Chapter one

Introduction to sanitation and

sanitary engineering
 Objective of the chapter

❖To know the scope of sanitary engineering

❖To identify sanitation system
❖To know sewage system
❖To quantify and determine sanitary and storm sewage
 Introduction
• Sanitary engineering is the application of engineering
methods to improve sanitation of human communities
,primarily by providing the removal and disposal of human
waste.
• Sanitary engineering is a design and construction specialty
that confronts issues related to public health .
• Professionals in the field builds new sanitation systems and
repair existing structures to improve health and safety.
• Like engineers in other specialties ,sanitary engineering
professionals draw blueprints ,make computer models, and
develop models before initiating anew construction project.
• the sanitary engineer job become essential with the rapid
increase of cities and other rural population concentrations
 Important terms in waste water collection
system
• Sewage : is the broad term that indicates the liquid waste
originating from the use of water .it includes domestic
waste water ( discharge from toilets ,urinals ,kitchen
,bathrooms etc ) wastewater generated from commercial
establishments, institutions ,industrial establishment and
also the ground water and storm water that may enter into
the sewer.
• Storm water: it indicates the rain water of the locality.
• Sanitary sewage :it is the wastewater generated from the
lavatory basin ,urinals and water closets of the residential
buildings ,office building ,theatre and other institution .this
is very fouling in nature. Sewer are underground pipes or
conduits which carry sewage to points of disposal.
Cont..
• Inflow: It is the water which inters the sewers from the
manholes during rain events.
• Infiltration :it is the water which inter the sewer from the
ground water through lose joints or cracks.
• Sewerage: It refers to devices ,equipment's and appurtenances
for the collection ,transport and pumping of sewage .Basically
it is the science of collecting and carrying system through
sewer.
• Sullage: This refers to the wastewater generated from
bathrooms, kitchens, washing place and wash basins ,etc
.composition of this waste dose not involve higher
concentration of organic matter and it is less polluted water as
compared to sewage.
• Night soil: it is a term used to indicate the human and animal
excreta.
System of sanitation
❖Depend upon the type of waste two systems may be
employed for its collection ,conveyance and disposal:
a) Conservancy system
b) Water carriage system.
A. Conservancy system
• sometime this system is also called dry-system.
• its prevailing in small towns.
• various types of refuse and storm water are collected,
conveyed and disposed of separately by different methods in
this system, therefore, its called conservancy system.
Cont.…
• Liquid and semi liquid wastes are collect separately .
• Liquid waste in one side to drain properly individually
garbage removed safely
Merits of Conservancy sys. Demerits of conservancy sys.
1. Its cheaper in initial 1. It is possible that storm water
cost. may go in sewers causing heavy
2. The quantity of sewage load on treatment plants, therefore it
reaching at the treatment is to be watched.
plant before disposal is 2. In crowded lanes it is very
low. difficult to lay two sewers
3. There will be no silting 3. For burying human excreta more
and deposits in sewer- space of land is required.
line. 4. Building can not design as one
4. In floods if the water compact unit.
level of river rise at the 5. There is every possibility that
out-fall, it will not be liquid refuse may get an access in
costly to pump the the subsoil and pollute the
sewage for disposal
underground water
B. water-carriage system
• In this system water is the main substance, therefore its called
water-carriage system
Merits of water carriage sys.
1.Its hygienic method.
2. There is no nuisance in the streets of the towns due to offensive
matters.
3. Its occupies less space in crowed lane.
4. Due to more quantity of swage, self-cleansing velocity can be
obtained even at less gradients.
5. Buildings can be designed compact as one unit.
6. The usual water supply is sufficient.

7. Sewage after proper treatment can be used for various purposes.

Cont.
Demerits of water-carriage sys
1. This system is very costly in initial cost.
2. The maintenance of this system is also costly.
3. During wet season large volume of sewage is to be treated
whereas very small volume is to be treated in the remaining
period of.
 Planning a Sewerage Project
✓The following data need to be collected in preparing a scheme.

a. Population: this will be required for knowing the present and future
population at the end of design period.

b. Quantity of water: Quantity of water supply from various sources

in a city will help in determining the quantity of sewage flow.

c. Industries: the nature and number of various industries are to be

determined. This helps in assessing the quantity of industrial wastes

d. Rainfall data: this will help in estimating the quantity of storm

flow. It also helps in deciding which sewerage system to adopt,
whether a combined or separate system.
 cont.
e. Surveying: the area survey including contour map, location
of pumping station, treatment plant, outfall etc. are determined
with the help of survey report. Nature and layout of sewage
system is also dependent on the topography of the area under
consideration.
f. Scope of expansion: care should be taken in planning a
sewerage scheme that there should be possibility for future
expansion. On practical and economic considerations, the
design period cannot be kept too long and the system may have
to be extended after design period.
.
Cont..
g. Economy: The scheme has to be made not only economical
by proper planning, design and execution but also has to be
adjusted within the available funds.
 Sewer Pipes
Types of Sewer Pipes in a Typical Separate Sanitary Collection
System:-

• The largest sewers are usually referred to as trunk sewers or

interceptors, intercept flow that formerly was discharged directly
into streams but is now transported to treatment facilities.

• Main (collector) sewer is the term used to describe most sewers.

• Laterals are the smallest sewers; refers to the piping from the
customer to the main in the street.
• A house sewer (waste pipe) is a pipe conveying wastewater from
an individual structure to a common sewer or other point of
disposal.
cont..
▪ Force mains or rising mains: pressurized pipes fed by centralized

pump stations.

A relief sewer describes a sewer installed to provide extra capacity

to a part of the system that was overloaded.

▪ An outfall sewer is a sewer, which carries the collected waste to a

point of treatment or disposal.

▪ Manholes or access structures provide access to the sewer for

cleaning and other maintenance activities.

▪ catch basins are provided to permit entrance of storm water from

street gutters.
Manhole

Catch basin
 Sewer Layout
The pattern of sewer layout system depends on the following
factors.
• The Sewerage system adopted whether combined, separate or
partially separate system
• The area to be drained .
• Location of disposal point and
• The topography and hydrological feature of the area
PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM:-
1. PARPENDICULER PATTERN
2. INTERCEPTER PATTERN
3. RADIAL PATTERN
4. FAN PATTERN
5. ZONE PATTERN
 1. PARPENDICULER PATTERN
• In this pattern sewers carrying storm water are laid in such a
way as to seek the shortest possible path to the nature water
course.
• Its not suitable for combined system. Because ,firstly its very
difficult to treat the sewage due to large number of outlets
and secondly it pollutes the water of natural courses.
 2.INTERCEPTER PATTERN
• This pattern is an improved over the perpendicular pattern.
• This sewers system has large size sewer.
If the quantity of storm water is very large, overflows should
be provided allowing the excessive sewage to spill over into
nature water courses through outlets, which were existing
before the interception
 3. RADIAL PATTERN
• This type of pattern can be employed if the sewage is to be
disposed off on land around the town.
• In this pattern large number of outlets are provided.
• the center of the city, therefore, this is called as radial pattern.
• This pattern is suburbs can be served by relatively small and
short lines of sewers which make it economical.
• The main disadvantage of this system being large number of
disposal works
 4. FAN PATTERN
• If the city is situated near the river, which is on one side of it
only, sewer can be laid in such a way that the whole sewer
flows to a common point where one treatment plant is located
• The only advantage of this system being single unit of
treatment work.
• The drawback of this pattern is that if the outlying suburbs
develop , it will increase the load on the treatment works,
restricting the development.
 5. ZONE PATTERN
• In the interceptor pattern only one single large size
intercepting sewer is use to collect and convey the entire
sewage , Due to which it is overloaded.
• This overloading can be removed by providing more number
of interceptors of each zone .
• This type of pattern is most suited to sloppy areas as hills
than flat areas.
 Sewage system
• The water carriage system can be divided into the following
types:
A. Separate system
B. Combined system
C. Partially combined system
A. Separate sewerage system
❖ In this system two separate sets of sewer are installed, one
for collection and conveyance of sanitary sewage and other
for storm water.
❖ The sewage is conveyed to waste water treatment plant and
the storm water is discharged into rivers without
treatment. Because, it is not foul in nature and normally
disposed off to natural water coarse without any treatment.
 Advantages
➢ The size of sewers are small
➢ Sewage load on treatment units is small
➢ River or stream waters are not polluted
➢ Storm water can be discharged into streams or rivers
without any treatment.
➢ Economical for sewage pumping since the quantity is small
Disadvantages
❖ Since the sewers are of small size, it is difficult to clean
❖ They are easily get clogged .
❖ Two sets of sewers may ultimately prove to be costly.
❖ Storm water sewers are only used during rainy season.
 B.C ombined sewerage system
❖ The combined system provides only one sewer to carry
both the foul sewage as well as the rain water.
❖ The sewage and rain water are carried to the sewage
treatment plant, before its final disposal.
 Advantages of combined sewer system
❖ Large sewer size don't clog easily and are easy to clean
❖ Laying one set of sewer is economical
❖ The strength of sewage is reduced by dilution
❖ Maintenance cost is reasonable

Disadvantages of combined sewer system

❖ Large sewers are difficult for handling and transport
❖ Due to storm water load the treatment plant is high
❖ During heavy rains sewers may overflow causing
nuisance
❖ Pumping is uneconomical
❖ Storm water is unnecessarily polluted
 C .Partially combined system
❖ In this system, only one set of underground sewer is laid.

❖ These sewer admit the sanitary sewage as well as the early

washings from the drainage area due to rains.

❖ When the storm water exceed its specified limit, the excess is
diverted in to natural water courses.

Advantages

• The sewer are of reasonable size. Their cleaning is therefore

not difficult.
• It combines the advantages of both the separate as well as the
combined systems.
• The work of house plumbing is reduced, because the rain
water from roof, sullage from baths and kitchen, etc. can be
taken in the pipe carrying the discharge from the water closest.

Disadvantages
❖ During the dry weather, when there is no rain water, the
velocity of flow will be low. Thus self cleansing velocitymay not
be achieved.
❖ The storm water increases the load on treatment units.
❖ The storm water also increases the cost of pumping.
❖ The storm water increase the load on treatment units.
 Sanitary Sewage estimation
❖It is necessary to determine the quantity of sewage that will
flow through the sewer. In order to find out :-
✓Suitable section and Hydraulic design of the sewers.
 Cont.…
➢The following are the main sources of Sanitary Sewage:-
a) Domestic wastewater
b) Industrial wastewater
c) Storm wastewater
d) Infiltration/inflow
❑Domestic sewage: The principal sources of domestic wastewater
in a community are the residential areas, commercial districts,
institutional, and recreational facilities.
➢wastewater flow rates are derived from an analysis of population
data and corresponding projected unit rates of water consumption
from estimates of per capita wastewater flow rates from similar
communities.
 Cont.

➢For many residential areas, wastewater flowrates are

commonly determined on the basis of population density and
the average per capita contribution of wastewater.
➢In many cases design flows are fixed by water and
wastewater agencies. If these data are not available an
estimate of 70 to 80% of the domestic water consumption may
be taken as wastewater. Commercial wastewater flowrates are
expressed in m3/ha.d and are based on existing or anticipated
future development.
➢Average flowrate allowances for commercial developments
normally range from 7.5 to 14 m3/ha. day.

➢Actual records of similar institutions are the best source of

flow data for design purpose.
❑Industrial sewage: wastewater in which industrial wastes
predominate.
➢In many countries where industries are permitted to
discharge their wastewater without adequate pre-treatment.
➢Wastewater flowrates from industrial sources vary:-
✓with the type and size of the industry,
 cont.
✓the degree of water reuse, and the onsite wastewater treatment
method if any.
➢Extremely high peak flowrates may be reduced by the use of
detention tanks and equalization basins.
➢For industries without internal recycling or reuse programs, it
can be assumed that about 85 to 95% of the water used in the
various operations and processes will become wastewater.
➢Average wastewater may vary from 30 – 95 l/capita/d are
usually noticeable.
 cont.
❑Storm water:
➢Storm water discharges are generated by runoff from open
land and impervious areas such as paved streets, parking
lots, and building rooftops during rainfall and snow events.
 cont.
➢Although storm water runoff is commonly discharged
through a single outfall pipe, such discharges are more
accurately classified as non point pollutant sources.

➢Storm water runoffs usually contain pollutants in quantities

that could affect water quality adversely.
 cont.
❑Infiltration/Inflow: Infiltration is extraneous water that

enters the sewer system through leaking joints, cracks and

breaks, or porous walls.

➢Inflow is storm water that enters the sewer system from

storm drain connections (catch basins), roof leaders,

foundation and basement drains, or through manhole

covers.
cont.
 Factors Affecting Sanitary Sewage
❑Rate of water supply
➢The rate of sewage may be 70 to 80 percent of water
supply due to various reasons such as consumption,
evaporation, use in industries etc.
➢This may be changes daily, seasonal and also standard of
living of people.
❑Population
➢As the population increases the quantity of sewage also
increases because the consumption of water is more.
❑Type of area served
➢The quantity of sewage depends upon the type of area as
residential, industrial or commercial.
➢The quantity is depending up on population if it is
residential, Commercial, public places and type of
industry if it is industrial.
 cont.
❑Ground water infiltration
➢Whenever, the sewer pipes are laid below the ground water-
table, certain amount of ground water generally seeps into
them, through their faulty leaky joints or cracks formed in the
pipes due to bad materials or poor construction.
➢The quantity of the ground water entering these sewer pipes
depends mainly upon the height of the water-table above the
sewer invert level and the nature and extent of faults and
fissures present in the sewer pipes.
 cont.
➢However, if the ground water-table is well below the sewer,
the infiltration can occur only after rain, when water is
moving down through the soil
➢The rate and quantity of infiltration depends on
✓ the length of sewers,
✓ the area served,
✓the soil and topographic conditions and
✓to a certain extent the population density (which
affects the number and total length of house
connections)
➢Infiltration rates in old systems have been measured to be
from 35 to 115m3/ (km.day) per (mm) of diameter.
➢the exact quantity of ground water infiltrating into the sewer
pipes cannot be estimated precisely. As per the U.S.A.
reports;
1. 4.5 to 45 cum/hectare area/day
2. 11 to 225 cum/hectare area/km length of the sewer line
3. 0.7 to 7.2 cum/day/cm of diameter of the sewer.
Determination of Quantity of dry weather flow (Sanitary
sewage)
Dry weather flow:- is the flow that occurs in sewers in separate
sewage system or the flow that occurs during dry seasons in
combined system.
❖This flow indicates the flow of sanitary sewage.
❖This depend upon the rate of water supply, type of area served,
economic conditions of the people, weather conditions and
infiltration of ground water in the sewers.
Evaluation of Sewage Discharge:-following quantities are
considered while estimating the sewage quantity:-
1. Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies:-water
supply from private wells, tube wells, etc. Similarly, certain
industries utilize their own source of water.
❖ This quantity can be estimated by actual field observations.
 cont.
2. Additions due to infiltration:-This is additional quantity due to
groundwater seepage in to sewers through faulty joints or cracks
formed in the pipes.

The quantity of the water depends upon the height of the water table
above the sewer invert level.

• The quantity of the water entering sewers depends upon the

permeability of the ground soil.

• it is very difficult to estimate.

3. Subtraction due to water losses:-The water loss, through leakage

in water distribution system and house connections, does not reach
consumers and hence, not appear as sewage.
4. Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage system :- e.g.
water sprinkled over the roads, streets, lawns, and gardens, water
consumed in industrial product, water used in air coolers, etc

• Net quantity of sewage: The net quantity of sewage production can

be estimated by considering the addition and subtraction as discussed
above over the accounted quantity of water supplied by water
authority as below;

Generally, 70 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered

as quantity of sewage produced.
 cont.
Design period :-The future period for which the provision is
made in designing the capacities of the various components of the
sewerage scheme. The design period depends upon the following:

➢ Ease and difficulty in expansion,

➢Amount and availability of investment,

➢Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in

communities, industries and commercial investments,

➢Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and

➢Life of the material and equipment.

 cont..
• Following design period can be considered for different components of
sewage scheme:-
1. Laterals less than 15 cm diameter………Full development
2. Trunk or main sewers…………....40 to 50 years
3. Treatment Units ……. ………… 15 to 20 years
4. Pumping plant………………….5 to 10 years
Future forecasts and estimating design sewage discharge
The expected population at the end of the design period can be estimated
by collecting the data of the past populations of several decades from the
Census Department, and then by extrapolating. The future population by
using anyone of the different methods, such as
1.Arithmetical increase method; 5. Incremental increase method;
2.Simple graphical method; 6. Master plan method;
3. Geometrical increase method; 7. Decreasing rate method;
4. Comparative graphical method; 8. The logistic curve method
Variation in Sewage Flow Variation
• occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average daily flow.
• Fluctuation in flow occurs from hour to hour and from season to
season.
• The typical hourly variation in the sewage flow is shown in the next
Figure.

Figure :Typical hourly variations in sewage flow

➢Low flow in sewers is observed during nights.

➢The effect of this low flow is maximum in the laterals and
minimum in main and trunk sewers.
For estimating design discharge following relation can be considered:
• Maximum daily flow= Two times the annual average daily flow
(representing seasonal variations)
• Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow
(accounting hourly variations)
= Three times the annual average daily flow
As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease. Why?

The sizes of the sewers can then be easily designed for carrying the
computed maximum hourly flows, with sewers running 3 /4th full.
This peak sewage flow has been connected with the population by
certain investigators by the formula:-

Where P = Population in thousands

 cont.
• Therefore, for outfall sewer the peak flow can be considered
as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow.
• Even for design of the treatment facility, the peak factor is
considered as 1.5 times the annual average daily flow.
• The minimum flow passing through sewers is important to
develop self cleansing velocity to avoid silting in sewers.
• This flow will generate in the sewers during late night
hours. The effect of this flow is more pronounced on lateral
sewers than the main sewers.(why?)
• Sewers must be checked for minimum velocity as follows:
Minimum= 2/3 Annual average daily flow
Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow
= 1/3 Annual average daily flow
Methods For Estimation of Quantity of Storm Water
1. Rational Method

2. Empirical formula method

In both the above methods, the quantity of storm water is

considered as function of intensity of rainfall and coefficient
of runoff.

Time of Concentration: The period after which the entire

catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called as
the time of concentration .Time of concentration = Inlet time
+ time of travel
cont.

Fig. Catchment
 cont.
• The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration
will not produce maximum discharge.
• The runoff may not be maximum, even when the duration of the
rain is more than the time of concentration. This is because in
such case the intensity of rain reduces with the increase in its
duration.
• The runoff will be maximum, when the duration of rainfall is
equal to the time of concentration and is called as critical
rainfall duration. The time of concentration is equal to sum of
inlet time and time of travel.
Inlet Time/Overland Flow Time: The time required for the rain
in falling on the most remote point of the tributary area to flow
across the ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to
inlet of sewer is called inlet time.
 cont.
The inlet time ‘Ti’ can be estimated using relationships similar to
following. This coefficients will have different values for different
catchments
Ti = (𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟓𝑳𝟑 /𝑯)𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓 Where, Ti = Time of inlet, time
L = Length of overland flow in
Kilometer from critical point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical
point to mouth of drain, meter
Time
For an urban setting, the Airport formula is recommended for the
calculation of overland flow time as,

Where To = overland flow time in minutes, Lo = overland flow

length in feet, So = overland slope in ft/ft, and K5 = 5-year runoff
coefficient. Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow
in the drain.
 cont.
channel from the mouth to the point under consideration or the point
of concentration is called as time of travel.
Length of drain
Time of Travel (Tt) =
velocity in drain
Runoff Coefficient: The runoff coefficient can be defined as a
fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of total rainfall to
determine the quantity of rain water, which will reach the sewers.
✓ The runoff coefficient depends upon the porosity of soil cover,
wetness and ground cover.
A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ An. Cn
✓ Overall runoff coefficient, C = A1 + A2 + …+ An
Where, A1, A2, …. are types of area with
C1, C2, …. as their coefficient of runoff, respectively
 cont.
Runoff coefficient for different type of cover in catchment

Rational method :-Stormwater quantity can be estimated by rational

method as below: Storm water quantity,
C.I.A
Q= /
360
where, Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff I = intensity of rainfall, mm/hour, and
A = Drainage area in hectares
OR Q = 0.278 C.I.A Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in
square kilometer
 cont.
Empirical Formula:-
✓used for determination of runoff from very large area.
✓Various empirical relationships are developed based on the past
observations on specific site conditions suiting a particular
region.
These empirical formula can be used for prediction of storm water
runoff for that particular catchment.
1. Burkli – Zeiglar formula : the oldest empirical formula used for
determining the peak run off rate.
Where Qp = the peak runoff in m3/s K’ = the runoff
coefficient depending up on the permeability of the
surface and having an average value of 0.7 in m3/s. P =
the maximum rain fall intensity over the entire area and is
usually taken as 2.5 to 7.5cm/hr A= the drainage area in
hectares So = the slope of the ground surface in meters
per thousand meters
 cont.
Dickens’s formula.
Where QP = Peak discharge in m3/s M = Catchment area in sq. Km
C = a constant depending upon all those factors which affect the
run-off . An average value of C equals to 11.5 is generally used and
it should be increased for hilly areas and vice versa.
Ryve’s formula.
This formula is almost similar to that of Dicken’s; the only
difference is in the value of the constants. It is generally applicable
to south Indian catchments and states that;
Where QP, M and C1 have the same meaning as in Dicken’s
formula. The average value of C1 to be used is 6.8, with less value
for flat catchments and more value for hilly catchment
value of C1 in Ryve’s formula Location
cont.
 cont.
Inglis Formula: This formula is applicable to the fan shaped
catchments in old Bombay state of India. It states that

Where QP, M and C1 have the same meaning as in Dicken’s

formula
Nawab Jung Bahadur formula: This formula has been derived
from Hyderabad Deccan catchments. It states

The value of the constant C2 varies between 48 to 60. M’ is the

catchment area in acres. Dredge or Burge’s formula: This
formula is based upon Indian records

Where QP and M have the same meaning as earlier, L is the length

of the drainage basin in kilometers.
 cont.
• Empirical formulae for rainfall intensities These
relationships between rainfall intensity and duration are
developed based on long experience in field (Figure )
• In general, the empirical relationship has the following
forms:
I = a/ (t + b) OR I = b / tn
Where, a, b, and n are constants.
Examples
1. A city has a projected population of 60,000 spread over area of 50
hectare. Find the design discharge for the separate sewer line by
assuming rate of water supply of 250 LPCD and out of this total supply
only 75 % reaches in sewer as wastewater. Make necessary assumption
whenever necessary.

2. Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving

population of 50000 with rate of water supply of 135 LPCD. The
catchment area is 100 hectares and the average coefficient of runoff is
0.60. The time of concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min and the
relation between intensity of rainfall and duration is I = 1000/(t + 20).

3. The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the

catchment can be classified as given below: