Thermal physics

Chapter 11
Demonstrating Conduction

• Experiments demonstrating thermal conductors

• Good and bad thermal conductors
• Good thermal conductors are solids which easily transfer heat
• For example; a metal pan or a ceramic tea cup

• Bad thermal conductors (also called insulators) are solids which do not transfer heat well
• For example; a wool blanket or layers of cardboard or paper
Comparing conduction in tiles and textiles

• This conduction experiment shows why homes use rugs and carpets
• Find a tiled or stone area of floor
• In the same room leave a rug or bath towel (not a thin cloth, it must be thick)
• The textile must stay in place on the floor for several hours to ensure they are at thermal
equilibrium (the same temperature)
Comparing conduction in tiles and textiles
• Stand with bare feet (hands can be used)
• Place one foot on the tiles or stone area,
and the other on the textile (towel or rug)

• Observe the apparent temperature of the

two materials as felt through the feet

• It will feel as though the tiles are cold

while the rug is warm, however, they are
at exactly the same temperature

Energy is transferred by heating from the hotter foot to the cooler tiles by conduction
Explanation

• Tiles and stones are good conductors of heat.

When the foot touches tiles, heat transfers away from the foot, making it
feel cold as it loses heat.
• Textiles like rugs are good insulators.
When the foot touches a rug, little heat is transferred, so the foot feels
warmer because it retains its starting temperature.
 Comparing conduction in wood and paper
cylindrical rod made of half wood and half metal is wrapped tightly in paper
Method for showing different thermal conduction of wood and metal

Heating the Rod with Paper at the Join of Wood and Metal
1.Use a gentle flame and heat the paper at the junction of wood and
metal, keeping the rod clear of the flame's tip.
2.Rotate the rod to ensure even heating around the paper's
circumference.
3.Stop heating when the paper becomes discoloured.
4.Remove the rod, unwrap the paper, and observe the burn pattern.
Observation:
•The paper touching the metal remains undamaged.
•The paper touching the wood is charred.
 Explanation
• Metal as a Conductor and Wood as an Insulator
• Metal is a good conductor of heat.
In this experiment, where the paper touched the
metal, heat was transferred away from the
paper into the metal and along its length,
preventing the paper from getting hot.
• Wood is a poor conductor of heat (an insulator).
Where the paper touched the wood, heat was
not transferred away, allowing the paper to get
hot enough to burn.
 Demonstrating different rates of thermal conduction in metals
• A simple conduction experiment to demonstrate the relative conducting properties of different materials can be
carried out using apparatus similar to that shown in the diagram below

The above apparatus consists of 4 different metal strips of

equal width and length arrange around an insulated circle,
holding ball bearings with wax
Determining Relative Thermal Conductivities Using Ball Bearings and Wax

•Attach ball bearings to each strip at an equal distance from the center using a small amount of
wax.
•Turn the strips upside down and gently heat the center where the strips meet using a candle.
•As heat conducts along each strip, the wax melts, causing the ball bearings to drop.
•Measure the time taken for the ball bearings to fall from each strip.
•The strip where the ball bearing drops fastest has the highest thermal conductivity, while slower
drops indicate lower thermal conductivity.
Thermal Conduction
• Thermal conduction in solids
• Conduction is the transfer of heat from one region to another through particle vibrations and the movement of free
electrons
• Conduction is the main method of thermal energy transfer in solids
• Metals are the best thermal conductors
• This is because they have a high number of free electrons
Conduction: the atoms in a solid vibrate and collide, transferring energy
Conduction Mechanisms

1.Atomic Vibrations: Heating causes atoms or ions to vibrate more.

Vibrations at the hotter end transfer energy to cooler regions through
collisions until thermal equilibrium is reached.
2.Free Electron Collisions: In solids with free electrons, these electrons move
freely, transferring thermal energy through collisions.
• This process occurs in both metals and non-metals.
Thermal conduction in liquids & gases

• Thermal Conduction in Fluids

• Requirement for Conduction: Particles must be close enough to transfer
vibrations effectively.
• Liquids: Particles are close but slide past each other, limiting conduction.
• Gases: Particles are widely spaced, making energy transfer through
vibrations negligible.
• Both liquids and gases are poor conductors of heat.
Relative thermal conductivity
• Conductors tend to be metals
• Better thermal conductors are those with delocalised electrons which can easily transfer
energy
• This means that there is a wide range of thermal conductivity
Convection
• Convection is the main way that heat travels through liquids and gases
• Convection only occurs in fluids
• Convection cannot happen in solids
 Density & convection
Convection Currents
Convection currents arise from temperature-induced density changes:
•Heating: Warmer liquid or gas expands as molecules vibrate and spread apart,
reducing density.
•Rising Motion: The less dense, heated liquid or gas rises.
•Cooling: As it cools, it contracts, becomes denser, and sinks.
•Cycle: Cooler liquid or gas moves in to replace the rising warmer fluid, creating
continuous circulation.
This process occurs in both liquids and gases.
Simple convection current diagram

When a liquid or gas is heated, it becomes less dense and rises

Cooling and Convection Currents
• Cooling Effect: When a liquid or gas cools (e.g., via an A.C. unit),
molecules lose energy, collide less, and contract, increasing density.
• Falling Motion: The denser, cooler liquid or gas sinks, allowing warmer, less
dense fluid to fill the space.
• Cycle: The warmer fluid is cooled, contracts, and sinks, maintaining
continuous circulation.
• This creates a convection current.
Radiation
Effects of different surfaces

• What two factors affect the rate of thermal energy transfer?

• The amount of thermal radiation emitted by an object depends on a number of factors:
• The surface colour of the object (black = more radiation emitted and absorbed)
• The texture of the surface (shiny surfaces = less radiation emitted and absorbed)
Table of the effect of coloured surfaces on absorbing and emitting ability
Thermal equilibrium
• As an object absorbs thermal radiation it
will become hotter
• As it gets hotter it will also emit more
thermal radiation
• Eventually, an object will reach a point
where it is absorbing radiation at
the same rate as it is emitting radiation
• At this point, the object will be
in thermal equilibrium
• At thermal equilibrium, an object
has constant temperature An object will remain at a constant temperature if it absorbs
heat at the same rate as it loses heat
 Heating & cooling by energy transfer

• Energy Transfer and Temperature Change

• Temperature Increase: Occurs when energy received exceeds energy
transferred away.
• Temperature Decrease: Occurs when energy transferred away exceeds
energy received.
• Thermal Equilibrium: The process continues until energy transfer rates balance.
• As temperature rises, radiation emission increases to match the input rate.
Conversely, as temperature falls, energy transfer decreases until equilibrium is
achieved.
 Earth's Temperature Regulation
• Without Atmosphere: Earth's surface would drop to around −180 °C at night,
similar to the Moon, as it would emit all absorbed solar radiation into space.
• Radiation Balance: Earth's temperature depends on the balance between
incoming solar radiation and emitted thermal radiation.
• Heat Source: The Sun provides most of Earth's heat as thermal radiation.
• Emission: Earth emits thermal radiation at longer wavelengths than it
receives due to its lower surface temperature compared to the Sun.
Thermal equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics and
physics that occurs when two or more systems in thermal contact no longer
exchange heat energy. At this state, all systems involved reach the same
temperature.
 Thermal equilibrium
Key Features of Thermal Equilibrium:
1.No Heat Flow:
•When two objects or systems are in thermal equilibrium, there is no net transfer of heat
energy between them.
•Heat naturally flows from the hotter system to the cooler one until equilibrium is achieved.
2.Same Temperature:
•The systems in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature. This is the defining condition
for thermal equilibrium.
3.Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
•This law formalizes the idea of thermal equilibrium. It states:
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Mathematical Representation:

• The condition for thermal equilibrium can be represented in terms of

temperature:
• TA=TB
• Are the temperatures of two systems A and B
Consequences of Thermal Energy Transfer

•Temperature Change: Objects heat up or cool down until thermal equilibrium is reached.
•Phase Changes: Heat transfer can cause melting, freezing, boiling, or condensation.
•Expansion or Contraction: Materials expand when heated and contract when cooled.
•Thermal Stress: Uneven heating or cooling may damage materials.
•Weather Effects: Drives atmospheric phenomena like winds and ocean currents.
•Biological Impact: Regulates body temperature in living organisms.
•Energy Loss: Inefficient systems lose heat, reducing performance.