MAT172 –Mathematics for Social Sciences

W6. Functions and Graphs II

Dr. Ömer Yaman
 1-Polynomial Function
A polynomial function is a function that can be written in the
form an x n + an −1 x n −1 +  + a1 x + a0 for a nonnegative integer n,
called the degree of the polynomial.
The coefficients a0 , a1 , , an are real numbers with an ≠ 0.
The leading coefficient is the coefficient of the term of
highest degree an .
The domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real
numbers.
A polynomial of degree 0 is a constant function. ƒ(x) = a

A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function. ƒ(x) = ax + b

A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function. ƒ(x) = a𝑥𝑥 2 + bx + c

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 2- Linear Function: A Graph
of a Polynomial of Degree 1

Graph the polynomial function f ( x)= x − 2.

Note that this is an odd degree polynomial.

ƒ(x) = ax + b

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 Applications of Linear Functions:
Supply and Demand Functions
While the price of a product is $80, 10 units when it drops to $60, 20 units are sold.
A- Find the demand function?
B- If the price drops to $ 40, how many products will be sold?
C- Find the maximum price and product quantities?
show everything on the graph

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 Applications of Linear Functions:
Break-Even
The selling price of a product is 2.5 TL and the sales volume is 200000 units. The unit
variable cost is 1.75 TL and the fixed cost is 110000 TL. If the price drops to 2 TL, the
sales volume increases by 40%.

A- Evaluate both alternatives in terms of profitability.

B- Make a break-even analysis and decide which price is better and show it with a graph.

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 3-Quadratic Functions
If a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0, then the
function f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c is a quadratic function
in standard form and its graph is a parabola.

The domain of any quadratic function is the set of all real

numbers.
The range of a quadratic function is a proper subset of the set
of all real numbers.
Methods for finding the range of a quadratic function will
be outlined later in this section.

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 The Square Function
One of the basic elementary functions (from Section 1.2) is
the square function, h(x) = x2.
2
h(x) = x
The graph of the square function
gives a shape called a parabola.

Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)

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 What is the Deal With Parabolas
The graphs of every function with equation form ax2 + bx + c
for real numbers a, b, and c are shaped similar to the square
function (as long as a is not zero).
All such graphs are parabolas.
Parabolas appear in many places in our world:
The arc of a basketball shot is a parabola.
Reflecting telescopes use parabolic shaped mirrors.
Automobile headlights use parabolic reflectors.
Satellite dish antennas are parabolic shapes.
Solar furnaces are shaped like parabolas.
Parabolic microphones are often used at sporting
events.

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 Properties of a Quadratic
Function and Its Graph
The vertex form for a standard form quadratic can be obtained by completing the
square
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c a ≠ 0 Standard form
= a(x – h)2 + k Vertex form
we summarize its general properties as follows:
1. The graph of f is a parabola that opens upward if a > 0, downward if a < 0.

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 Properties of a Quadratic
Function and Its Graph
2. Vertex: (h, k) (The parabola increases on one side of the vertex and decreases
on the other)

3. Axis (of symmetry): x = h (parallel to the y axis)

4. f(h) = k is the minimum if a > 0 and the maximum if a < 0

5. Domain: All real numbers. Range: (–∞, k] if a < 0 or [k, ∞) if a > 0

6. The graph of f is the graph of g(x) = ax2 translated horizontally h units and
vertically k units.

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 y = ax2 + bx + c = 0
Solution

Step 1: Determine the y-intercept. To do this, set

x = 0 and solve for y.

Step 2: Determine the x-intercepts. To do this,

set y = 0 and solve for x.
A common method for solving quadratic equations is the
quadratic formula.

2 −b ± b 2 − 4ac
If ax + bx + c= 0, a ≠ 0, then x= ,
2a
provided b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0.

Step 3: Determine the vertex. One way to do

this is to use the equation for the line of
symmetry, to find the x-value of the vertex.
Substitute x-value into the original equation to
find the corresponding y-value.

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 Example: Supply and Demand
Functions
The supply equation 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 100 and the demand equation is p(x) = -20x +2500.
What is the market equilibrium point?

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 Example: Supply and Demand
Functions
The supply equation is p = x/2 + 19 and the demand equation is p = 400/(x+4).
What is the market equilibrium point?
What will be the market equilibrium point if 18 units of additional tax are imposed on the
product?

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 Example: Break-Even and Profit-
Loss Analysis
The unit variable cost of a product is 15 TL and the fixed cost is 2400 TL. The
consumer demands 45 products while the price is 55 TL. When the price is 235 TL,
there is no product demand.
Assuming the demand function is linear;
1- Demand function?
2-Total cost function in production?
3-Revenue function?
4- Find the break-even point and draw its graph.

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 4-Rational Function
A rational function is any function that can be written as
n( x )
= f ( x) d ( x) ≠ 0
d ( x)
where n( x) and d ( x) are polynomials.
The domain is the set of all real numbers for which d ( x) ≠ 0.

Rational functions are quotients of polynomial functions.

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 Example: Rational
Function
Example: Let n(x) = x – 3 and d(x) = x – 2.
n( x )
Write the rational function f ( x) = and give the domain for f ( x).
d ( x)

n( x ) x − 3
Solution : f=
( x) =
d ( x) x − 2

Since d(2) = 0, x = 2 is not in the domain of the rational

function, f(x).
The domain of f(x) is the set of all real numbers x ≠ 2.

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 Vertical Asymptotes of
Rational Functions
A vertical asymptote of a rational function f(x) is a line of the
form x = h which the graph of the function approaches but does
not cross.
If the numerator n(x) and denominator d(x) of the rational
function have no common real zeros, if d(c) = 0, then x = c is a
vertical asymptote of the rational function.
x−3 8 1
f ( x) = f ( x) = 2 f ( x)= x +
x−2 x −4 x

f(x) has a vertical f(x) has vertical f(x) has no vertical

asymptote at x = 2. asymptotes at asymptotes.
x = –2 and x = 2.
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 Horizontal Asymptotes of
Rational Functions
A horizontal asymptote of a rational function is a line of the form y = k which the
graph of the function approaches but does not cross as both x increases and decreases
without bound.

x−3 8 1
f ( x) = f ( x) = 2 f ( x)= x +
x−2 x −4 x

f(x) has a horizontal f(x) has a horizontal f(x) has no horizontal

asymptote at y = 1. asymptote at y = 0. asymptote.

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 Horizontal Asymptotes of
Rational Functions
A rational function with degree of the numerator less than
degree of the denominator has horizontal asymptote y = 0.

A rational function with degree of the numerator is equal to

degree of the denominator has horizontal asymptote y = a/b
where a is the leading coefficient of the numerator and b is the
leading coefficient of the denominator.

A rational function with degree of the numerator is greater than

degree of the denominator has no horizontal asymptote.

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 Example: Find Asymptotes

Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the rational

function. f ( x) =
3x 2 + 3x − 6
2x2 − 2

Solution: Factor the numerator and denominator to find any

common factors.

n(x) = 3(x2 + x – 2) = 3(x – 1)(x + 2)

d(x) = 2(x2 – 1) = 2(x – 1)(x + 1)

3( x + 2)
The rational function reduces to .
2( x + 1)

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 Example: Find Asymptotes
continued

3x 2 + 3x − 6 3( x + 2)
Solution: f ( x) = 2
is reduced to .
2x − 2 2( x + 1)

Vertical Asymptote: The denominator of the rational

function resulting from dividing common linear factors
has a zero for x = –1. The denominator has no other
zeroes. Therefore, x = –1 is the only vertical asymptote of
f(x).

Horizontal Asymptote: The numerator and denominator

of f(x) were each of degree 2. The leading coefficient in
the numerator is 3 and the leading coefficient in the
denominator is 2. The horizontal asymptote is y = 3/2.
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 Example: Find Asymptotes
You Try It!

 Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of the rational

function x3 − 4 x
f ( x) = 2
.
x + 5x

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 5-Exponential Functions

 This section introduces an important class of functions

called exponential functions.
 Exponential functions are used extensively in modeling and
solving a wide variety of real-world problems.
• Continuous compounded interest
• Population growth
• Radioactive decay
• And numerous other applications

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 Same Components
Different Functions
 The functions f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 are different.
• In the case of g(x) = x2, the variable is the base.
• In the case of f(x) = 2x , the variable is the exponent.

DEFINITION: Exponential Function

The equation
f(x) = bx b > 0, b ≠ 1
defines an exponential function for each different constant
b, called the base.

The domain of f is the set of all real numbers.

The range of f is the set of all positive real numbers.

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 Graphing an Exponential
Function: f(x) = 2x
The table gives selected x values and the corresponding
function values for the function, f(x) = 2x.

x f(x) = 2x (x, f(x))

–4 1/16 (–4, 1/16)

–3 1/8 (–3, 1/8)

–2 1/4 (–2, 1/4)
–1 1/2 (–1, 1/2)
0 1 (0, 1)
1 2 (1, 2)
2 4 (2, 4)
3 8 (3, 8)
4 16 (4, 16)

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 Point-by-point Plotting
The graph shows the scatter plot graph of the selected points.

x f(x) = 2x (x, f(x))

–4 1/16 (–4, 1/16)

–3 1/8 (–3, 1/8)

–2 1/4 (–2, 1/4)
–1 1/2 (–1, 1/2)
0 1 (0, 1)
1 2 (1, 2)
2 4 (2, 4)
3 8 (3, 8)
4 16 (4, 16)

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 Graph of an Exponential Function

The graph of the exponential

function with base 2, f(x) = 2x
is shown.
This graph is drawn by
connecting the points on the
scatterplot with a smooth
curve.
The graph levels off toward
the negative x-axis and
increases as x increases.

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 Graph of an Exponential Function:
g(x) = 2-x
The graph of the exponential
function g(x) = 2-x is shown.

This graph is drawn by

connecting the points on the
scatterplot with a smooth
curve.

The graph decreases and

levels off toward the positive
x-axis as x increases.

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 Theorem 1: Basic Properties of the
Graph of f(x) = bx , b > 0, b ≠ 1

1. All graphs contain the point (0, 1) since b0 = 1 for any

permissible base b.

2. All graphs are continuous curves, with no holes or jumps.

3. The x axis is a horizontal asymptote.

4. If b > 1, then bx increases as x increases.

5. If 0 < b < 1, then bx decreases as x increases.

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 Base e Exponential Function
Most current calculators have keys for 10x and ex.
The value 10 as a base is important because our numbering
system is built on base 10.
The value e is actually used more often than all other bases.
Certain mathematical processes in calculus and advanced
mathematics courses are in simplest form in base e (Euler's
number).
The function with equation y = ex is sometimes referred to as
the exponential function.

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Base e Exponential Function

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 Examining the base e

The base e is an irrational number and, like π it cannot be

represented exactly by any finite decimal or fraction.

The base e can be approximated by evaluating the expression

x
 1
1 +  for sufficiently large values of x.
 x

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 Estimating the Base e

The table shows the value of the expression for increasingly

large values of x.
The irrational number e to 12 decimal places is
e = 2.718 281 828 459

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 Definition
Exponential Functions with Base e and Base 1/e
The exponential functions with base e and base 1/e,
respectively, are defined by
y = ex and y = e–x

Domain: (–∞, ∞)

Range: (0, ∞)
The graphs of these two important functions are shown on the
next slide.

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 Graphs of ex and e –x

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 6-Logarithmic Functions
Logarithmic functions are closely related to exponential
functions.
The exponential function and corresponding logarithm
function are inverses of each other.
Logarithm functions model and facilitate solving many types
of problems.
The Richter scale (measuring the force of earthquakes).
The decibel scale (measuring sound intensity).
Finding doubling time and half-life for exponential
change.

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 Logarithmic Functions

The exponential function f defined by y = 2x increases for all

of its domain values and is one-to-one.
The inverse of f exists and is formed by interchanging the
domain and range variables to obtain x = 2y.
We call this inverse the logarithm function with base 2, and
write y = log2 x if and only if x = 2y
The graphs of y = log2 x and x = 2y are equivalent.

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 Graphing The Logarithmic
Function
Reflecting the graph of the exponential function y = 2x in the
line y = x gives the logarithmic function y = log2 x.
The table shows coordinates for points on the exponential
function and coordinates for points on the logarithmic
function formed by interchanging the variables.
The graphs of both functions along with the graph of the line
y = x are shown.

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Definition: Logarithmic Functions

The inverse of an exponential function is called a logarithmic

function.
For b > 0 and b ≠ 1, y = logb x (the logarithmic form) is
equivalent to x = by (the exponential form.)
The log to the base b of x is the exponent to which b must be
raised to obtain x.
The domain of the logarithmic function is the set of all
positive real numbers (which is also the range of the
corresponding exponential function).
The range of the logarithmic function is the set of all real
numbers (which is also the domain of the corresponding
exponential function).

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 Theorem 1: Properties of
Logarithmic Functions

If b, M, and N are positive real numbers, b ≠ 1, and p and x are real numbers, then

1.log
= b1 0 5. log=
b MN log b M + log b N
M
2.log
= bb 1 6. log
= b log b M − log b N
N
3.log b b x x=7. log b M p p log b M
4. b log=
bx
x, x > 0 =8. log b M log
= b N if and only if M N.

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 Common and Natural Logarithms

Of all possible logarithmic bases, e and 10 are used almost

exclusively.
Common logarithms are logarithms with base 10.
In mathematics notation, log x means log10 x.
Natural logarithms are logarithms with base e.
In mathematics notation, ln x means loge x.
Most current calculators include keys labeled LOG and LN
for common and natural logarithms respectively.

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