understands the depths of his own ignorance,
with the politicians, Socrates visited the poets and found that and this makes him wiser than his fellow Athenians.
they too have high opinions of their own knowledge and
wisdom. “I saw that, because of their poetry, they thought
themselves very wise men in other respects, which they were
not,” he says. Because of this, Socrates explains, he realized that
he had the same “advantage over them as [he] had over the
politicians.”

After visiting the poets, Socrates explains, he went to the Yet again, Socrates emphasizes the importance of humility when it
craftsmen and found that they were more knowledgeable than comes to assessing one’s own knowledge. Rather than letting
him, since he knows very little about their work. However, he expertise in a certain field lead to a prevailing sense of vanity and
also saw that this knowledge led them to believe they were confidence, he suggests, one should continue to critically examine
wise about other things about which—in truth—they knew the nature of his or her wisdom.
nothing. As such, Socrates understood that he was wiser than
them, since he at least recognizes his own lack of wisdom.

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“As a result of this investigation, men of Athens, I acquired By this point in his defense, Socrates has asserted not only that he is
much unpopularity,” Socrates says. Indeed, people began to the wisest man in Athens, but that all human wisdom is “worthless.”
slander him because they assumed he “possessed the wisdom In turn, he intimates that only divine wisdom is valuable, thereby
that [he] proved [his] interlocutor did not have.” Socrates demonstrating his unfailing faith in the gods—an important thing to
continues, “What is probable, gentlemen, is that in fact the god keep in mind as his apologia continues, since his piety is something
is wise and that his oracular response meant that human he must prove to the jury.
wisdom is worth little or nothing, and that when he says this
man, Socrates, he is using my name as an example, as if he said:
‘This man among you, mortals, is wisest who, like Socrates,
understands that his wisdom is worthless.’”

Because he has dedicated himself to spreading the Delphic Socrates makes a noteworthy point when he says that his
oracle’s message about wisdom, Socrates lives in poverty. All detractors’ accusations are the same ones that people make against
the same, a group of young men have started following him all philosophers. By saying this, he calls attention to just how
around and have begun questioning people in the way that he uncomfortable people are around philosophers, since philosophers
has demonstrated, ultimately unveiling ignorance throughout take it upon themselves to think critically about important matters.
Athens. In doing so, they have enraged many important men, This, of course, often means challenging the prevailing structures of
who subsequently believe Socrates is “a pestilential fellow who belief, which is why many Athenians are quick to accuse
corrupts the young.” And yet, Socrates notes that none of these philosophers of corrupting the youth, since they are themselves
detractors can pinpoint how, exactly, he “corrupts” the young, unwilling to thoughtfully examining their worldviews. In this way,
and so they simply “mention those accusations that are Socrates portrays his accusers as intellectually lazy and
available against all philosophers, about ‘things in the sky and narrowminded.
things below the earth,’ about ‘not believing in the gods’ and
‘making the worse the stronger argument.’” These are the
accusations that Anytus, Lycon, and Meletus have leveled
against him on behalf of the politicians, the orators, and the
poets, respectively.

Turning his attention to the accusations presented to the jury Now that Socrates has defended himself against his unidentified
by Meletus, Socrates restates the deposition, saying, “Socrates “earlier accusers,” he employs his characteristic dialogic
is guilty of corrupting the young and of not believing in the gods technique—now known as the Socratic Method—to cross-examine
in whom the city believes, but in other new spiritual things.” Meletus, ultimately attempting to straightforwardly unveil the flaws
First, he focuses on the claim that he has corrupted the young. in his accuser’s rhetoric by asking simple questions. Interestingly
To do this, he addresses Meletus directly, asking if he believes it enough, this is the same kind of conversational behavior that got
is “of the greatest importance” that the young men of Athens him in trouble in the first place, since it is only through questioning
“be as good as possible.” When Meletus says yes, Socrates asks important men that he has gained an unseemly reputation in
him to identify who, exactly, improves the youth. “The laws,” Athens. Nevertheless, Socrates proceeds in his normal manner,
Meletus answers, but Socrates urges him to identify a specific thereby demonstrating to the jury that he believes wholeheartedly
person, and Meletus momentarily finds himself at a loss. in finding the truth, regardless of whether or not people take issue
with his methods.

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Eventually, Meletus posits that the jurors “improve” the It’s clear in this moment that Socrates is working his way toward a
Athenian youth. “All of them, or some but not others?” Socrates certain point, though it’s not yet apparent what, exactly, he has in
asks, to which Meletus responds, “All of them.” In turn, Socrates mind. And though he’s employing a rhetorical technique, there’s no
asks, “But what about the audience?” When Meletus agrees denying that he’s only asking Meletus to clarify what has already
that the audience also “improves” the youth, Socrates asks been said. As such, he encourages his accuser to thoughtfully
about the council and assembly members, and Meletus says examine his own assertions. In other words, Socrates simply wants
both these groups also benefit the youth. “All the Athenians, it Meletus to speak clearly, and this indicates his desire to access the
seems, make the young into fine good men, except me, and I truth. In turn, it’s evident that Socrates isn’t using persuasive
alone corrupt them. Is that what you mean?” Socrates asks. trickery to “make the worse argument the stronger,” but simply
“That is most definitely what I mean,” Meletus replies. applying levelheaded intellectual pressure to Meletus’s argument.

Going on, Socrates asks if this same principal applies to horses. When Socrates says that horse breeders improve horses while the
“[Do] all men improve them and one individual corrupts them?” general population “corrupt[s]” them, he suggests that negative
he asks. “Or is quite the contrary true, one individual is able to influences are abundant, whereas positive influences are
improve them, or very few, namely, the horse breeders, unfortunately rare. If he himself were a bad influence on young
whereas the majority, if they have horses and use them, corrupt Athenians, then, it would be highly unlikely that he’d be the only
them?” When Meletus can’t deny that this is true, Socrates person to “corrupt” them. And in any case, he clearly doesn’t think
reapplies the idea to humans, saying it “would be a very happy he is a bad influence. Rather, he sees himself as equivalent to a
state of affairs if only one person corrupted [the] youth, while horse breeder, in that he “improves” the Athenian youth in the same
the others improved them.” way that a breeder might “improve” a horse.

Continuing his examination, Socrates asks Meletus if “wicked” Socrates uncovers Meletus’s faulty reasoning by simply asking him
people harm others while “good” people improve the people questions. In turn, it becomes obvious that Meletus has not fully
around them. “Certainly,” Meletus says, and Socrates asks if thought through the implications of his accusation that Socrates
anyone would “rather be harmed than benefited by his “deliberately” harms the people around him. After all, if Socrates
associates.” “Of course not,” Meletus says. “Do you accuse me purposely corrupted his fellow Athenians, then he would be harming
here of corrupting the young and making them worse himself, at least according to Meletus’ assertion that a person can
deliberately or unwillingly?” Socrates asks. “Deliberately,” be negatively influenced by his “associates.”
Meletus answers. In turn, Socrates reveals the flaw in
Meletus’s logic, since he has suggested that a person can be
harmed by associating with wicked men. If Socrates were to
“deliberately” corrupt the people around him, then, he would
“run the risk of being harmed” himself.

Socrates upholds that if he is indeed spreading wickedness In this moment, Socrates suggests that Meletus is the one who has
throughout Athens without meaning to, he shouldn’t be failed to uphold his moral responsibility, which is to “instruct” those
punished, but rather taught how to stop acting badly. “You, who unwittingly spread wickedness throughout Athens. By making
however, have avoided my company and were unwilling to this implication, Socrates ultimately invites the jurors to consider
instruct me,” Socrates says to Meletus, pointing out that “the the notion that he has been mistreated. Of course, he knows he has
law requires one to bring [to court] those who are in need of not “corrupted” the youth, but he proceeds as if he has in order to
punishment, not of instruction.” demonstrate to the jury that even if Meletus’ accusations were true,
there would still be no reason to treat this as a legal matter.

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Focusing on the claim that he doesn’t believe in the gods, Once more, Socrates encourages Meletus to clarify his accusations.
Socrates asks if Meletus thinks he (Socrates) is an atheist, or Since Meletus admits that no one can believe in “spiritual activities
someone who believes in “other” gods. Meletus clarifies that he who does not believe in spirits,” it follows that Socrates must believe
thinks Socrates doesn’t believe in gods at all. In response, in spirits. By establishing this point, Socrates methodically makes
Socrates says, “Does any man, Meletus, believe in human his way toward a defense of his religious faith and overall piety.
activities who does not believe in humans?” Similarly, he asks if
any man “who does not believe in horses” can believe in
“horseman’s activities,” or if a person who believes in “flute-
playing activities” can deny the existence of “flute-players.”
Working his way to his main point, he says, “Does any man
believe in spiritual activities who does not believe in spirts?”
and Meletus says, “No one.” Socrates then reminds Meletus
that he has said in his deposition that Socrates believes in
“spiritual things.” This, Socrates upholds, means he must also
believe in spirits.

“Do we not believe spirits to be either gods or the children of It’s worth noting Socrates’s use of the word “we” when he says, “Do
gods?” Socrates asks. “Of course,” Meletus replies. In keeping we not believe spirits to be either gods or the children of gods?” By
with this, Socrates points out that Meletus has again using this plural pronoun, Socrates aligns himself with his fellow
contradicted himself. After all, if spirits are “gods or the Athenians, suggesting that he shares their beliefs. What’s more, he
children of gods”—and if Socrates believes in “spiritual takes a rather scolding tone, as if Meletus is the one deviating from
things”—then he must surely also believe in the gods. Even if he the religious beliefs that prevail throughout Athens. Furthermore, by
only believed in “the children of gods,” this would still require revealing Meletus’s contradictory argument, Socrates frames his
him to believe in the gods themselves. Having unearthed chief accuser as incompetent and intellectually lazy and, thus,
Meletus’s contradiction, Socrates says, “This is what I mean untrustworthy.
when I say you speak in riddles and in jest, as you state that I do
not believe in gods and then again that I do, since I do believe in
spirits.”

Addressing the jury, Socrates posits that he has sufficiently At this point in his defense, Socrates shows the jury the strength of
defended himself against Meletus’s charges, though he’s his moral integrity, something to which he remains faithful
cognizant that his “undoing” will not be the result of Meletus or regardless of what other people think. As a result, he remains
Anytus, but of the “slander” that has led to his unfavorable unbothered by the possibility that he might receive a death penalty,
reputation. Regarding this, Socrates says, “Someone might say: for he believes that a person should only ask himself “whether he is
‘Are you not ashamed, Socrates, to have followed the kind of acting like a good or a bad man.” Needless to say, Socrates is
occupation that has led to your being now in danger of death?” confident that he’s acting like a good man, and though this perhaps
This question, he upholds, is easy to answer, for he believes doesn’t align with what people like Meletus and Anytus think, he
that “a man who is any good at all” should never take “the risk of refuses to feel “ashamed” for the way he has chosen to comport
life or death” into account. “He should look to this only in his himself.
actions, whether he is acting like a good or a bad man,” he says.

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Socrates insists that “wherever a man has taken a position that Socrates’s ideas about mortality are directly related to his
he believes to be best, or has been placed by his commander, convictions about wisdom. Simply put, he never wants to make any
there he must […] remain and face danger, without a thought assumptions about matters about which he knows nothing. This, of
for death or anything else.” This is because he believes that course, is precisely why the Delphic oracle has dubbed him the
fearing death is the same thing as thinking oneself wise when wisest man in Athens—he does not presume to know things he does
one is not, since “no one knows whether death may not be the not know. In addition, this perspective also relates to Socrates’s
greatest of all blessings for a man.” And since it is a dedication to finding the truth, since his reluctance to assume death
“blameworthy ignorance to believe that one knows what one is bad illustrates his staunch unwillingness to adopt uninformed or
does not know,” Socrates upholds that people should never intellectually lazy worldviews.
assume death is a bad thing.

In keeping with the fact that he doesn’t fear death, Socrates Once again, Socrates impresses upon the jurors the strength of his
tells the jury he will not change his behavior if he is acquitted, own moral integrity. Even though this apologia is a chance to
even if he’s set free on the condition that he stop encouraging placate his accusers and possibly avoid the death penalty, he
Athenians to interrogate their beliefs. Indeed, if he were refuses to “cease” practicing philosophy, for he believes that in doing
acquitted under these circumstances, he would say, “Men of so he is serving “the god” (Apollo). By saying this, he not only
Athens, I am grateful and I am your friend, but I will obey the expresses a sense of ethical responsibility, but also refutes the
god rather than you, and as long as I draw breath and am able, I accusation that he is impious, since he sees his philosophical
shall not cease to practice philosophy […].” practice as a religious endeavor.

Socrates reiterates that he isn’t afraid of death, saying that Comparing himself to a “gadfly” that “stir[s]” a horse, Socrates
Meletus can’t possibly harm him. In fact, he believes Meletus acknowledges the fact that many of his fellow Athenians see him as
only risks harming himself by “attempting to have a man nothing more than a nuisance. However, he also suggests that he is
executed unjustly.” In keeping with this, Socrates suggests that a necessary nuisance, since he takes it upon himself to improve
he isn’t delivering this defense for his own sake, but for the sake those around him. Unfortunately, his efforts are sometimes difficult
of the jury, since he wants to “prevent” them from to appreciate, since he encourages people to recognize their own
“wrongdoing.” Indeed, he doesn’t want the jurors to condemn shortcomings. Nonetheless, he upholds, having someone like him is
him and thereby “mistreat the god’s gift” that he represents. “I a “gift” from “the god,” and because he is so pious, he refuses to stop
was attached to this city by the god—though it seems a treating his fellow citizens in this manner.
ridiculous thing to say—as upon a great and noble horse which
was somewhat sluggish because of its size and needed to be
stirred up by a kind of gadfly,” Socrates says.

Socrates tells the jury that Athens will not easily find another When Socrates says that “a man who really fights for justice must
man willing to encourage people (against their will) to improve. lead a private” life, he hints at the fact that the current political
What’s more, he admits that it might seem odd that he has climate in Athens is unfit for morally upstanding individuals. If
never accepted a public position, but this is because he has a someone like him—with a strong moral compass and an unyielding
“divine or spiritual sign” that has always “prevented” him from sense of honor—cannot “survive” as a public official, then this must
“taking part in public affairs.” This sign, he explains, keeps him mean that Athens is failing to uphold the democratic values of
from doing that which he should not do. In keeping with this, he justice and morality.
explains that he would have “died long ago” if he had become a
politician, since “a man who really fights for justice must lead a
private, not a public, life if he is to survive for even a short time.”

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Socrates tells a story about the end of the Peloponnesian War, During the Peloponnesian War—which took place between 431 and
when Spartans won control of Athens and installed an 404 BC—the Delian League (from Athens) fought against the
oligarchy run by the Thirty Tyrants. “When the oligarchy was Peloponnesian League (from Sparta). Eventually, the Spartans
established,” he says, “the Thirty summoned me to the hall, overtook Athens and installed an oppressive oligarchy known as the
along with four others, and ordered us to bring Leon from Thirty Tyrants. Even under the cruel and unyielding governance of
Salamis, that he might be executed.” Rather than obeying, the Thirty, Socrates refused to betray his ethical convictions. By
though, Socrates simply went home while the other four telling this story, Socrates shows the jury how thoroughly
Athenians captured Leon. He did this, he explains, because his committed he is to maintaining his moral integrity.
primary “concern is not to do anything unjust or impious.” He
knows he would have been executed for this if the oligarchy
hadn’t fallen shortly after the event took place.

Socrates says that if the jurors believe he has harmed or Many scholars and readers of Plato believe Socrates disapproved of
“corrupted” them, they should stand and make their feelings democracy (this is largely based on the opinions he expresses in
known. When no one rises, Socrates says this is because he Plato’s The Republic
Republic). However, it’s worth considering this moment,
hasn’t harmed anyone. He also points out that there are many in which Socrates refuses to manipulate the jury by crying and
men listening who know him well and would not hesitate to pleading for their forgiveness. On the one hand, this refusal
condemn him if he had treated them badly. Indeed, he sees indicates that he thinks democracy is a system that is subject to
Crito and Crito’s son Critobulus in attendance, as well as emotional manipulation and, as such, is inherently flawed. On the
Apollodorus and Plato, all of whom are close acquaintances other hand, his assertion that people who manipulate the jury “bring
who could speak accurately about his character. He then shame upon the city” suggests that he believes acting this way
addresses the fact that he is not crying and pleading with the disrespects the values for which Athens stands. This, it seems,
jury, as many people do when they are brought to court. This, indicates a certain reverence for what Athenian democracy could
he explains, is because he doesn’t think it’s “right” to do such be, though it’s obvious Socrates doesn’t think his contemporaries
things, believing that the men who act this way “bring shame are properly enforcing or living up to this standard. Regardless, it’s
upon the city.” clear that Socrates is critical of democracy—whether or not this
means he completely disapproves of it as an effective mode of
governance remains unclear (at least in this text).

Socrates says he thinks it’s wrong to “supplicate the jury” with Again, scholars debate whether or not Socrates believed in
tears and hysterics. “It is not the purpose of a juryman’s office democracy as an effective mode of governance. And though nothing
to give justice as a favor to whoever seems good to him, but to in Apology provides a definitive answer regarding this debate, it’s
judge according to law,” he says. Furthermore, he states that worth noting that his unwillingness to let the jurors perjure
people like him shouldn’t behave this way in court because themselves in court suggests that he wants to help his fellow
doing so might put the jurors in the “habit” of perjury. “This is Athenians operate as a just and honest governing body.
irreverent conduct for either of us,” he says. Refusing to do Furthermore, his willingness to let himself be judged “in the way that
anything other than speak truthfully, then, Socrates expresses will be best” for everyone involved indicates that—despite his
his satisfaction with the way he has defended himself, at which misgivings—he respects the current system enough to abide by it.
point he concludes his speech by saying, “I leave it to you and
the god to judge me in the way that will be best for me and for
you.”

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After Socrates finishes his initial defense, the jury pronounces When Socrates considers what penalty he should receive, he
him guilty, and Meletus “asks for the penalty of death.” At this delivers a tongue-in-cheek summary of what he has done to
point, Socrates is given a chance to argue in favor of whatever “deserve” punishment, reminding the jury that he has “neglected” to
penalty he thinks is fairest. He begins by saying that he isn’t live “a quiet life” full of “wealth” and cushy governmental positions.
angry at the jury for finding him guilty, adding that he’s In turn, he subtly suggests once more that he is being prosecuted
impressed by how close the vote was. Turning his attention to simply because he has lived a life that is “out of the common.”
Meletus’ request that he be put to death, he says, “So be it. Indeed, Meletus and his cronies are made uncomfortable by
What counter-assessment should I propose to you, men of Socrates’ unconventional ways of thinking and behaving, which is
Athens? Clearly it should be a penalty I deserve, and what do I why they have sought to destroy him.
deserve to suffer or to pay because I have deliberately not led a
quiet life but have neglected what occupies most people:
wealth, household affairs, the position of general or public
orator or the other offices, the political clubs and factions that
exist in the city?”

Reminding the jury that he has tried hard to help Athenians This is perhaps the first and only time in his defense that Socrates
improve themselves, Socrates suggests that what he really actually advocates for himself, though he is of course being
“deserve[s]” is not a penalty, but a reward. As such, he glibly facetious, since he knows the jury will not reward him. And yet, he’s
says he should be allowed to eat in the Prytaneum (a great hall also being serious when he says he won’t purposefully “wrong”
where Olympian victors often dined). “Since I am convinced himself, as this would go against his views. Even in jest, then,
that I wrong no one, I am not likely to wrong myself, to say that I Socrates demonstrates the strength of his moral integrity.
deserve some evil and to make some such assessment against
myself,” Socrates adds.

Not wanting to ask for imprisonment because he knows it to be Once again, Socrates demonstrates that he doesn’t fear death. After
“evil,” Socrates considers the penalty of exile. This prospect, he all, it would be rather easy, it seems, for him to avoid the death
explains, does not suit him either, since he can reasonably penalty by suggesting that he be banished from Athens. However, he
assume he will be treated the same anywhere he goes. Indeed, knows he’ll never stop upholding and enforcing his values, and so he
he upholds that if the Athenians cannot “endure” his makes his peace with the idea of dying for these values, upholding
philosophical and moral examinations, then no one else will that “the unexamined life is not worth living.”
tolerate him, either. And though one might think he could
simply leave Athens and lead a quiet life, he reminds the jury
that “the greatest good for a man [is] to discuss virtue every
day.” As such, he would not remain quiet if he were to leave
Athens, “for the unexamined life is not worth living.”

Unwilling to accept imprisonment or exile as punishments, It’s worth mentioning here that this is the second time Socrates has
Socrates considers the idea of a fine, saying he would “assess mentioned Plato by name. In this case, he makes it clear that Plato
the penalty at the amount [he] could pay” (since he doesn’t care is among his supporters who are willing to financially vouch for him.
about money), but he is poor and would only be able to afford Despite the fact that Socrates sets this penalty, though, it’s clear he
“one mina of silver.” However, he proceeds by saying that Plato, doesn’t truly see it as a punishment, since he isn’t—and has never
Crito, Critobulus, and Apollodorus have urged him to set the been—concerned with money. Indeed, he has already gone out of his
penalty at thirty minas, since they will “stand surety for the way to establish this while proving to the jury that he isn’t a Sophist.
money.” “Well then,” he concludes, “that is my assessment, and
they will be sufficient guarantee of payment.”

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Once again, the jury votes, this time sentencing Socrates to Once again, Socrates suggests that trying to manipulate the jury by
death, at which point Socrates is allowed to deliver his final acting hysterically is shameful and disrespectful of the entire judicial
remarks. “It is for the sake of a short time, men of Athens, that process. This is why he stands by the manner in which he has
you will acquire the reputation and the guilt, in the eyes of delivered his defense. Indeed, he is so committed to presenting the
those who want to denigrate the city, of having killed Socrates, truth that he refuses to “supplicate” his detractors, who he insists
a wise man, for they who want to revile you will say that I am will soon feel “guilt[y]” for needlessly killing one of their fellow
wise even if I am not,” he says. Still, he doesn’t regret how he has citizens.
defended himself. “I was convicted because I lacked not words
but boldness and shamelessness and the willingness to say to
you what you would most gladly have heard from me,
lamentations and tears and my saying and doing many things
that I say are unworthy of me but that you are accustomed to
hear from others,” he says.

Socrates tells the jurors who voted for his acquittal that he Although Socrates has been found guilty of—among other
would be happy to talk to them about what has just happened. things—impiety, it’s clear that he is strongly devoted to spirituality
“A surprising thing has happened to me, jurymen—you I would and, thus, the gods. This is made evident by the fact that he
rightly call jurymen,” he says, going on to explain that references the “spiritual’ and “prophetic power” that guides him,
throughout his life his “familiar prophetic power” or “spiritual ultimately holding it up as proof that he has done the right thing by
manifestation” often stopped him from doing things. However, allowing himself to be sentenced to death.
it did not hold him back from coming to the courthouse or
speaking freely before the jury today. This, he upholds, means
what he has done is “right.”

Socrates once again considers the nature of death, saying it’s Again, Socrates appears unfazed by the fact that he is going to be
either a total lack of perception or “a change and a relocating put to death. This is unsurprising, considering that he doesn’t think
for the soul from here to another place.” In either case, Socrates death—an unknown—is something a person should consider when
says, he will be content. After all, he doesn’t fear nothingness, contemplating whether or not to do the right thing. In keeping with
and he’d be happy to pass the time in the afterlife “testing and this, his only concern is that his fellow Athenians make sure his sons
examining people there” in the same way he has done in Athens. embody this kind of virtue. What’s more, his parting words not only
Going on, he states that he isn’t angry at the people who reiterate the fact that death is an unknown, but also hint at his
sentenced him or at his accusers. The only thing he asks is that concern that the jurors—who have acted immorally—have
his fellow Athenians “reproach” his sons if they ever “care for ultimately harmed themselves by sentencing him to death.
money or anything else more than they care for virtue.” Having
said this, he states that the hour of his death has arrived. “I go
to die, you go to live,” he says. “Which of us goes to the better
lot is known to no one, except the god.”

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