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Scheme of Evaluation for BCS502- Prepared by TIE TEAM

MODULE 1
1. Differentiate between data communications and networking. What are the key
components required for effective data communication?
● Data Communications: Refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium (e.g., wire, fiber optic cable, radio waves).1 It focuses on the

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point-to-point transfer of information.
● Networking: Involves connecting multiple devices (computers, servers, etc.) together to share

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resources (files, printers, internet access) and communicate with each other.2 It focuses on
establishing a communication infrastructure.

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Key components for effective data communication:

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● Sender: The device that transmits the data.

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● Receiver: The device that receives the data.
● Transmission Medium: The physical path through which data is transmitted (e.g., cable,
wireless signal).
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● Message: The information being transmitted (data).
● Protocol: A set of rules that govern data communication, ensuring proper transmission and
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reception.3
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2. Compare and contrast various network types (e.g., LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN) with
real-world examples.
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Feature LAN (Local MAN WAN (Wide PAN

Area (Metropolitan Area (Personal
Network) Area Network) Area
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Network) Network)
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Scope Limited Larger Spans a large Very small

geographical geographical geographical area, typically
area (e.g., area (e.g., area (e.g., within a
home, office, city, country, person's
building) metropolitan continent, immediate
region) globe) vicinity

Ownership Usually Often owned Typically Owned by an

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Feature LAN (Local MAN WAN (Wide PAN

Area (Metropolitan Area (Personal
Network) Area Network) Area
Network) Network)

owned by a by a owned by individual

single consortium or multiple

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organization a single large service
organization providers

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Technology Ethernet, High-speed Internet, Bluetooth,

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Wi-Fi connections leased lines, Infrared, NFC
like fiber satellite links

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optics,

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microwave
links

Speed High (e.g.,

100 Mbps to
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Moderate to
high (e.g., 10
Lower than
LAN/MAN
Relatively
low (e.g., few
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10 Gbps) Mbps to 1 (e.g., few Mbps)
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Gbps) Mbps to
Gbps)
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Examples Home City-wide Internet, Bluetooth

network, Wi-Fi, cable corporate connection
office TV networks, networks between
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network, metropolitan connecting phone and

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school Ethernet offices in headphones,

network different cities wireless
keyboard and
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mouse
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3. Explain the concept of protocol layering and discuss the advantages of using a layered
approach in network models.
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● Protocol Layering: Organizing network communication functions into distinct layers, where
each layer performs a specific set of tasks. Data passes through these layers in a defined order,
both on the sending and receiving ends.

Advantages:
● Modularity: Easier to design, implement, and maintain network protocols as each layer has a
specific function.
● Flexibility: Changes in one layer do not affect other layers, as long as the interfaces between
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layers remain the same.4

● Interoperability: Allows different hardware and software from different vendors to
communicate with each other, as long as they adhere to the same layered model.
● Troubleshooting: Simplifies troubleshooting by isolating problems to specific layers.

4. Describe the TCP/IP protocol suite and explain the functions of each layer.

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The TCP/IP model has four layers (sometimes five, with the physical and data link layers
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combined into a single "link" layer):5

● Application Layer: Provides network services to applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SMTP).6
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● Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication between applications, including

reliable delivery (TCP) and unreliable delivery (UDP).7
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● Network (Internet) Layer: Handles routing of data packets across networks (IP).8
● Link (Network Interface) Layer: Handles communication with the physical network
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medium.

5. Explain the OSI model and its seven layers. Compare the OSI and TCP/IP models,
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highlighting their similarities and differences.

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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model has seven layers:9
1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of bits over the medium.
2.
3.
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Data Link Layer: Handles error-free transmission between adjacent nodes.
Network Layer: Handles routing of packets across networks.
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4. Transport Layer: Provides end-to-end communication between applications.
5. Session Layer: Manages dialogues between applications.
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6. Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting and encryption.

7. Application Layer: Provides network services to applications.10
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Comparison:
● Similarities: Both models use a layered approach. The network, transport, and application
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layers have similar functions in both models.

● Differences: OSI has seven layers, while TCP/IP has four (or five).11 OSI has separate session
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and presentation layers, which are combined into the application layer in TCP/IP. TCP/IP is
the dominant model used in the internet, while OSI is more of a theoretical model.12
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6. Discuss the characteristics of guided transmission media, including twisted pair, coaxial
cable, and fiber optics, and compare their advantages and disadvantages.
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● Twisted Pair: Two insulated wires twisted together to reduce interference.13

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○ Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install.

○ Disadvantages: Limited bandwidth, susceptible to interference over long distances.
● Coaxial Cable: A central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer
jacket.14
○ Advantages: Higher bandwidth than twisted pair, better resistance to interference.15
○ Disadvantages: More expensive than twisted pair, less flexible.
● Fiber Optics: Transmits data as light pulses through thin glass or plastic fibers.16
○ Advantages: Very high bandwidth, immune to electromagnetic interference, long
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transmission distances.17
○ Disadvantages: Most expensive, requires specialized installation and equipment.

7. Explain unguided transmission media, focusing on wireless technologies and their

applications.
● Unguided Transmission Media: Data is transmitted through the air or space without a
physical conductor.18

Wireless Technologies and Applications:

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● Radio Waves: Used for radio and television broadcasting, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.

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● Microwaves: Used for satellite communication, microwave ovens, WiMAX.
● Infrared: Used for short-range communication, such as remote controls.

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8. Explain the concept of packet switching and differentiate between datagram and virtual

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circuit packet switching.

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● Packet Switching: Data is divided into small units called packets, which are transmitted
independently across the network.19
● Datagram Packet Switching: Each packet is treated independently and may take a different
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path to the destination. No connection is established beforehand.
● Virtual Circuit Packet Switching: A logical connection is established between the sender
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and receiver before data transmission. All packets follow the same path.
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9. Discuss the four basic topologies used in networks, including their advantages and
disadvantages.
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● Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single cable (the bus).
○ Advantages: Simple to install, inexpensive.
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○ Disadvantages: Single point of failure (the bus), difficult to troubleshoot, limited

scalability.
● Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
○ Advantages: Easy to install and troubleshoot, failure of one device does not affect the rest
of the network.
○ Disadvantages: Central point of failure (the hub/switch), requires more cabling.
● Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a closed loop.20
○ Advantages: Relatively simple to implement, good performance under light loads.
○ Disadvantages: Failure of one device can affect the entire network, difficult to

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troubleshoot.
● Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device.

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○ Advantages: Highly redundant, very reliable.
○ Disadvantages: Very expensive, complex to implement.

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MODULE 2

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1. Explain the importance of error detection and correction at the data link layer. Describe
the basic principles of block coding.
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● Importance of Error Detection and Correction: The data link layer is responsible for
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reliable communication over a single link. Errors can occur during transmission due to noise
or interference. Error detection and correction mechanisms ensure that data is transmitted
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accurately between two directly connected nodes.

● Basic Principles of Block Coding: In block coding, the message is divided into blocks of k
bits (data bits). Redundant bits (r) are added to each block to form a codeword of n bits (n = k
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+ r). The redundant bits are calculated based on the data bits. At the receiver, the received
codeword is checked for errors using the redundant bits.
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2. Explain cyclic codes with examples. How are they used for error detection and
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correction?
● Cyclic Codes: A special type of block code where a cyclic shift (rotation) of a codeword
results in another valid codeword. They are based on polynomial arithmetic.
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● Example: Consider a dataword of 1011 (k=4). Using a generator polynomial (a predefined

polynomial), we can calculate the redundant bits. Let's say the generator polynomial is x³ + x
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+ 1. We represent the dataword as a polynomial (x³ + x + 1) and multiply it by x^(n-k) (in this
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case x³). Then, we divide the result by the generator polynomial. The remainder is the
redundant bits.
● Use for Error Detection and Correction: Cyclic codes are very effective at detecting burst
errors (multiple consecutive bits in error). The receiver performs the same division operation.
If the remainder is zero, there are no detected errors. If the remainder is non-zero, an error is
detected. More advanced cyclic codes (like CRC) can also correct some errors.

3. Describe the key Data Link Control (DLC) services: framing, flow control, and error
control, and explain their purposes.
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● Framing: Dividing the stream of bits received from the physical layer into manageable units
called frames. This involves adding headers and trailers to delineate the start and end of each
frame.
● Flow Control: Preventing a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. Mechanisms like
stop-and-wait or sliding window protocols are used.
● Error Control: Detecting and correcting errors that occur during transmission. This includes
error detection techniques (like CRC) and error correction techniques (like retransmission or
forward error correction).

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4. Compare and contrast connectionless and connection-oriented services at the data link
layer with examples of protocols.

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Feature Connectionless Service Connection-Oriented

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Service

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Connection No prior connection Connection is established
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establishment before data transfer
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Delivery Each frame is treated Frames are delivered in
independently. No order and reliably.
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guarantee of delivery or
order.
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Overhead Lower overhead Higher overhead due to

connection establishment
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and maintenance
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Examples Ethernet (original HDLC, PPP

implementation)
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5. Explain the functions and structure of the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
protocol and its modes of operation.

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● Functions: HDLC is a bit-oriented protocol that provides reliable data transfer over

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point-to-point and multipoint links. It supports framing, flow control, and error control.
● Structure: An HDLC frame consists of:
○ Flag: Delimits the start and end of a frame.
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○ Address: Identifies the secondary station in multipoint configurations.
○ Control: Contains control information, including frame type and sequence numbers.
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○ Data (Information): Contains the user data.
○ Frame Check Sequence (FCS): Contains error detection information (typically CRC).
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○ Flag: Delimits the end of the frame.

● Modes of Operation:
○ Normal Response Mode (NRM): Used in multipoint configurations where a primary
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station polls secondary stations.

○ Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM): Used in point-to-point configurations where both
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stations have equal status.

○ Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): Rarely used.
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6. Discuss different media access control methods: random access (e.g., ALOHA,
CSMA/CD) and controlled access (e.g., reservation, polling, token passing), with examples.
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● Random Access: Stations contend for access to the medium. Collisions can occur.
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○ ALOHA: Stations transmit whenever they have data. High collision rate.
○ CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): Stations listen to
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the medium before transmitting. If a collision is detected, transmission is stopped and

retransmission is attempted after a random backoff period. Used in Ethernet.
● Controlled Access: A central authority or a defined procedure controls access to the medium.
○ Reservation: Stations reserve time slots for transmission.
○ Polling: A primary station polls each secondary station to see if it has data to transmit.
○ Token Passing: A special packet called a token is passed from station to station. Only the
station with the token can transmit. Used in Token Ring.
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7. Explain the checksum method for error detection. What are its limitations?
● Checksum Method: The sender adds the data units (treated as binary numbers) and appends
the complement of the sum (the checksum) to the data. The receiver performs the same
addition and checks if the sum (including the received checksum) is all 1s.
● Limitations: Not very robust. It can fail to detect errors if the errors cancel each other out
(e.g., if one bit is flipped from 0 to 1 and another bit is flipped from 1 to 0). It is less effective
than CRC for detecting burst errors.

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8. Describe the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), its key features, and applications.

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● PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): A data link layer protocol used for establishing direct
connections between two nodes. Commonly used for dial-up internet access and VPNs.
● Key Features:

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○ Framing: Uses byte stuffing to delimit frames.

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○ Link Control Protocol (LCP): Establishes, configures, and tests the data link connection.
○ Network Control Protocols (NCPs): Negotiate network layer parameters (e.g., IP

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addresses).
● Applications: Dial-up internet access, DSL connections, point-to-point links between routers.

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9. Explain bit-oriented framing, including byte stuffing and unstuffing with examples.
● Bit-Oriented Framing: Frames are delimited by bit patterns (flags) rather than byte counts.
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HDLC uses bit-oriented framing.
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● Byte Stuffing (Character Stuffing): When a flag byte (e.g., 01111110) appears within the
data, an escape byte is inserted before it. At the receiver, the escape byte is removed.
● Example:
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○ Data: ABC 01111110 DEF

○ Stuffed Data: ABC ESC 01111110 DEF (where ESC is the escape byte).
● Unstuffing: The receiver detects the escape byte and removes it, restoring the original data.
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Module - 03
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1. Describe the services provided by the network layer and its primary functions.
● Services: The network layer provides the service of delivering packets from a source host to a
destination host across one or more networks. It is responsible for host-to-host delivery.
● Primary Functions:
○ Routing: Determining the best path for packets to travel from source to destination.
○ Logical Addressing: Assigning unique logical addresses (IP addresses) to devices.
○ Packetizing (Fragmentation): Dividing data from the transport layer into smaller packets
for transmission.
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○ Internetworking: Providing a way for different networks to communicate with each other.

2. Explain the concept of packet switching at the network layer. How does it differ from
packet switching at the data link layer?
● Packet Switching at the Network Layer: The network layer uses packet switching to route
packets across multiple networks. Routers at each network make routing decisions based on
the destination IP address in the packet header.
● Difference from Data Link Layer Packet Switching:
○ The data link layer handles packet switching within a single network (link), using MAC

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addresses. The network layer handles packet switching across multiple networks, using IP
addresses.

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○ The data link layer is concerned with physical addressing and media access control, while
the network layer is concerned with logical addressing and routing.

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3. Explain the structure of an IPv4 address and describe the different classes of IPv4

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addresses.

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● Structure of an IPv4 Address: A 32-bit address represented in dotted decimal notation (e.g.,
192.168.1.1). It consists of two parts:
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○ Network ID: Identifies the network.

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○ Host ID: Identifies a specific host within the network.

● Classes of IPv4 Addresses: Historically, IPv4 addresses were divided into classes:
○ Class A: Large networks (0-127 network ID).
○ Class B: Medium-sized networks (128-191 network ID).
○ Class C: Small networks (192-223 network ID).
○ Class D: Multicast addresses (224-239).
○ Class E: Reserved for future use (240-255).
Classful addressing is now obsolete and has been replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR).
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4. Describe the format of an IPv4 datagram and explain the key fields and their functions.

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● IPv4 Datagram Format:

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○ Version: IP version number (4).
○ Header Length (IHL): Length of the header in 32-bit words.
○ Type of Service (ToS) / Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP): Specifies the desired
quality of service. IN
○ Total Length: Total length of the datagram (header + data).
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○ Identification: Used for fragmentation and reassembly.
○ Flags: Control fragmentation.
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○ Fragment Offset: Position of the fragment in the original datagram.

○ Time to Live (TTL): Prevents packets from looping indefinitely.
○ Protocol: Indicates the upper-layer protocol (e.g., TCP, UDP).
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○ Header Checksum: Checks for errors in the header.

○ Source IP Address: IP address of the sender.
○ Destination IP Address: IP address of the receiver.
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○ Options: Optional fields.

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○ Data: Payload from the upper layer.

5. Briefly explain the structure of an IPv6 datagram. Compare it with IPv4 and discuss the
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advantages of IPv6.
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● IPv6 Datagram Structure:
○ Version: IP version number (6).
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○ Traffic Class: Similar to ToS/DSCP in IPv4.

○ Flow Label: Used for quality of service.
○ Payload Length: Length of the payload.
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○ Next Header: Indicates the next header type.

○ Hop Limit: Similar to TTL in IPv4.
○ Source IP Address: 128-bit source address.
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○ Destination IP Address: 128-bit destination address.

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○ Payload: Data from the upper layer.

● Comparison with IPv4:
○ Address Length: IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, while IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses.
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○ Header Format: IPv6 has a simplified header format.

○ Address Autoconfiguration: IPv6 supports stateless address autoconfiguration.
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○ Security: IPv6 has built-in security features (IPsec).

● Advantages of IPv6:
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○ Much larger address space.

○ Simplified header format.
○ Improved security.
○ Better support for mobile devices.

6. Introduce the concept of routing algorithms and differentiate between static and
dynamic routing.
● Routing Algorithms: Algorithms used by routers to determine the best path for packets to
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reach their destination.

● Static Routing: Routing tables are manually configured by the network administrator.
○ Advantages: Simple to implement.
○ Disadvantages: Not adaptable to network changes, requires manual updates.
● Dynamic Routing: Routing tables are automatically updated by routing protocols.
○ Advantages: Adapts to network changes, less administrative overhead.
○ Disadvantages: More complex to implement, requires more processing power.

7. Compare and contrast Distance Vector Routing (DVR), Link State Routing (LSR), and

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Path Vector Routing (PVR).

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Feature Distance Vector Link State Routing Path Vector
Routing (DVR) (LSR) Routing (PVR)

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Information Distance vectors Topology Path information
Shared (distance and information (link (list of ASes to

networks)
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direction to other states of the
network)
reach a
destination)
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Routing Metric Hop count, cost Cost, link AS path length,
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characteristics policy

Algorithm Bellman-Ford Dijkstra's Path vector

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algorithm algorithm
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Convergence Slow, prone to Fast, less prone to Prevents routing

routing loops routing loops loops between
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(count-to-infinity ASes
problem)
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Examples RIP OSPF BGP

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8. Explain the functionalities of RIP, OSPF, and BGP protocols.

● RIP (Routing Information Protocol): A distance-vector routing protocol. Uses hop count as
the metric. Simple but has limitations (e.g., hop count limit of 15).
● OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): A link-state routing protocol. Uses Dijkstra's algorithm.
More complex but more efficient than RIP.
● BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): A path-vector routing protocol used between autonomous
systems (ASes). Used for internet routing.
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9. Briefly discuss multicast routing using MOSPF.

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● MOSPF (Multicast Open Shortest Path First): An extension of OSPF that supports
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multicast routing. It builds a shortest-path tree for each multicast group.

10. Solve an example using Dijkstra’s algorithm to form a least-cost tree

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Answer : .Find Shortest Paths from Source to all Vertices using Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Source : Geeks for Geeks

● Steps to be written in VTU EXAM

1. Assign a tentative distance value to every node: set it to zero for our initial node, and to
infinity for all other nodes.
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2. Mark the initial node as current.

3. For the current node, consider all of its unvisited neighbors and calculate their tentative1
distances through the current node. Compare the newly calculated tentative distance to the
current assigned value and assign the smaller one.2
4. When we are done considering all of the unvisited neighbors of the current node, mark the
current node as visited. A visited node will3 not be checked again.
5. Select the unvisited node that is marked with the smallest tentative distance, and set this
as the new "current node" then go back to step 3.

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Module- 04

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1. Explain the primary functions of the transport layer. How does it provide
end-to-end communication between applications?

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● Primary Functions: The transport layer is responsible for providing end-to-end

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communication between applications running on different hosts. It ensures that data is
delivered reliably and in the correct order.
● How it provides end-to-end communication:
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○ Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides data from the application layer into smaller
segments for transmission and reassembles them at the destination.
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○ Port Addressing: Uses port numbers to identify specific applications on a host.
○ Connection Management: Establishes and terminates connections between applications (in
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the case of TCP).

○ Flow Control: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver.
○ Error Control: Detects and corrects errors in transmission.
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2. Compare and contrast the characteristics of UDP and TCP.

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Feature UDP (User Datagram TCP (Transmission

Protocol) Control Protocol)
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Connection Connectionless Connection-oriented

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Reliability Unreliable (no guarantee Reliable (guarantees

of delivery or order) delivery and order)

Overhead Low overhead Higher overhead due to

connection management
and reliability mechanisms
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Feature UDP (User Datagram TCP (Transmission

Protocol) Control Protocol)

Speed Faster Slower

Use Cases Streaming media, online Web browsing, file

gaming, DNS transfer, email

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3. Describe the services and features provided by TCP. How does it ensure reliable data

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delivery?

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● Services and Features:
○ Connection-oriented: Establishes a connection before data transfer.

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○ Reliable delivery: Guarantees delivery of data in the correct order.
○ Flow control: Prevents sender from overwhelming receiver.

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○ Error control: Detects and corrects errors.
○ Congestion control: Prevents network congestion.
● How it ensures reliable data delivery:
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○ Sequence numbers: Each segment is assigned a sequence number, which is used to reorder
segments at the receiver.
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○ Acknowledgements (ACKs): The receiver sends ACKs to acknowledge the receipt of
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segments.
○ Retransmission: If an ACK is not received within a timeout period, the sender retransmits
the segment.
○ Checksum: Used to detect errors in segments.
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4. Explain the structure of a TCP segment and describe the key fields and their functions.
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● TCP Segment Structure:

○ Source Port: Port number of the sending application.
○ Destination Port: Port number of the receiving application.
○ Sequence Number: Sequence number of the first byte in the segment.
○ Acknowledgement Number: Next expected sequence number from the receiver.
○ Data Offset (Header Length): Length of the header in 32-bit words.
○ Reserved: Reserved for future use.
○ Control Bits (Flags):
■ URG: Urgent data.

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■ ACK: Acknowledgement.
■ PSH: Push data.

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■ RST: Reset the connection.
■ SYN: Synchronize sequence numbers (used for connection establishment).

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■ FIN: Finish the connection.
○ Window Size: Size of the receiver's receive window.

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○ Checksum: Checksum for error detection.

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○ Urgent Pointer: Points to the end of urgent data.
○ Options: Optional fields.
○ Data: Payload from the application layer.
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5. Explain the concept of TCP connections, including the three-way handshake and
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connection termination.
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● TCP Connections: TCP is connection-oriented, meaning a connection must be established

before data can be exchanged.
● Three-Way Handshake:
1. SYN: The sender sends a SYN segment to the receiver, indicating its intention to establish
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a connection.
2. SYN-ACK: The receiver responds with a SYN-ACK segment, acknowledging the
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sender's SYN and sending its own SYN.

3. ACK: The sender sends an ACK segment to acknowledge the receiver's SYN-ACK.
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● Connection Termination:
1. FIN: One of the hosts sends a FIN segment to indicate that it is finished sending data.
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2. ACK: The other host acknowledges the FIN.

3. FIN: The other host sends its own FIN.
4. ACK: The original host acknowledges the second FIN.
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6. Describe TCP flow control mechanisms. How does TCP prevent the sender from
overwhelming the receiver?
● TCP Flow Control: Prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver by limiting the
amount of data the sender can transmit without receiving an acknowledgement.
● Mechanisms:
○ Window Size: The receiver advertises its receive window size in the TCP header. The
sender can only send up to the advertised window size without receiving an ACK.
○ Sliding Window: The sender maintains a window of segments that can be sent without
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waiting for ACKs. As ACKs are received, the window slides forward, allowing more
segments to be sent.

7. Explain TCP error control mechanisms. How does TCP handle lost or corrupted
segments?
● TCP Error Control: Ensures reliable delivery of data by detecting and correcting errors.
● Mechanisms:
○ Checksum: Used to detect corrupted segments.
○ Acknowledgements (ACKs): Used to acknowledge the receipt of segments.

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○ Retransmission Timeout: If an ACK is not received within a timeout period, the sender
retransmits the segment.

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○ Selective Repeat/Go-Back-N: If a segment is lost, the sender retransmits only the lost
segment (selective repeat) or all segments sent after the lost segment (Go-Back-N).

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8. Describe TCP congestion control mechanisms. How does TCP prevent network

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congestion?

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● TCP Congestion Control: Prevents network congestion by reducing the sending rate when
congestion is detected.
● Mechanisms:
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○ Slow Start: Starts with a small congestion window and increases it exponentially until
congestion is detected.
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○ Congestion Avoidance: After slow start, the congestion window is increased linearly.
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○ Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery: If three duplicate ACKs are received, it is assumed that a
segment is lost, and the sender retransmits the segment without waiting for a timeout.

9. Explain the differences between stop-and-wait and selective-repeat protocols.

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A
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Feature Stop-and-Wait Selective Repeat

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Window Size Sender window = 1, Sender window > 1,

Receiver window = 1 Receiver window > 1
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Efficiency Low efficiency (sender Higher efficiency (sender

waits for ACK after each can send multiple
segment) segments)

Complexity Simple More complex

Buffer Requires minimal buffer at Requires larger buffer at

sender and receiver to store
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Feature Stop-and-Wait Selective Repeat

sender and receiver multiple out-of-order

packets

10. Discuss the finite state machine (FSM) of Reno TCP.

● Reno TCP FSM: Reno is a version of TCP that includes congestion control mechanisms like

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fast retransmit and fast recovery. Its FSM describes the different states the TCP connection can
be in and the transitions between those states.

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● Key States:
○ Closed: No connection.

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○ Listen: Waiting for a connection request.
○ SYN-Sent: Sent a SYN segment.

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○ SYN-Received: Received a SYN segment.

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○ Established: Connection is established.
○ Fin-Wait-1/Fin-Wait-2: Waiting for a FIN or ACK.
○ Time-Wait: Waiting for a sufficient time to ensure that all segments have been received.
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○ Close-Wait: Waiting for the local application to close the connection.
○ Last-ACK: Waiting for the final ACK.
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Modula - 05
1. Describe the functions of the application layer and its interaction with user applications.
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● Functions: The application layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP and OSI models. It provides
network services to user applications, enabling them to communicate over the network. It does
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not provide services to any other layer.

● Interaction with User Applications: The application layer acts as an interface between user
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applications and the network. It provides protocols that applications use to request and receive
network services. Examples include:
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○ Web browsers using HTTP to access web pages.

○ Email clients using SMTP to send emails and POP3/IMAP to receive emails.
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○ File transfer applications using FTP to transfer files.

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2. Explain the client-server programming model, detailing the roles of the client and server.
● Client-Server Programming Model: A distributed application structure that partitions tasks
or workloads between servers (providers of resources or services) and clients (requesters of
services).
● Roles:
○ Client:
■ Initiates requests for services.
■ Sends requests to the server.
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■ Waits for a response from the server.

■ Processes the response from the server.
○ Server:
■ Listens for client requests.
■ Processes client requests.
■ Sends responses back to the client.
■ Provides services or resources to clients.

3. Explain the working of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the HTTP protocol. What are

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HTTP methods and status codes?

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● Working of the WWW: The World Wide Web is a system of interconnected hypertext

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documents and other resources, accessed via the Internet. It is based on the client-server
model, with web browsers acting as clients and web servers hosting websites.

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Ex: www.takeiteasyengineers.com- here www is connecting your favourite TAKEITEASY
ENGINEERS to the Internet
● HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): The foundation of data communication for the World
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Wide Web. It defines how clients and servers exchange messages.
● HTTP Methods: These define the type of action a client wants to perform on a resource.
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Common methods include:
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○ GET: Retrieves a resource.

○ POST: Submits data to be processed by a resource.
○ PUT: Updates a resource.
○ DELETE: Deletes a resource.
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● HTTP Status Codes: These are three-digit codes sent by the server in response to a client
request, indicating the status of the request. Common categories include:
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○ 1xx (Informational): Request received, continuing process.

○ 2xx (Success): Request was successful. (e.g., 200 OK)
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○ 3xx (Redirection): Further action needs to be taken by the client.

○ 4xx (Client Error): Client error. (e.g., 404 Not Found)
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○ 5xx (Server Error): Server error. (e.g., 500 Internal Server Error)

4. Describe the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and its usage in transferring files between
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hosts.
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● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A standard network protocol used for transferring files
between a client and a server over1 a TCP/IP network.
● Usage:
○ A client establishes two connections to the server: a control connection (for commands) and
a data connection (for file transfer).
○ The client sends commands to the server (e.g., to list files, upload files, download files).
○ The server responds with replies.
○ Files are transferred over the data connection.
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5. Explain the workings of electronic mail and the key protocols involved (e.g., SMTP,
POP3, IMAP).
● Workings of Electronic Mail: Email involves sending and receiving messages electronically
over a network.
● Key Protocols:
○ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails from a client to a mail
server or between mail servers.
○ POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3): Used for retrieving emails from a mail server to a

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client. Downloads emails to the client and typically deletes them from the server.
○ IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Used for retrieving emails from a mail server

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to a client. Allows clients to access and manage emails on the server without necessarily
downloading them.

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6. Describe the Domain Name System (DNS) and how it translates domain names to IP

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addresses.

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● DNS (Domain Name System): A hierarchical and distributed naming system for computers,
services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a private network. It translates2
human-readable domain names (e.g., https://takeiteasyengineers.com/) into IP addresses (e.g.,
192.0.2.1).
● Translation Process:
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○ A client queries a local DNS server (usually provided by the ISP).
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○ If the local DNS server does not have the IP address, it queries a root DNS server.
○ The root DNS server directs the query to a top-level domain (TLD) server (e.g., .com, .org).
○ The TLD server directs the query to an authoritative name server for the domain.
○ The authoritative name server provides the IP address.
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○ The local DNS server caches the IP address for future queries.
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7. Explain the TELNET protocol, its uses, and security limitations.

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● TELNET: A network protocol used to provide bidirectional interactive text-oriented

communication using a virtual terminal connection.
● Uses: Used for remote administration of servers and network devices.
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● Security Limitations: Transmits data in clear text, making it vulnerable to eavesdropping and
interception. It is generally considered insecure and has been largely replaced by SSH.
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8. Describe the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol and how it provides secure remote access to
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servers.
● SSH (Secure Shell): A cryptographic network protocol for operating network services
securely over an unsecured network.
● How it provides secure remote access:
○ Encryption: Encrypts all communication between the client and server, protecting against
eavesdropping.
○ Authentication: Provides strong authentication mechanisms to verify the identity of the
client and server.
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○ Integrity: Ensures that data has not been tampered with during transmission.

9. Differentiate between persistent and non-persistent connections in HTTP with examples.

● Non-Persistent Connections: A new TCP connection is established for each request/response
pair.
○ Example: A web page with multiple images. The browser establishes a separate connection
for each image.
● Persistent Connections: A single TCP connection is used for multiple request/response pairs.
○ Example: A web page with multiple images. The browser establishes one connection and

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retrieves all images over that connection.
● Advantages of Persistent Connections: Reduced overhead due to fewer connection

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establishments, improved performance.

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10. Explain iterative communication using TCP with examples.

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● Iterative Communication using TCP: The server processes one client request at a time.
While the server is processing a request from one client, other clients must wait.

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● Example: A simple time server. A client connects to the server and requests the current time.
The server sends the time and closes the connection. While the server is handling this request,
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other clients attempting to connect will be blocked. This is a basic example, most servers use
concurrent methods to handle multiple clients simultaneously.
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