CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 1: Motion, Forces and Energy

Summary Notes

Definitions in bold are for extended students only

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1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

Measurement techniques:

● A ruler (rule) is used to measure the length of an object between 1mm and 1m.
○ A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small distances that a rule
cannot measure.

As you turn the screw, the gauge’s jaws move to fit around your object. Its
size can be read on the inner cylinder (which gives its integer value in mm)
and the rotating barrel (which gives its decimal value to 0.01mm).

● A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of a liquid or an object that can sink.
Placing the object into a measuring cylinder full of water causes the water level to rise. This
rise is equal to the volume of the object.
○ For regular shaped solids, you can also find their volume by calculation.
● Clocks and timers (both analogue or digital) are used to measure time intervals.

To measure a short distance or time interval, an average value is calculated from multiple
measurements. This reduces percentage uncertainty, which is higher for smaller measurements.
● This usually requires repeat measurements, but for the period of a pendulum, one
measurement is taken for several oscillations and then a mean is calculated.

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Physical quantities:

● A scalar quantity has magnitude only.

● A vector quantity has magnitude and direction. They can be represented by arrows.

Scalar Examples Vector Examples

Distance Displacement

Speed Velocity

Time Acceleration

Mass Momentum

Energy Force

Temperature Electrical/gravitational field strength

Vectors at right angles to one another can be combined into one resultant vector. This can
be done for forces and velocities, either graphically or by calculation.

● Graphically, vectors are drawn to scale as arrows at right angles (length is their
magnitude) so that a diagonal from their origin gives us the resultant.

● By calculation, the resultant’s magnitude is found using Pythagoras’ theorem (a2 + b2

= c2), and its direction is found using trigonometry.

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1.2 Motion

● Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
units = m/s
● Velocity is the speed in a given direction:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣= 𝑡
units = m/s

● If speed is changing, an object is accelerating or decelerating.

○ In this case, the object’s speed is calculated as an average:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
units = m/s
○ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity:
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑎=
∆𝑣
∆𝑡
units = m/s2
○ Deceleration is a negative acceleration.:

Before plugging any values into these speed, velocity, and acceleration equations, double-check
all the units are equivalent to one another, and convert them if needed.
● Distance and displacement could be measured in mm, cm, m, or km.
● Time could be measured in ms, s, minutes, or hours.
● The answer is usually in metres and seconds.

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Interpreting a displacement-time graph:

● The gradient is the velocity (or the speed on a distance time graph).

○ The object is at rest when the gradient is horizontal.

○ The object is moving at a constant speed/velocity when the gradient is straight.
○ The object is accelerating when the line is curved and the gradient is increasing.

○ The object is decelerating when the line is curved and gradient is decreasing.

○ A negative gradient shows the object is returning to the starting point.

○ To calculate speed/ velocity:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑌
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(If calculated for a curved section, the answer is the average speed.)

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Interpreting a velocity-time graph:

● The gradient is acceleration.

○ The object is at rest when the speed/ velocity is zero.

○ The object is moving at a constant speed when the line is horizontal.
○ The object is accelerating when the line has a positive gradient.
○ The object is decelerating when the line has a negative gradient.
○ The object is moving with constant acceleration when the line is straight.
○ The object is moving with changing acceleration when the line is curved.
○ To calculate the acceleration:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥

● The area under the graph gives the distance travelled.

○ To calculate the area under the graph, split it into rectangles and triangles:

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The motion of objects falling:

● Objects in free fall, near the Earth’s surface, all will fall with an approximately constant
acceleration of free fall known as ‘g’.
g = approximately 9.8m/s2.
● Objects free falling in a uniform gravitational field are in the absence of air/liquid
resistance and all fall with this same constant acceleration (9.8m/s2).
● Objects falling in a uniform gravitational field in the presence of air/liquid resistance,
fall with decreasing acceleration.
○ Initially, there is no air resistance and the only force at work is weight.
At this point, acceleration is 9.8m/s2 (g).
○ As it accelerates, speed increases, which increases air resistance.
○ This decreases the resultant force (downwards), so acceleration decreases.
○ Eventually, weight and air resistance are equal and opposite, so there is no
resultant force, no acceleration, and the terminal velocity is reached.

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1.3 Mass and weight

● Mass measures how much matter is in an object (when the object is at rest relative to the
observer). 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑘𝑔
● Weight is the gravitational force that acts on objects with mass. 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = Newtons (N)
● Gravitational field strength (g) is the amount of gravitational force (weight) acting on an
object, per unit of its mass.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑊
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑔 = 𝑚
units = N/kg

○ Both gravitational field strength and acceleration of free fall are represented by ‘g’
because they are equivalents (9.8N/kg and 9.8m/s2, respectively, on Earth).
○ As shown in the equation, weight is the effect of the gravitational field on a
mass. Therefore, as the value of ‘g’ differs from planet to planet, an object’s
weight differs from planet to planet too. An object’s mass, however, remains
the same.

The weight and mass of two different objects can be compared using a balance. This is possible
because ‘g’ is a constant on Earth.

1.4 Density

● Density is the mass per unit volume of an object:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
ρ= 𝑉
units = kg/m3
To find the density of a liquid:

● Calculate the mass - mass is equal to the difference in mass of a measuring cylinder when
empty and after filling it with the liquid, measured using a balance.
𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑'𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
● Measure the volume - volume is read from the cylinder.
● Calculate the density by plugging mass and volume into the density equation.

To find the density of a solid:

● Measure the mass - mass is measured using a balance.

● Calculate the volume:
○ Of regularly shaped solids - volume is found by measuring the solid’s dimensions
and using the appropriate equation for the object’s shape:

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 ○ Of irregularly shaped solids - volume is equal to the rise in water when the object is
placed into a measuring cylinder full of water (volume by displacement)(see 1.1).

𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑'𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟'𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 − 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟'𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
● Calculate the density by plugging mass and volume into the equation.

An object will float if it is less dense than the liquid it is placed in and sink if it is more dense than
the liquid it is placed in.

● Density of water is 1g/cm3; objects with density greater than this sink in water - those with a
density less than 1g/cm3, float.

● The same is true for two liquids (if they do not mix): one liquid will float because it is
less dense than the other liquid.

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1.5 Forces

1.5.1 Effects of forces

Forces can change the size and shape of an object:

Elastic solids can be extended when force is applied and will return to their original shape and size
when the force is removed.

● The spring constant is the force required per unit of extension:

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐹
𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑘 = 𝑥
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑁/𝑚 (Hooke’s Law)

● The extension of an object can be investigated experimentally:

○ The initial length of an object is measured with a ruler.
○ Masses are attached to the object incrementally (adding force), and the object’s
length is measured and recorded after the addition of each.
○ The extension is found by subtracting the initial length from the new length.
○ The experiment is repeated 3 times and an average extension found for each mass.
○ The force is weight, so can be found by multiplying mass by the gravitational field
strength 9.8N/kg (see 1.3).
○ Force and extension are plotted on a load-extension graph:

● Load-extension graphs for an elastic object should be linear and pass through the origin.
○ The gradient of the linear section is the spring constant, k.
○ The point where the graph stops being linear is the limit of proportionality.
𝐹
Beyond which, 𝑘 = 𝑥
is no longer true, and an object stretches irreversibly.

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Forces can change the speed or direction of an object:

● A resultant force is a single force that describes the combined action of all forces acting on
an object.
○ The resultant of forces at right angles to one another can be found (see Topic
1.1).
○ The resultant of forces acting along the same straight line can be found by:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

If forces balance one another out when combined, there is no resultant force.

● Without a resultant force, an object either remains at rest or continues in a straight line at a
constant velocity. (Newton’s First Law)
● With a resultant force, an object's velocity will change (acceleration) either by changing
speed or direction of motion.
● The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to the object's mass. Where force and acceleration act in the
same direction:

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (Newton’s Second Law)

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 ● To move in a circular motion, a resultant force is needed.
○ Objects moving in a circle are always changing direction (so velocity is
always changing).
○ This requires a force to continually act perpendicular to the object’s direction
of motion (eg. the force of gravity on something orbiting Earth).

○ If mass and radius are constant, when force increases, speed increases.
○ If mass and speed are constant, when force increases, radius decreases.
○ To keep speed and radius constant in the case that mass increases, an
increased force is required.

Friction:

● Friction (drag) is a force between two surfaces which can impede motion and result in
heating.
○ It can act on an object moving through liquid or gas (e.g. air resistance).

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1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

● The pivot point is the point which the object can rotate about.

If a force is applied in the same line as the pivot the object will not rotate, and remains stationary.

If the force applied is in a different line to the pivot, it will rotate in the direction of the force.
● If perpendicular to the object, perpendicular distance is the length of the object.
● If not perpendicular to the object, perpendicular distance to the pivot is found using
trigonometry .

● The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect:

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑑
Example: A bike pedal - when riding a bike, pressing your foot down on the pedal causes a
moment about the pivot, turning the pedal arms.

When there is force on either side of the pivot, the object will rotate about the pivot point in the
direction of the force that creates a greater moment (either clockwise or anticlockwise).

● When the clockwise moment equals the anticlockwise moment there is no resultant force,
no resultant moment, and the object is in equilibrium (balanced).

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Example: A see-saw - when sat on a see-saw, the weight of each person causes a moment. The
person that creates a larger moment, is lowered to the floor. If both people create equal moments,
the see-saw is balanced.

When there is more than one force on either side of the pivot, the sum of the anticlockwise
moments and the sum of all the clockwise moments are compared. Again, the object rotates
in the direction of the forces creating a greater moment.

An experiment can be performed to show that there is no resultant moment on an object in

equilibrium:
● Pivot a uniform ruler at its centre
● Place different masses at different distances from the centre on either side until it
balances
● Multiply the total mass on either side by 9.18N/kg (force of weight) to calculate
anticlockwise and clockwise moments.
● The clockwise and anticlockwise moments will be equal.

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1.5.3 Centre of gravity

● The centre of gravity of a body is the point at which all of its weight can be considered to
act.

To calculate the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane lamina:

● Hang up the lamina and suspend a plumb line (thread) from the same place.
● Mark the position of the plumb line.
● Repeat with the lamina suspended from different places.
● Where these lines intersect is the centre of gravity.

The position of the centre of gravity affects the stability of simple objects:
● If the centre of mass is below the point of suspension of an object, it will be in stable
equilibrium (e.g. a hanging plant pot).
● If the centre of mass is above the point of suspension of an object, it will be in unstable
equilibrium (e.g. a pencil placed on its sharp end).
● If the line of action of the object’s weight moves outside the base, there will be a resultant
moment and it will topple.
So objects with a lower centre of gravity and a wider base are more stable.

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1.6 Momentum

● Momentum is the product of mass and velocity:

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 units = kg m/s
● Impulse is the product of force and time, equal to the change in momentum:
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 = ∆(𝑚𝑣) units = Ns

In a collision, momentum is always conserved (principle of the conservation of momentum).

The total momentum before is equal to the total momentum afterwards.
● This can be used to solve problems in one dimension.

Example:

● A 10kg stationary gun is loaded with a 10g bullet. It is fired, with the bullet travelling
−1
at 100𝑚𝑠 . What is the recoil speed of the gun?
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 0 kg m/s
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
So change in momentum = 0 (∆(𝑚𝑣) = 0)
−1
0 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 = 0. 01𝑘𝑔 × 100𝑚𝑠 = 10𝑣
−1
𝑣 = − 0. 1𝑚𝑠
-1
The velocity is -0.1ms , with the minus sign showing direction because it is a vector.
−1
So the recoil speed is 0. 1𝑚𝑠 (the magnitude of the velocity vector only)

1.7 Energy, work and power

1.7.1 Energy

Energy is stored in different forms including kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain),
nuclear, electrostatic and internal (thermal).

You can calculate kinetic and gravitational potential energy:

1 2 1 2
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 2
𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) 𝐸𝑘 = 2
𝑚𝑣
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
units = J

Energy can be transferred between the different forms (stores) during events and processes.
Energy can be transferred in various ways including:
● Forces e.g. when gravity accelerates an object downwards and gives it kinetic energy.
● Electrical currents e.g. when a current passes through a lamp and it emits light and heat.
● Heating e.g. when a fire is used to heat up an object.
● Waves (electromagnetic/ sound) e.g. vibrations cause waves to travel through air as sound.

Energy is always conserved. The total energy before is equal to the total energy after.

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Example: When a ball is dropped, gravitational potential energy becomes kinetic energy as it
accelerates downwards. Upon impact with the floor, this kinetic energy will become thermal energy
and sound energy. The energy never ceases, it is transferred between forms.

Energy transfer can be shown using a flow diagram:

● The arrows show the direction of the energy transfer.

○ When there are multiple arrows originating from an energy store, it is being split to
transfer into more than one energy type, totalling the original.

Energy transfer can also be shown using a Sankey diagram:

● The arrows show the direction of the energy transfer.

○ The end of the arrow pointing to the right is useful energy output.
○ The end that points down is wasted energy.
○ The arrow width shows the amount of energy going to each store.

The change in gravitational potential energy as you raise the ball can be calculated using:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
∆𝐸 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ

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1.7.2 Work

Work done is equal to the energy transferred.

● Mechanical work is done when energy is transferred by a force, which moves something a
distance.
● Electrical work is done when energy is transferred through electrical currents.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 = ∆𝐸

1.7.3 Energy Resources

Energy can be used to generate electrical power:

● A turbine is turned using energy from an energy resource.

● The turbine turns coils, in a magnetic field, in a generator.
○ This generates electrical power.

The energy needed for this can be obtained from different resources. There are disadvantages and
advantages of using each resource in terms of:

● Renewability - the ability to replenish energy as quickly as it is used.

● Availability - the ease of accessing the resource.
● Reliability - the ability to provide a consistent supply of energy.
● Scale - the amount of energy that can be produced using this resource.
● Environmental impact - the effects on the environment of obtaining and using the resource.

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Fossil fuels as an energy resource:

Fossil fuels are a source of chemical energy. They are formed from the decomposition and
compression of organism remains over millions of years.

Fossil fuels are burnt to generate electrical power:

● Their chemical energy is transferred to heat energy.
● The heat energy is used to boil water, creating steam.
● The steam turns the turbine.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Reliable (they can be burnt on demand ● Non-renewable (because they take

when needed). millions of years to form).
● Large-scale energy production. ● Releases greenhouse gases that cause
● Readily available (although resources global warming.
are depleting).

Biofuels as an energy resource:

Biofuels are another source of chemical energy. They are produced from plants and animal waste.

Like fossil fuels, they are burnt to generate electrical power:

● Their chemical energy is transferred to heat energy.
● The heat energy is used to boil water, creating steam.
● The steam turns a turbine.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Renewable (new plants can be grown and ● Availability is limited by the time,
animals will always produce waste). land and resources needed to grow
● Reliable plants.
● Carbon neutral because carbon dioxide is
released when biofuels are burnt, but
used by the plants for photosynthesis.

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Nuclear fuels as an energy resource:

Nuclear fuels are the nuclei of radioactive isotopes which release energy when split in two
(nuclear fission). They are another non-renerable resource, so share many advantages and
disadvantages with fossil fuels.

Nuclear fuels undergo nuclear fission to generate electrical power:

● Heat energy is released by nuclear fission.
● The heat energy is used to boil water, creating steam.
● The steam turns a turbine.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Reliable (they can be used on demand ● Non-renewable (the atoms used are
when needed). in finite supply).
● Large-scale energy production. ● Availability is limited.
● No pollution is released (unless
radioactive waste isn’t effectively stored).

Water as an energy resource:

Water’s waves and tides can generate electrical power:

● The kinetic energy as waves and tides move is used to turn underwater turbines.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Renewable (water is not used up in the ● Destroys habitats.

process). ● Small-scale.
● No pollution is produced.
● Reliable and available (there are always
waves and tides).

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Water can also be released from behind hydroelectric dams to generate electrical power:
● The water behind the dam is above ground level, so has gravitational potential energy.
● This energy is transferred to kinetic energy when water is released down a slope.
● The flowing water turns the turbine.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Reliable (water can be released on ● Dam creation destroys habitats and

demand when needed). greenhouse gases are produced to
● Available (water is usually easy to pump the water.
access).
● Large scale.

Radioactive elements as an energy resource:

Radioactive elements are a source of geothermal energy. They are found deep in the earth.

Decaying radioactive elements can be used to generate electricity:

● As radioactive elements decay, their geothermal energy heats the surrounding rock.
● Water is poured into shafts in the hot rock.
● The heat energy boils the water, creating steam, which is returned via another shaft.
● Steam turns a turbine.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Renewable ● Small-scale (as there are few suitable locations

● Reliable with radioactive elements).
● Can release of greenhouse gases from
underground.

The Sun as an energy resource:

The Sun’s light (electromagnetic waves) can be used to generate electricity:

● Solar energy from sunlight is turned into an electrical current by solar cells.

The Sun’s light can also be used to heat water:

● Infrared waves of the Sun’s light heat water, contained within solar panels.
● The water goes to a tank and is stored for later use.
● A boiler may be needed to heat the water further.

The Sun heats the atmosphere, creating wind which can also generate electricity:
● As the wind blows, it transfers kinetic energy to the blades of wind turbines.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

● Renewable ● Small-scale
● No greenhouse gases or pollution ● Not reliable (relies on specific weather
produced. conditions of sun or wind).

The original source of energy for most energy resources is the sun, (apart from for
geothermal, nuclear and tidal).
● The sun’s energy is released by nuclear fusion.
● Research is being done to investigate how nuclear fusion could be used to produce
electrical energy on a large scale.

Efficiency of an energy transfer:

As energy is transferred in an event or process, it spreads out between objects and surroundings.

The efficiency of an energy transfer measures how much of the total energy supplied is applied to
useful work done.
● Efficiency can be expressed as a percentage:

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑥 100 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑥 100

○ It can never exceed 100%, due to the conservation of energy.

1.7.4 Power

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done.

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 ∆𝐸 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑃= 𝑡
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑃 = 𝑡

Example: a lamp with greater power will be brighter because it transfers more energy from
electrical energy to light and heat energy in a given time.

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1.8 Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area.
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑝= 𝐴
units = pascals

Example: lying down on a bed of nails compared to a single nail.

● The force applied is the weight of your body.
● The total area is either a single pinpoint or many points spread out over a larger area
○ So on a bed of nails, the pressure is lower as the area is greater.

An object in a fluid experiences pressure at right angles to all its surfaces.

● The pressure beneath a liquid’s surface increases with depth and density because it is
caused by the gravitational force of the fluid above that point.

The change in pressure beneath the surface of a liquid can be calculated:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∆𝑝 = ρ𝑔∆ℎ

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 CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 2: Thermal Physics

Summary Notes

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2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

2.1.1 States of matter

● Solids
○ Molecules close together in regular pattern
○ Strong intermolecular forces of attraction
○ Molecules vibrate but can’t move about
○ Cannot flow, have fixed shape and cannot be
compressed

● Liquids
○ Molecules close together in random arrangement
○ Weaker intermolecular forces of attraction than solids
○ Molecules move around each other
○ Flow, take the shape of their container and cannot be
compressed

● Gases
○ Molecules far apart in random arrangement
○ Negligible/very weak intermolecular forces
○ Molecules move quickly in all directions
○ Flow, completely fill their container and can be compressed

2.1.2 Particle Model

Brownian motion:
● Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
● This is due to collisions with other gas molecules
● Massive particles may be moved by light, fast-moving molecules

The temperature of a gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules. The higher the
temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy and so the faster the average speed of the
molecules. When the kinetic energy of the molecules is zero, the temperature of the substance is
known as “absolute zero”, the lowest possible temperature (-273ºC).

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2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

The unit Kelvin is often used in this situation. 1 Kelvin has the same magnitude as 1ºC, but Kelvin
is shifted such that absolute zero (-273ºC) is equal to 0 Kelvin. To convert between Kelvin and
degrees Celsius:
T(in K) = T(in ºC) + 273

Gases exert pressure on a container due to collisions between gas molecules and the wall. When
the molecules rebound off the walls, they change direction so their velocity and therefore
momentum changes. This means they exert a force because force is equal to the change in
momentum over time.

● At a constant volume, if the temperature increases, the pressure increases because the
molecules move faster so they collide harder and more frequently with the walls.
● At a constant temperature, if the volume increases, the pressure decreases because the
molecules collide less frequently with the walls.
○ For a gas at fixed mass and temperature, 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, where p is the
pressure in Pascals and V is the volume in m3.

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2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

When something is heated, it expands because the molecules take up more space:
● When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more but stay in place, so the relative
order of magnitude of the expansion is small.
● When a liquid is heated, it expands for the same reason as a solid, but the
intermolecular forces are less so it expands more.
● When a gas is heated, the molecules move faster (increase in the average kinetic
energy of the molecules) and further apart, so the relative order of magnitude of the
expansion is the greatest.

Some applications and consequences of thermal expansion include:

● Railway tracks having small gaps so that they don’t buckle when they expand
● The liquid in a thermometer expands with temperature and rises up the glass

2.2.2 Specific heat capacity

When the temperature of a body rises, its internal energy increases and its molecules vibrate.
● The specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature
of 1kg of a substance by 1℃.
○ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 where ΔE is the change in thermal energy in J, c is specific heat
capacity in Jkg-1℃-1, m is mass in kg and ΔT is change in temperature in ℃.
○ The specific heat capacity of a material can be found by insulating the material and
placing a thermometer and an immersion heater inside. The total work done by the
heater (found by the power (current times potential difference) times time) can
be divided by the mass of the material and the change in temperature to find the
specific heat capacity.
● The thermal capacity of a body is how much energy needs to be put in to raise its
temperature by a given amount.
○ The thermal capacity of a system is given by: 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑐

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2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Melting and boiling occur when energy is put in to a body without a change in temperature.
● The melting point is the temperature at which a given solid will melt when heated.
● The boiling point is the temperature at which a given liquid will turn into a gas when heated.
● Condensation is when some molecules in a gas do not have enough energy to remain as
separate molecules, so they come close together and form bonds, becoming liquid.
● Freezing is when the molecules in a liquid slow down enough that their attractions cause
them to arrange themselves into fixed positions, becoming solid.

The melting point of water at atmospheric pressure is: 0ºC

The boiling temperature of water at atmospheric pressure is: 100ºC

Condensation occurs when gas particles lose energy and move closer together, transitioning into
a liquid state as intermolecular forces pull them into a more ordered arrangement. Solidification
happens when liquid particles lose further energy, slowing down and locking into a fixed, rigid
structure, forming a solid with particles vibrating in place.

● Evaporation is the escape of molecules with higher energy from the surfaces of liquids.
● After they escape, the remaining molecules have a lower average kinetic energy which
means the temperature is lower (i.e. evaporation cools the liquid).
● To increase the rate of evaporation:
o Increase temperature: more higher energy molecules
o Increase surface area: more molecules at the surface
o Draught: molecules are removed before returning to the liquid

Evaporation is different to boiling because it can happen at any temperature and only
occurs at the surface of the liquid.

● The specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of 1kg of
a substance.
○ Specific latent heat of fusion is the energy to melt/freeze
○ Specific latent heat of vaporization is energy to boil/condense
● 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑙
○ where E is the energy needed in J, m is the mass in kg, and l is the specific
latent heat in Jkg-1.

When a body changes state, energy goes towards making the molecules more free from each
other rather than increasing their kinetic energy.
Graph showing the temperature of ice with time when
energy is put in at a constant rate:
● From A to B the ice is rising in temperature
● From B to C it is melting into water
● From C to D the water is rising in temperature
● From D to E the water is boiling into steam
● From E to F the steam is rising in temperature

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2.3 Transfer of Thermal Energy

2.3.1 Conduction

Experiments to Demonstrate Good and Bad Thermal Conductors:

● Use a metal rod with wax at equal distances along it. Heat one end of the rod:
○ Good conductor (e.g., metal): Wax melts quickly further along the rod.
○ Bad conductor (e.g., wood, plastic): Wax remains intact, showing poor heat
transfer.
● Compare temperature changes using a thermometer or thermal sensors on materials like
copper (good) vs. wood (bad).

Thermal Conduction in Solids:

● Lattice vibrations: In non-metals, heat energy causes atoms in the lattice to vibrate and
transfer energy to neighboring atoms.
● Free electrons: In metals, free (delocalised) electrons rapidly transfer heat as they move
through the lattice, making metals excellent conductors.

Why Conduction Is Poor in Gases and Liquids:

● Gases: Particles are far apart, so collisions are infrequent, leading to inefficient energy
transfer.
● Liquids: Particles are closer than in gases but lack the rigid structure for effective energy
transfer like in solids.
● Some solids (e.g., ceramics, glass) conduct heat better than insulators like wood or plastic
but are less efficient than metals due to the absence of free electrons.

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2.3.2 Convection

● Convection is a key method of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases.

● Mechanism: Heat causes the fluid to expand, reducing its density. The warmer, less dense
fluid rises while cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a convection current.
● Experiments to Illustrate Convection:
○ Use a beaker of water with dye or potassium permanganate crystals at the bottom.
Heat the base of the beaker to observe the upward movement of warm water.
○ Smoke box: A box with a candle under one chimney shows smoke entering through
the other chimney, visualizing convection currents.

2.3.3 Radiation

Thermal radiation is infrared radiation emitted by all objects due to their temperature.

Medium independence means thermal radiation does not require a medium and can transfer
energy through a vacuum.

Effect of Surface Color and Texture:

● Black/Dull surfaces: Good absorbers and emitters of radiation.

● White/Shiny surfaces: Poor absorbers and emitters; good reflectors of radiation.

For an object to maintain constant temperature, energy transfer away must equal energy received.

If energy received > energy lost: Object heats up.

If energy received < energy lost: Object cools down.

The earth’s temperature balance is influenced by the balance between incoming solar radiation
and emitted infrared radiation, as well as factors like greenhouse gases and surface reflectivity.

Experiments: Good and Bad Emitters:

● Place two containers (one black, one shiny) of hot water in a cool room. Measure cooling
rates; black emits more heat.

Experiments: Good and Bad Absorbers:

● Place black and shiny surfaces under a heat lamp. Measure temperature rise; black
absorbs more radiation.

Rate of Radiation Emission:

● Depends on:
○ Surface temperature: Hotter surfaces emit more radiation.
○ Surface area: Larger areas emit more radiation.

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2.3.4 Consequences of Thermal Energy Transfer

Basic Applications and Consequences:

● Heating Objects (e.g., Kitchen Pans):

○ Conduction: Heat travels through the metal pan from the base to the food
due to the high thermal conductivity of metals.
○ Handles are often made of insulators (e.g., plastic) to prevent burns.
● Heating a Room by Convection:
○ Warm air from heaters rises as it becomes less dense, displacing cooler air
which sinks, creating a convection current to evenly distribute heat in the
room.

Complex Applications and Consequences:

● A Fire Burning Wood or Coal:

○ Conduction: Heat transfers through the solid fuel, allowing it to ignite further.
○ Convection: Hot air rises, creating upward currents that carry smoke and
warm the surrounding area.
○ Radiation: Infrared heat radiates directly from the flames to warm nearby
objects.
● A Radiator in a Car:
○ Conduction: Heat from the engine coolant transfers to the radiator metal.
○ Convection: Air passes over the radiator, carrying heat away as the heated
air rises.
○ Radiation: Some heat is lost directly as infrared radiation to the
surroundings.

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 CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 3: Waves
Summary Notes

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3.1 General properties of waves

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter; particles oscillate about a fixed point.

Amplitude – the distance from the equilibrium position to the maximum displacement
Wavelength – the distance between a point on one wave and the same point on the next wave
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a single point per second
Speed – the distance travelled by a wave each second

Wave motion refers to the transfer of energy from one point to another without the transfer
of matter, typically involving oscillations or vibrations.

● Speed is related to frequency and wavelength by:

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑣 = 𝑓λ
Types of waves:
● Transverse waves
○ Has peaks and troughs
○ Vibrations are at right angles to the direction of
travel
○ An example is light
● Longitudinal waves
○ Consists of compressions (particles pushed together) and rarefactions
(particles moved apart)
○ Vibrations are in the same direction as the direction of travel
○ An example is sound

A wavefront is a surface containing points affected in the same way by a wave at a given time such
as crests or troughs.

Reflection:
● Waves reflect off smooth, plane surfaces rather than getting
absorbed
○ Angle of incidence = angle of reflection
● Rough surfaces scatter the light in all directions, so they
appear matte and unreflective
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

Refraction:
● The speed of a wave changes when it enters a new medium
● If the wave enters a more optically dense medium, its speed
decreases and it bends towards the normal
● If the wave enters a less optically dense medium, its speed
increases and it bends away from the normal
● In all cases, the frequency stays the same but the wavelength
changes.

Diffraction:
● Waves spread out when they go around the sides of
an obstacle or through a gap
● The narrower the gap or the greater the
wavelength, the more the diffraction
● Frequency, wavelength, and speed are all unchanged

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A ripple tank is a shallow tank of water used to study wave motion. It is equipped with a vibrating
paddle to generate waves and often has a lamp above to project the wave patterns onto a screen
or surface below.

Reflection at a Plane Surface:

● Setup: Place a straight barrier (e.g., a ruler) at an angle in the ripple tank.
● Observation: Waves strike the barrier and bounce off, obeying the law of reflection:
○ Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
● The reflected waves can be observed moving away from the barrier at the same angle they
approached.

Refraction Due to a Change in Depth:

● Setup: Place a transparent shallow block in the ripple tank to create a region with different
water depth.
● Observation:
○ Waves slow down and have shorter wavelengths in the shallow region.
○ The direction of the waves bends (refraction) as they pass from deeper to shallower
water or vice versa.
● This illustrates how wave speed changes with depth, causing refraction.

Diffraction Due to a Gap:

● Setup: Place two barriers with a small gap between them in the tank.
● Observation:
○ When waves pass through the gap, they spread out into semicircles.
○ The amount of diffraction increases as the gap size decreases relative to the
wavelength.

Diffraction Due to an Edge:

● Setup: Place a single barrier or object in the path of the waves.

● Observation:
○ As waves encounter the edge of the barrier, they bend around it, spreading into the
region behind the barrier.
○ This illustrates how diffraction occurs even without a gap, showing the wave's ability
to bend around obstacles.
○ Waves with longer wavelengths (e.g., sound waves) diffract more significantly
around edges.
○ This is because longer wavelengths are more comparable in size to the edge,
allowing the wave to bend around it effectively.

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3.2 Light
3.2.1 Reflection of light
Reflection of light is the process by which light rays bounce off a surface and change
direction, staying in the same medium. The angle of incidence (angle between the
incoming ray and the normal) equals the angle of reflection (angle between the reflected
ray and the normal).
Definitions:

● Normal: A line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point where the light
ray strikes.
● Angle of Incidence (i): The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
● Angle of Reflection (r): The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Formation of an Optical Image by a Plane Mirror:

● Characteristics of the image:

○ Same size as the object.
○ Same distance behind the mirror as the object is
in front.
○ Virtual: The image cannot be projected onto a
screen.
○ Laterally inverted: Left and right are reversed.

Law of Reflection:

● Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection (i = r).

● This law applies to all reflective surfaces.

Constructions, Measurements, and Calculations:

● Ray Diagrams for Plane Mirrors:

○ Draw the object and the mirror.
○ Construct incident rays from the object to the mirror, ensuring the angles with
the normal are equal for reflection.
○ Extend the reflected rays behind the mirror to locate the virtual image.
● Measurements:
○ Use a protractor to verify i = r.
● Calculations:
○ Determine image location and distances using geometry (e.g., image
distance = object distance from the mirror).

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3.2.2 Refraction of light
● Refraction can be shown when light is passed through a
glass slab at an angle to its normal (the imaginary line 90º to
the surface of the material).
● When light enters a more optically dense medium, the angle
of incidence (the angle between the incident ray and the
normal) is greater than the angle of refraction (the angle
between the refracted ray and the normal). The opposite is
true when light enters a less optically dense medium.
● The refractive index n of a medium is defined as the ratio between the speed of light
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
in a vacuum and the speed of light in the medium:𝑛 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
● Snell's law relates the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction to the refractive
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
index by: 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction.

Total internal reflection:

● At a certain angle of incidence called the critical angle, the light
will travel along the boundary between the two media.
● Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle and the light reflects back into the
medium.
● For total internal reflection to occur, the light must also be
travelling from a more optically dense medium into a less
optically dense medium (most common example is glass to air).
● The critical angle can be related to the refractive index by:
1
𝑛= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐
Optical fibres:
● An optical fibre is a long thin rod of
glass surrounded by cladding which
uses total internal reflection to
transfer information by light, even
when bent.
● Extensive use in medicine
(endoscopes, inside-body flexible
cameras) and communications
(high speed data transfer).

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3.2.3 Thin Lenses

Converging lens:
● A converging lens is a transparent block which brings light rays together at a point called
the principal focus by utilising refraction.
● The focal length is the distance between the centre of the lens and the principal focus.
● The image formed by a converging lens can be either real or virtual.
○ Real images are formed when the distance of the object from the centre of the
lens is greater than the focal length. They are images where light actually
converges to a position and can be projected onto a screen.
○ Virtual images are formed when the distance of the object from the centre of
the lens is smaller than the focal length. They are images where light only
appears to have converged and they cannot be projected onto a screen.
● You can draw ray diagrams for real images (shown on the left below) and virtual images
(shown on the right below).

● The image formed is enlarged/same size/diminished and upright/inverted.

○ The image on the left above is diminished and inverted.
○ The image on the right above is enlarged and upright.
● Converging lenses are used in magnifying glasses and binoculars (to enlarge the image).
● Converging lenses bring light closer together, aiding long-sighted eyes (Hyperopia).
● Diverging lenses spread light apart, aiding short-sighted eyes (Myopia).

3.2.4 Dispersion of light

When white light is passed through a glass prism, it splits

up into its constituent colours. This happens because the
different colours travel at different speeds in the glass, so
they refract by different amounts.
● The seven colours in order of decreasing
wavelength are red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo and violet (ROYGBIV).
● The greater the wavelength, the slower the speed
in glass and the greater the refractive index.

Light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic.

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3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
Properties of electromagnetic waves:
● Transverse waves
● Do not need a medium
● All electromagnetic waves travel with the same high speed of 3.0 x 108 ms-1 in a vacuum
and approximately the same speed in air.

You need to learn the main groups of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of wavelength.

As speed is constant for all electromagnetic waves, as wavelength decreases, frequency must
increase. The higher the frequency of an EM wave, the greater its energy.

Uses of electromagnetic waves:

● Radio waves are used for radio and television communications. They have a long
wavelength and are reflected by the ionosphere.
● Microwaves are used for satellite communication and in microwave oven. They pass
through the ionosphere and penetrate deep into food.
● Infrared radiation is used in remote controllers and infrared cameras.
● Visible light is used in fibre optics.
● Ultraviolet light is used in tanning beds.
● X-rays are used in medical imaging and in security as they can penetrate material easily.
● Gamma radiation is used in medical treatment due to its high energy.

Hazards:
● Too much exposure to ultraviolet light skin increases the risk of skin cancer.
○ Sun cream prevents over-exposure in summer.
● X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause mutations leading to cancer.
○ Exposure to these kinds of radiation should be minimised.
● Microwaves can cause internal heating of body tissues.
● Infrared radiation can cause skin burns.

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Communication with Artificial Satellites:

● Microwaves are the primary method for communication with satellites because they can
penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere.
● Satellite phones:
○ Low orbit satellites: Used for some satellite phones, requiring multiple satellites to
provide coverage.
○ Geostationary satellites: Used for direct broadcast satellite TV and some satellite
phones, remaining fixed relative to a point on Earth.

Speed of Electromagnetic Waves:

● Electromagnetic waves travel at 3.0×108 m/s in a vacuum and approximately the same in
air.

Communication Systems and Electromagnetic Radiation:

● Mobile Phones and Wireless Internet:

○ Use microwaves, which can penetrate walls and require only short aerials for
transmission and reception.
● Bluetooth:
○ Uses low-energy radio waves or microwaves, which can pass through walls but
weaken when doing so.
● Optical Fibres:
○ Use visible light or infrared for cable TV and high-speed broadband.
○ Glass is transparent to these wavelengths, which can carry high data rates
efficiently.

Digital vs Analogue Signals:

● Analogue Signal: Continuously varying signals that represent data (e.g., sound waves).
● Digital Signal: Consists of discrete binary values (0s and 1s) for transmitting data.

Sound Transmission:

● Sound can be transmitted as either:

○ An analogue signal (direct representation of sound waves).
○ A digital signal (converted into binary for processing and transmission).

Benefits of Digital Signaling:

● Higher Data Transmission Rates: Digital signals can carry more information per second.
● Accurate Signal Regeneration: Digital signals can be regenerated accurately over long
distances, reducing noise and improving signal quality.
● Increased Range: Better performance in long-distance communication due to less
degradation compared to analogue signals.

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3.4 Sound

Sound waves are longitudinal waves created by vibrating sources. A medium is needed to transmit
sound waves (such as air).

● The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder it is.

● The greater the frequency of a sound wave, the higher its pitch.

To measure the speed of sound in air, you can make a noise at a known, large distance from a
solid wall and record the time for the echo (reflected sound) to be heard, then use speed =
distance/time, taking into account the fact that the sound had to go there and back.

The speed of sound in air is 343 ms-1, the speed of sound in water is 1493 ms-1, and the
speed of sound in steel is 5130 ms-1.

The range of audible frequencies for a healthy human ear is 20 Hz to 20000 Hz. Ultrasound is
sound with a frequency greater than 20000 Hz:
● When ultrasound reaches a boundary between two media it is partially reflected back. The
remainder of the waves continue to pass through.
● A transceiver can emit ultrasound and record the reflected waves to find the distance of
things below the surface.
● Ultrasound is used for things such as SONAR and for medical imaging without using
ionising radiation.

Compression and rarefactions are variations of pressure within a sound wave. Regions in a
sound wave where particles are pushed closer together, creating areas of high pressure.
Regions where particles are spread further apart, creating areas of low pressure. Together,
compressions and rarefactions form longitudinal waves, the typical motion of sound waves in a
medium.

Speed of Sound in Different Media:

● Sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and faster in liquids than in gases:
○ Solids: Strong intermolecular forces and closely packed particles allow efficient
energy transfer.
○ Liquids: Particles are less tightly packed than in solids, leading to slower sound
propagation.
○ Gases: Particles are far apart, resulting in the slowest sound transmission.

Sonar can be used to detect flaws in materials (e.g., cracks in metal or plastic) without damaging
them. Ultrasound waves reflect from boundaries between materials or defects, identifying issues.

Sonar can also be used in medical sca nning to image soft tissues (e.g., organs or a fetus
during pregnancy). Ultrasound waves reflect at boundaries between different tissues, forming an
image.

Sonar can also be used to measure water depth or locate underwater objects (e.g., submarines,
fish). A pulse of ultrasound is sent underwater and the time taken for the echo to return is
measured. Depth Calculation: Depth or Distance = (Speed of Sound x Time) / 2

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 CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 4: Electricity and Magnetism

Summary Notes

Definitions in bold are for extended students only

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4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field.

● Magnetic forces arise from interactions between these magnetic fields.

A magnet has a pole at either end: a north (N pole) and a south (S pole).
● The force between magnetic poles depends on which poles are facing one another:
○ Like poles experience repulsion.
○ Opposite poles experience attraction.

Non-magnetic materials are materials that are not attracted to magnets.

● These include glass and plastic.
● There is no force between a magnet and a non-magnetic material.

Magnetic materials are materials that are attracted to magnets.

● These include iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel.
● The force between a magnet and magnetic material is always attractive, regardless of the
pole the material is placed at and whether it is unmagnetised or magnetised.

Magnetic materials can be magnetised (given the properties of a magnet) by induced magnetism:
● The material is placed in a magnetic field using one of the following methods:
○ Stroking them with a magnet
○ Hammering them in a magnetic field
○ Placing them in a coil with a direct current through it
● One end of the material becomes a north pole, the other becomes a south pole.
○ Some become permanently magnetised (steel) from this process.
○ Others can only become temporary (induced) magnets (soft iron).

EXAMPLE: When soft iron is placed within coiled wire with a direct current running through it, this
makes a common temporary magnet known as an electromagnet or a transformer.

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There are differences in the properties of temporary magnets and permanent magnets:
● Temporary magnets lose magnetism when the magnetic field is removed.
○ Permanent magnets do not, because they make their own magnetic field.
● Therefore, temporary magnets can be turned on and off.
○ Permanent magnets cannot.
● Temporary magnets, such as electromagnets, are used for things we turn on and off, such
as electric motors and moving scrap metal.
○ Permanent magnets are used for things that always need to be on, such as fridges
and compasses.

Magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field - a region in which a magnetic pole experiences the
force from another magnet or magnetic material.
● A magnetic diagram can be drawn to show the strength and direction of a magnetic field.
○ Magnetic field lines are drawn around bar magnets.
○ The direction of the magnetic field at a point (the direction of the force on the north
pole of a magnet placed in the magnetic field at that point) is shown using arrows on
the field lines (that must point from the north to south pole).
○ Magnetic field strength is shown by how close field lines are to one another
(closer together = stronger).
○ The magnetic field is stronger at the poles and decreases with distance away from
them.

There are two methods which allow you to visualise and plot magnetic field lines.:
With a plotting compass:
● Place a magnet on top of paper.
● Draw around the magnet on the paper
● Put a plotting compass next to a point around the magnet’s edge, with its needle pointing
towards this point
● Draw a dot at the other side of the compass needle.
● Move the compass so that it points towards the new dot, and draw a dot on the other side
of the compass needle again
● Repeat to form a dotted line connecting one end of the magnet to the other.
● Linking the dots gives the magnetic field line.
● The direction of the field line is the same as the direction of the plotting compass
● Repeat this whole process, starting at a different point around the magnets edge to draw
another field line.

With iron filings:

● Place paper on top of a magnet
● Sprinkle iron filings onto the paper
● Tap the paper and the filings will settle on the field lines

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4.2 Electrical quantities

4.2.1 Electric charge

Electric charge is measured in coulombs and can be positive or negative.

● Opposite charges experience an attractive force.
● Like charges experience a repulsive force.
● An electric field is the region in which an electric charge experiences these
attractive/repulsive forces.

Conductors are materials which allow electric charge to flow through them because they have
charged particles that are free to move.
● Examples include: metals (which have free electrons to act as charge carriers) and molten
ionic substances (which have ions that can act as charge carriers).

Insulators are materials which impede the flow of electric charge because they don’t have charged
particles that are free to move.
● Examples include: non-metals, such as rubber, plastic, glass, and wood.
● When charged, insulators gain electrostatic charge (electric charge at rest on their surface).

Objects can be given a charge (charged).

● This involves the transfer of negative charge alone (electrons) by their addition or removal.

Insulators can be electrostatically charged by friction using a simple experiment:

● Two insulators are rubbed together (a cloth used to rub one end of a rod).
● Electrons move from one to the other (electrons are transferred from the rod onto the cloth)
● Each become oppositely charged (the rod’s end becomes positively charged; the cloth
becomes negatively charged).

The electrostatic charges produced can then be detected by extending this simple experiment:
● Charge a second rod of insulating material using friction.
● Hold the charged ends of the second and first rod together.
● If a force is experienced, it shows both rods were electrostatically charged.
○ If they repel one another, they have the same electrostatic charge
○ If they attract one another, they have opposite electrostatic charges.
Conductors and insulators can be distinguished between using a Gold-leaf electroscope (GLE):
● Charge the GLE plate.

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 ● This gives the plate, rod and gold leaf the same charge so they repel, and the leaf sticks
out to the side.
● Touch the material being investigated to the plate
● Record the observations
○ If the leaf falls: material is a good conductor.
○ If the leaf remains in place: object is a good insulator.

The electric fields around all charged objects can be drawn using field lines, similarly to
magnetic fields.
● The direction of the electric field at a point (the direction of the force on a positive
charge placed in the magnetic field at that point) is shown using arrows on the field
lines (that must point away from positive charges and towards negative charges).
● Electric field strength is shown by how close field lines are to one another (closer
together = stronger).
○ Electric field strength is stronger closer to the charged object and decreasess
with distance away from it.

To draw the electric field around a point charge:

● The field lines for a positive charge point radially outwards.
● The field lines for a negative charge point radially inwards.
(This naturally leaves lines closer to one another, nearer the point charge).

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To draw the electric field around a charged conducting sphere:
● It can be drawn like that of a point charge, as if the charge is concentrated as a point
charge at the centre of the sphere.

To draw the electric field between two oppositely charged conducting plates:
● Straight lines from the positive plate to the negative plate.
● Equally spaced apart.

4.2.2 Electric current

An electric current is related to the flow of charge.

● It is the charge passing a point in the circuit per unit time:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑄
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐼 = 𝑡
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠 (A)

● Conventional current is defined as the rate of flow of positive charge (from a positive
to a negative terminal).

Electric currents are measured with a digital or analogue ammeter.

● The ammeter is connected in series (placed one after the other in a continuous line) with
the part of the circuit you are measuring the current through.
● They must be set to zero before use.
● Different ammeters measure current over a different range.
○ Analogue ammeters typically measure currents over a larger range (0.1 - 5 amps).
○ Digital ammeters can measure currents over a much smaller range (milliamps or
microamps), so are more precise.

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 ○ The ammeter used for a specific circuit should result in a reading in the middle of its
range, to avoid its damage.

Metals can have an electric current flow through them because their electrons are free to carry
charge through the material (electrical conduction).
● A metal’s current is the opposite of a conventional current because negative charges
(free electrons) flow from negative to positive.

An electric current flows either as a direct current (d.c.) or an alternating current (a.c.).
● d.c. electrons flow in one direction, from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
● a.c. electrons change direction of flow regularly (so do not have a positive and negative
terminal).

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4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

To move charge around an electric circuit, electrical energy is transferred to the charged particles
(e.g. electrons) each time they pass through the energy source (e.g. battery).

The electromotive force (e.m.f) of an electrical energy source is the electrical work done by a
source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
● E.m.f. is measured in volts (V).
● E.m.f. can be found using the equation:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑊
𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐸 = 𝑄
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = volts

When the charged particles pass through a circuit component, work is done to transfer some of
their electrical energy to another form (e.g. light energy is the component is a bulb).

Potential difference (p.d.) shows the work done by a unit charge passing through a component (by
measuring the difference in energy across the component).
● P.d. is also measured in volts (V) because the p.d. of an electrical energy source is its e.m.f.
● P.d. can be found using the equation:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑊
𝑝. 𝑑. = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑉 = 𝑄
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

P.d. is measured with a digital or analogue voltmeter.

● The voltmeter is placed in parallel with the component being investigated (on a parallel
branch to the component, connected either side of it).
● The higher the voltage, the higher the p.d. and the greater the current.
● Digital and analogue voltmeters differ in the same way as ammeters:
○ Analogue voltmeters measure p.d. over a larger range (0 - 5.0 V).
○ Digital voltmeters measure p.d. over a smaller range (millivolts or microvolts), so are
more precise.

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4.2.4 Resistance

The resistance of a circuit component shows its opposition to the current flowing through it.
● The greater the resistance, the harder it is for current to flow through.
● Resistance is related to potential difference, so is found using the equation:
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑅 = 𝐼

Current-voltage graphs show how current and voltage are related:

● For a resistor with constant resistance - the current is directly proportional to the
voltage.
● For a resistor with varying resistance (e.g. a filament lamp) - voltage and current are
not directly proportional. As the current increases through a filament lamp, so does
the temperature. This means electrons and ions vibrate more and collide more,
increasing resistance.
● For a diode - current only flows in one direction and after a particular voltage has
been reached.

An experiment can be done to find the resistance of a circuit component:

● Connect a length of wire in a circuit with a power supply, a voltmeter in parallel, and an
ammeter in series with the component being investigated.
● Record the current on the ammeter and voltage on the voltmeter.
● Use the current and voltage to calculate the resistance with the equation: 𝑅=𝑉/𝐼.
● Repeat three times, remove anomalies, and calculate a mean.
● Repeat for resistors with different properties to investigate the factors affecting resistance
(e.g. by varying length of the wire using crocodile clips).

The resistance of the metal wire in a circuit changes as its properties change:
● As its length increases, the resistance increases.
○ Resistance is directly proportional to the resistor’s length.
● As its cross-sectional area increases, resistance decreases.
○ Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area.

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4.2.5 Electrical energy and electrical power

In an electric circuit, the electrical energy source (electrical cell or mains supply) transfers its
energy to electrical energy. This electrical energy is used by the circuit components to do work.
The remaining energy is released to the surroundings (usually as heat / sound energy).

The electrical power of a component is the rate at which it transfers electrical energy.
● It can be calculated using the equation:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

The electrical energy transferred to an appliance depends on its power and the length of time it is
switched on.
● It can be calculated by multiplying electrical power by time:

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 = 𝑘𝑊ℎ

● A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of electrical energy.

○ It shows the electrical energy converted by a 1 kW appliance used for 1 hour.
○ This measure is used to calculate the cost of using electrical appliances.

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑘𝑊ℎ) 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ

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4.3 Electric circuits

4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and circuit components

Circuit diagrams are a drawn representation of an electric circuit.

● When drawn, there should be no breaks in the complete circuit.
● Cables and wires are drawn as straight lines that do not cross over.
● Different symbols are used to show different components:

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○ Cells / batteries (multiple cells connected) - the circuit’s source of electrical energy.
○ Generators - electrical energy source creating electrical energy from mechanical.
○ Power supplies - convert electric energy from a source, to a current with the right voltage.
○ Potential dividers - divide the source voltage into smaller parts to vary the voltage, using
resistors.
○ Switches - used to turn a circuit on (closed) and off (open).
○ Relays - an electromagnetically operated switch, used to switch on a circuit with a high
current by using a circuit with a small current.
○ Resistors - restrict or limit the flow of electrical current. A fixed resistor’s resistance does
not change, a variable’s one does.
○ NTC thermistors - resistors whose resistance depends on temperature (resistance
decreases as temperature increases).
○ Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) - resistors whose resistance depends on light intensity
(resistance decreases as light intensity increases).
○ Diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - allow current to flow in only one direction
by having high resistance to flow in the opposite direction (can convert a.c. into d.c.).
○ Lamps - convert the electric current into light using a filament, which is heated by the
current.
○ Heaters - convert the electric current into heat.
○ Motors - convert electrical energy from the circuit into mechanical energy using the
magnetic effect of a current.
○ Ammeters - placed in series and measure the electric current in amps.
○ Voltmeters - placed in parallel and measure the potential difference across a circuit
component.
○ Magnetising coils - store energy in a magnetic field when current flows through them.
○ Transformers - change the magnitude of an alternating voltage.
○ Fuses - safety devices that cut off the power supply if there is a surge in current.

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4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

Series:
● Components are connected end to end in one continuous loop
● The current at every point in a series circuit is the same.
● The potential difference of the power supply is shared across each component
according to their resistances (i.e. the total p.d. across the components in a series
circuit is equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s across each component).
● The combined resistance is the sum of the resistances of each component in series.

RT = R1 + R2

● The combined e.m.f. of several sources in series is the sum of the individual e.m.f.s.

Parallel:
● Components are connected to the power supply in separate branches that current can flow
through independently.
● The current is shared between each branch (i.e. the sum of the currents in the separate
branches is equal to the current through the source) so the current in the source is larger
than the current in each branch.
○ The sum of the currents entering a junction in a parallel circuit is equal to the
sum of the currents that leave the junction.
● The potential difference is the same across every branch in the circuit and is equal to
the potential difference of the supply.
● The combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the resistance of either
resistor by itself. This is because the charge is split; decreasing the charge to each
component decreases its resistance.
○ Combined resistance is given by:

1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒
+ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2 𝑅𝑇
= 𝑅1
+ 𝑅2

Connecting lamps in parallel is advantageous because if one breaks, current can still pass through
the rest.

4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

When resistors are connected in a series, the potential difference of the power source is
shared between them.

A variable potential divider is a circuit that uses resistors to divide the source voltage into
smaller parts to vary the voltage (e.g. to control temperature of an appliance).
● If the current is constant, then the potential difference across an electrical conductor
increases as its resistance increases.
○ Therefore, the potential difference is shared between resistors in a ratio
determined by their resistances. The resistor with the larger resistance has
the larger potential difference:

𝑅1 𝑉1
𝑅2
= 𝑉2

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4.4 Electrical Safety
Hazards of electric circuits:

● Damaged insulation – contact with the wire due to gaps in the insulation can cause an
electric shock or pose a fire hazard by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of cables – high currents passing through thin wire conductors cause the wires
to heat up to very high temperatures which could melt the insulation so poses a fire hazard.
● Damp conditions – water can conduct currents, so wet equipment can cause an electric
shock.
● Overloading plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets when using a mains supply
– creates excess current which produces heat and so poses a fire hazard.

A mains circuit is an electric circuit, connected to the power grid for its electrical supply.
● These circuits consist of:
○ A live wire (line wire) - the terminal of the circuit which delivers the current.
○ A neutral wire - the terminal which carries the current back to the power source.
○ An earth wire - protects from sudden voltage fluctuations.

The mains circuits have a switch connected to the live wire, so that when it is switched off, the flow
of current is switched off and the circuit is safe (if it were connected to the neutral wire, the current
would still flow).

The mains circuits also have safety devices which act to stop the flow of current if it becomes too
high:
● A fuse - a thin piece of wire which overheats and melts if the current is too high, breaking
the circuit, so stopping the flow of current.
● A trip switch - has the same function but is an automatically operated switch which flicks off
when the current is too high (so can be reset and used again).
● Fuses have a rating and trip switches have a setting, which reflects the current they will
withstand before breaking/switching off the circuit.
○ These should be only slightly higher than the current used by the device in the
circuit. The most common fuse ratings are 3A, 5A and 13A.

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To reduce the risk of electrocution from wires in the mains circuit, they are covered in an outer
casing, which can be either non-conducting (double-insulated) or earthed.
● Non-conducting casing is a layer of insulation around the wires which is non-metallic.
● Earthed casings are metal but connected to an earth wire.
○ Earth wires create a safe route (rather than through a person) for current to flow
through in the case of a short circuit (when the wire is touched).
○ They have a very low resistance, so the current surges through them with more
strength, which breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.

A fuse without an earth wire protects the circuit and the cabling for a double-insulated
appliance.

4.5 Electromagnetic effects

4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction

Electromagnetic induction is the creation of an e.m.f. using a magnetic field either by:
● A wire moving across a magnetic field, creating current flow.
○ The induced e.m.f. 's magnitude can be increased by moving the wire more quickly,
using a stronger magnetic field, or increasing the length of the wire.
● Changing the direction of a magnetic field through a coil, creating current flow.
○ The induced e.m.f. 's magnitude can be increased by changing the magnetic field
more quickly.

The current induced flows in such a direction that it opposes the change that produced it.
● The direction of the induced current is determined by Fleming’s right hand rule
(induced current, magnetic field, and wire movement directions are at right angles to
one another, along each axis).

Electromagnetic induction can be demonstrated experimentally:

● By moving a magnet through a wire coil:
○ A wire coil is connected to a voltmeter.
○ A bar magnet is moved in and out of the coil.
○ An e.m.f can be read on the voltmeter
○ Length of the coil, speed of magnet movement, and magnet strength can be altered
to investigate the effect of these factors.
● By changing the direction of the magnetic field a wire coil is in:
○ A wire is connected to a voltmeter and moved between two magnets.
○ The e.m.f. is read on the voltmeter.
○ Speed of the change in magnetic field can be altered to investigate this factor.

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 ● Results for both should be zero when not moving, increasing with speed of movement, and
a brief value with the opposite sign when moving out of the coil/ magnetic field.

4.5.2 The a.c. generator

An a.c. generator uses electromagnetic induction to create an a.c. current from mechanical
energy.
● It consists of a coil of wire between two permanent magnets, spun by a turbine (see
Topic 6). This generates a.c. current because a slip ring is used.
○ As the coil rotates, the magnetic field through the coil changes, which
induces an e.m.f..
○ Slip rings keep a continuous connection with the wire to rotate it, allowing an
alternating current to be produced because every half rotation the current
changes direction (to flow from the south to north pole).
○ Carbon brushes connect the slip ring to the circuit, transmitting the current.

The e.m.f. can be plotted against time and each point in the graph relates to a positioning of
the wire coil:
● The magnitude of the e.m.f. is at its maximum when the coil is horizontal (at 90° and
270° perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field) as the field lines are cut the
fastest.
● The magnitude of the e.m.f. is zero when the coil is vertical (at 0° and 180°, in line
with the magnetic field) so no field lines are being cut.

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4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current

When a charged particle moves it causes a magnetic effect. Therefore, a magnetic field is
produced by an electrical current travelling in a straight or solenoid wire (a wire wrapped into the
shape of a coil).

The pattern and direction of a wire’s magnetic field:

● The magnetic field produced by a straight wire forms a concentric circle pattern around the
wire (so has no poles).
● The direction of the magnetic field produced by a straight wire can be found using the right
hand grip rule.
○ The thumb shows the direction of current.
○ The fingers show the magnetic field direction.

● The magnetic field produced by a solenoid forms concentric circles around either side of
the coil, like the field produced by a bar magnet.
● The solenoid has poles (south pole where current is travelling clockwise and vice-versa) so
the magnetic field’s direction is from the north to the south pole.
● The magnetic field of a solenoid is stronger, closer to the ends of the coil (the poles).

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The magnetic field is stronger in a solenoid:
● With more turns (each coil’s magnetic field combines to create the overall magnetic
field).
○ So solenoid’s have stronger magnetic fields than straight wires.
● When closer to the wire itself.
● With a larger current.
● By adding an iron core (field lines travel more easily through metal than air).

Placing a soft iron core in the solenoid makes an electromagnet:

● The iron core becomes a temporary (induced) magnet when the current is flowing (see
Topic 4.1).
● The magnetic field of electromagnets can be switched off and on, because the magnet is
temporary.

Electromagnets are used in relays:

● Relays use one circuit (containing the electromagnet) to turn off/on another circuit by
attracting a switch open/closed with the magnetic field produced.
○ They are often used to move scrap-metal (on when picking up, off when dropping)
and in electric bells (when on, the magnetic field is produced and attracts an iron
armature, hitting the bell and at the same time breaking the circuit to reset the
system).

Loud speakers also use the magnetic effect, but use permanent magnets to convert electrical
signals into sound .
● The current run through a solenoid around a permanent magnet, is a.c..
● The magnetic field’s direction changes as the current direction changes.
● The changing magnetic field direction moves the coil (due to forces explained in the next
section).
● The moving coil makes the air oscillate in sound waves.

To show the pattern of a wire’s magnetic field experimentally:

● Attach a thick wire vertically through a hole in the middle of cardboard and clamp it in a
stand (or loop the wire through holes in the cardboard to form the coil for solenoids).
● Attach the ends of the wire to a series circuit with a cell, ammeter, and variable resistor.
● Spread iron filings uniformly on the cardboard.
● Place a plotting compass on the cardboard.
● Run a current through the wire and tap the cardboard slightly.
● Iron filings will align along the magnetic field lines and the plotting compass will show the
direction of the magnetic field.

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4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor

When a current-carrying wire’s magnetic field interacts with an external magnetic field, the wire
experiences a force, perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.

Fleming’s left hand rule shows the relative directions of the force, field, and current.

An experiment can demonstrate the existence of these forces:

● If a current-carrying wire is placed between two magnets which rest on a balance, when a
current is passed through the wire it will move within the magnetic field.
● If the current is reversed or the magnetic field is reversed, the force will be reversed and the
wire will move in the opposite direction.

A force is also exerted on charged particles moving in a magnetic field (because moving
charged particles are current and so cause a magnetic effect).
● When beams of charged particles enter a magnetic field, the force exerted on
the charged particles is perpendicular to the velocity (direction) of the charge.
● This changes the velocity so the direction of the applied force changes and
results in a circular motion of the particle beam (it is deflected).

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4.5.5 The d.c. motor

A current-carrying coil in a magnetic field can experience a turning effect due to the opposite
direction of the forces exerted on either side of the coil.

D.c. motors consist of a coil of wire in between two permanent magnets.

● Current flows through the wire and it experiences a turning effect.
The turning effect can be increased by:
○ increasing the current.
○ using a stronger magnetic field.
○ increasing the number of turns on the coil.
● The motor would stop turning when the coil became parallel with the magnetic field,
but a split ring commutator is used, which changes the current direction every half
turn.
● Carbon brushes connect the split ring commutator to the circuit.
○ They disconnect from the commutator every half turn but the coil continues to
spin from momentum.
○ When the split ring reconnects, the coil has been flipped and so current flows
in the opposite direction.

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4.5.6 The transformer

A transformer consists of two coils wrapped around a soft iron core and is used to transform the
voltage of alternating currents.
Transforming voltages means reducing (step down) or increasing (step up) the voltage of an
electric current.
● Transformers are used to step up the voltage in power lines to reduce power loss
○ Loss of power will be lower because higher voltage means a smaller current:

2
power = (current) x resistance P = I2R

● For a 100% efficient transformer, the power used is constant across the primary and
secondary coil, P=IV so:

IpVp=IsVs
● An alternating current in the primary coil creates a changing magnetic field.
● The iron core becomes magnetised, transmitting the changing magnetic field to the
secondary coil and induces an alternating e.m.f. in it.
● If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit, this results in a current flowing.

● A step up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil which means the voltage of the
secondary is greater than that of the primary.
● A step down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil which means the voltage of
the secondary is less than that of the primary.
○ The turns ratio of the coils is directly proportional to the voltage ratio across either
coil:

𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙'𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦'𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑉𝑃 𝑁𝑃

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙'𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦'𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑉𝑆
= 𝑁𝑆

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 CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Nuclear Physics

Summary Notes

Definitions in bold are for extended students only

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5.1 The nuclear model of the atom

5.1.1 The atom

The nuclear model of an atom consists of:

● A positively charged nucleus.
● Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus.

When atoms form an ion, electrons are lost or gained so that the atom has an overall charge:
● Positive ions are formed by the loss of electrons (the loss of a negative makes something
more positive).
○ Metals usually form positive ions.
● Negative ions are formed by the gain of electrons (the gain of a negative makes something
more negative).
○ Non-metals usually form negative ions.

This nuclear model of an atom is supported by an experiment by Rutherford:

‘Alpha particle scattering’
● A beam of alpha particles was aimed at a thin gold foil and he concluded that:
○ The atom was composed primarily of empty space because most alpha
particles passed straight through, so the nucleus must be very small.
○ It had a nucleus which contained most of the mass of the atom because it
deflected some alpha particles straight back.
○ The nucleus was positively charged because it repelled the positively charged
alpha particles.

5.1.2 The nucleus

The positively charged nucleus is made of:

○ Positive protons
○ Neutral neutrons

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and are represented by a nuclide
notation:
𝐴
𝑍
𝑋
● X is the symbol of the element.
● Z is the proton number (number of protons, also known as atomic number).
○ As bigger proton number means the nucleus has a larger charge.
● A is the nucleon number (number of neutrons and protons, also known as mass number).
○ A bigger nucleon number means the nucleus has a larger mass.

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Protons, neutrons, and electrons have different properties:

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

● Neutral atoms of an element have the same number of protons as electrons so the
electron’s and proton’s charges cancel one another out.
● Ions of an element have more/less electrons, so have an overall charge.
● Isotopes of an atom have same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, so
have different nucleon numbers (mass).
○ The number of neutrons in a nucleus can be calculated from nucleon number:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
○ An element may have more than one isotope.

In some isotopes, the imbalance between protons and neutrons means that their nuclei are
unstable, and have excess energy which is given off in nuclear fission reactions.

The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission:

● A neutron collides with a large unstable nucleus.
○ Some isotopes that have unstable nuclei are Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239.
● The nucleus is split into two smaller nuclei and 2 or 3 neutrons are released.
● The products have less mass than the original nucleus because some mass is
converted to energy, which is released.
○ Therefore, isotopes are used as fuels by fission in nuclear reactors.
● The neutrons released then induce further fission events in a chain reaction.

The process of joining two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion:
● Energy is also released during this process.
○ The mass of the product is less than the mass of the two original nuclei
because some of the mass is converted to energy.
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy.

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Nuclide equations can be used to represent fission or fusion reactions:
● Reactants and products are given in nuclide notation.
● The sum of the nucleon numbers on the left-hand side must be equal to the the sum
of the nucleon numbers on the right-hand side.
● The sum of the proton numbers on the left-hand side must be equal to the the sum of
the proton numbers on the right-hand side.

Fission Example)

5.2 Radioactivity
5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity

Background radiation is weak ionising radiation that is released from naturally occurring radioactive
materials or man-made sources:
● Radon gas in the air
○ Emitted from radioactive uranium
● Radiation from rocks and buildings
○ Radioactive uranium and thorium are in the rock used to make buildings.
● Cosmic rays
○ Radiation in the form of a subatomic particle created as the sun’s protons enter our
atmosphere.
● Food and drink
○ Radioactive potassium-40 is found in bananas and other foods come into contact
with radioactive isotopes in rocks as they grow.

Background radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter:

● When radiation enters the detector (a Geiger-Muller tube), a counter clicks.
● The count is displayed on a screen.
● Count rate = the number of counts per second (units = Bq) or per minute.
○ Count rate decreases with distance from the detector, as the radiation spreads out.

The release of ionising radiation occurs randomly, so an average should be taken over a longer
time frame (e.g. 20 minutes) and a mean calculated.

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 ● The background count rate is around 18 counts per minute.

A corrected count rate gives the count produced solely from the source being investigated.
● It is calculated by taking measurements with and without the sources of background
radiation present, and subtracting the two:
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 − 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

5.2.2 The three types of nuclear emission

The emission of radiation from a nucleus is spontaneous (random in time) and random in direction.

There are three types of subatomic particle emitted as ionising radiation from the nucleus of
unstable isotopes: Alpha (α), Beta (β), and Gamma (γ).

Alpha particles are ‘packages’ of two protons and two neutrons.

● They are large, heavy, slow, and have a positive charge.
● They are highly ionising (produce ions from atoms).
● They are weakly penetrating (stopped by a sheet of paper).
● They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Beta particles are fast-moving electrons emitted when extra neutrons in unstable nuclei split into an
electron and a proton.
● They are small, light, fast, and have a negative charge.
● They are moderately ionising.
● They are moderately penetrating (stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium).
● They are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Gamma rays are a high-energy electromagnetic wave emitted alongside beta and alpha particles.
● They have a short wavelength, high energy, no mass, and no charge.
● They are lowly ionising.
● They are highly penetrating (stopped by many centimetres of lead).
● They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

The ionising effect of each type of radiation depends on its kinetic energy and charge.
● The greater the charge of the radiation, the more ionising it is.
● The greater the kinetic energy of the radiation, the more ionising it is.
● The more ionising it is, the less penetrating it is.

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5.2.3 Radioactive decay

Radioactive isotopes are so unstable due to their excess neutrons and heavy nucleus, that
they have excess energy, which is given off as as radiation, leaving them more stable.

Radioactive decay is the name for the spontaneous, random change of an isotope’s nucleus by the
release of radiation (α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation).
● The decay is named after the type of particle emitted (α-decay or β-decay)
○ Whether γ-decay occurs is additional.

α-decay or β-decay both change the isotope into a different element:

● Alpha:
○ α-decay leaves the nucleus in an excited state, with nucleon and atomic
number altered due to proton and neutron loss.
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
equation: 𝑍
𝑋→ 𝑍−2
𝑌+ 2
α
● Beta:
○ β-decay leaves the nucleus in an excited state, with only the proton number
altered due to electron loss and neutron transformation to a proton.
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴 0 −
equation: 𝑍
𝑋→ 𝑍+1
𝑌+ −1
𝑒
● Gamma:
○ After a previous α-decay or β-decay, the nuclei with excess energy emit gamma
rays, which leave leaves mass number and atomic number unchanged:
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍
𝑋→ 𝑍
𝑌+ 0
𝑦

5.2.4 Half-life

The half-life of a particular isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope to decay.

Half-life can be found by investigating the count rate:

● Half-life is the time taken for the count rate to halve in value.
○ If it takes 2 days to go from 80 to 40 counts, its half-life is 2 days.

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 ● Background radiation has to be subtracted before attempting to perform half-life
calculations.

The type of radiation emitted and the half-life of an isotope can be used to determine which
isotope is suitable for different everyday applications:
● Household fire (smoke) alarms
○ Long half-life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
○ Alpha particles are used as they are charged so cause a current in the alarm
and they are the most weaky penetrating so are absorbed by smoke.
○ When smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed
and the current drops, triggering the alarm.
● Irradiating food and sterilisation of equipment
○ Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites by breaking their DNA,
so it is safe for consumption or for equipment use in the medical field.
○ Gamma particles are chosen as they are the most penetrating so can reach
the equipment or food without removing packaging.
● Measuring and controlling the thicknesses of materials
○ Long half-life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal
sheets because they have a moderate penetration.
○ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production.
○ If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected, then the
thickness of the sheet has changed, as more/ less beta particles can penetrate
the material.
● Diagnosis and treatment of cancer using gamma rays
○ Short half-life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in
medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
○ The half-life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be performed,
but short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
○ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with
a high dose of radiation.

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5.2.5 Safety precautions

Radiation exposure can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damaging DNA, which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Therefore, radioactive materials must be moved, used and stored in a safe way that keeps
exposure to a minimum:

Safety measures include:

● Safe movement and use involves keeping as big a distance between the radioactive
source and living tissue as possible and minimising the time of exposure to
radiation:
○ Handle using tongs.
○ Hold far away from living material.
○ Use materials with a short half-life when possible, so radiation doesn’t remain an
issue for a long time after disposal.
● Safe storage involves keeping radioactive sources in a lead-lined box and using shielding
to absorb radiation, such as the concrete shielding around a nuclear reactor.

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 CAIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 6: Space Physics

Summary Notes

Definitions in bold are for extended students only

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6.1 Earth and the Solar System

6.1.1 The Earth

The Earth is a planet that rotates on its tilted axis every 24 hours.
● The Earth’s rotation changes the position of each place on Earth relative to the sun,
in a pattern which repeats every 24-hour period (periodic cycle of day and night).
○ Day is experienced by the half of the Earth's surface facing the Sun.
○ Night is the other half of the Earth's surface, facing away from the Sun.
● The rotation is anticlockwise (when looking from the north pole), causing the Sun to
appear to move across the sky from east (at sunrise) to west (at sunset).

The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days.

● The Earth’s orbit, combined with the tilt of the Earth's axis, results in varying sunlight
exposure in a pattern which repeats every one-year period, creating the seasons.
○ Whilst one hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun for half of the orbit, the other
hemisphere is tilted away, so the opposite hemisphere experiences the
opposite season.
○ When tilted towards the sun, daylight hours are more than hours of darkness
and it is spring or summer.
○ When tilted away from the sun, daylight hours are less than hours of darkness
and it is autumn or winter.
○ Daylight hours and darkness are equal in both hemispheres at two points in
orbit; these are called the equinoxes.

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The Moon orbits the Earth, which takes approximately 1 month.
● The moon is visible from Earth by the light it reflects from the Sun. The amount of
reflected light that is visible, varies as the moon orbits the earth, in a pattern which
repeats every one month (the Moon’s periodic cycle of phases).
○ In the new Moon phase, the sunlight is only on the half of the Moon which is
not visible from Earth.
○ At the Full Moon phase, the sunlight covers the half of the Moon which is
visible from Earth.
○ In between these phases, the visible surface is only partly illuminated - either
by half (a quarter moon), mostly illuminated (a gibbous moon), or mostly not
illuminated (a crescent moon).

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The average speed of a body in orbit (such as the earth or moon) can be calculated:

2 𝑥 π 𝑥 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 2π 𝑟

𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑣 = 𝑇
units = m/s2

6.1.2 The Solar System

The solar system is a gravitationally bound system made up of the Sun and everything that
orbits it.

Like the moon, all the Solar System’s components are visible from Earth when they reflect
light from the Sun.
● The Sun’s light travels at a constant of 3 × 108 m/s (the speed of light).
● The time taken for light to travel between objects in the Solar System can be
calculated by rearranging the equation for calculating speed from distance and time:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

The Solar System contains:

● The Sun - The only star in the Solar System; it provides light and heat to the planets
and accounts for most of the mass in the solar system.
○ This disproportionation in mass is why the planets orbit the Sun.
○ The gravitational attraction of the Sun keeps objects in orbit around it.
● The eight planets - orbit the sun and have gravitational fields strong enough to pull in
all nearby objects.
○ The mnemonic for remembering the planets in ascending distance from the
sun - ‘My Very Easy Mnemonic Just Speeds Up Naming’.
○ Mercury
○ Venus
○ Earth Rocky and small
○ Mars
○ Jupiter
○ Saturn
○ Uranus Gaseous and large
○ Neptune
○ The difference in the composition of the planets is explained by the accretion
model of Solar System formation:
■ The Sun’s nebula was a massive cloud of dust and gas, composed of
many elements (See Topic 6.2.2).
■ After the Sun formed from this nebula, gravity caused the rest of the
nebula’s matter to collapse and spin around the Sun.
■ The gravitational attraction brought all the small particles together,
forming planets in an accretion disc.

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 ■ The first four planets formed in the accretion disc’s inner region so
were exposed to the Sun’s higher temperatures and are made of
heavier elements with higher melting points. They are small because
very little of the nebula is formed of such elements.
■ The outer planets were in cooler regions where light molecules could
exist as a solid, so they grew large and incorporated most of the
nebula’s matter.
● Minor planets - orbit the sun but, unlike the eight planets, do not have a gravitational
field strong enough to pull in all nearby objects.
○ Dwarf planets, such as Pluto.
○ Asteroids (large rocks) in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.
● Comets - balls of dust and ice that orbit the sun.
● Natural satellites - naturally occurring bodies (as opposed to man-made satellites like
the space station) that form an exception and are not pulled in by the strong
gravitational field of the eight planets, but instead orbit a planet.
○ Moons (several planets have their own moons, not just Earth).

Data collected about the planets, moons and the Sun can tell us:
● Their orbital distance (larger for planets further from the sun).
● Their orbital duration (longer for planets further from the sun).
● Their orbital speed (slower for planets further from the sun because the Sun’s
gravitational field strength becomes weaker with distance).
● Their density (the furthest four planets are less dense as they are gaseous).
● Their surface temperature (higher for planets closer to the sun).
● The uniform gravitational field strength.
● The strength of the gravitational field at the surface depends on mass (higher
on the surface of the gas giants as they have greater mass).
● The strength of the gravitational field surrounding a planet or the Sun
decreases as distance increases.

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Bodies orbiting the sun (planets, minor planets, comets) have elliptical orbits
(oval-shaped).
● The Sun is only at the orbital’s centre when it is approximately circular.
● These bodies travel faster when closer to the Sun because the orbital radius
decreases. This is explained using the conservation of energy (see Topic 1.7):
○ As the radius decreases, gravitational potential energy decreases and is
converted to kinetic energy, increasing the orbital speed.

6.2 Stars and the Universe

6,2,1 The Sun as a star

The Sun is a star of medium size, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium.
It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

This energy is released by nuclear reactions.

● In stable stars (such as The Sun), the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of
hydrogen into helium (nuclear fusion).

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6.2.2 Stars

Billions of stars (like the Sun) make up galaxies.

● The Sun belongs to the Milky Way galaxy.

The Sun is the closest star to Earth in the Milky Way; other stars are further away.
● The distance between objects in Space (astronomical distances) can be calculated
by measuring the number of years it takes light to travel between them (because light
travels at the constant speed of 3 × 108 m/s).
○ This means astronomical distances are measured in light-years.
○ One light-year is equal to 9.5 × 1015 m.

The life cycle of a star:

● Stars form from interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contain hydrogen (a
nebula).
● Gravity collapses the dust and gas into a protostar, which undergoes nuclear
reactions, releasing energy and increasing temperature.
● A stable star forms when the inward gravitational attraction is balanced by the
outward force of gas pressure (which increases with temperature) from nuclear
fusion.
● When stars run out of hydrogen as a fuel for the nuclear reaction, most expand
to form red giants.
○ As the balance of forces has been lost, a red giant contracts under the
pull of gravity. This forms a planetary nebula with a white dwarf star at
its centre.
● More massive stars continue to undergo nuclear fusion and expand to form red
supergiants.
○ As the outward force outweighs the gravitational attraction, it explodes
as a supernova.
○ The supernova creates a nebula containing hydrogen and new heavier
elements, leaving behind a neutron star or a black hole at its centre.
○ The nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets.

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6.2.3 The Universe

The Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies making up the Universe.
● The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100,000 light-years.

Redshift is an increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from

an object which is receding and travelling faster the further away it is.
● The light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light
emitted on the Earth.
● Redshift in the light from distant galaxies means they are moving further away so
shows the Universe is expanding, supporting the Big Bang Theory.

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The Hubble constant explains how a galaxy’s speed changes as it recedes:
● It is a ratio that can be calculated using the equation:

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑣

𝐻𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑦'𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐻0 = 𝑑
units = per second

○ The speed at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth can be
found from the change in wavelength of the galaxy’s starlight due to
redshift.
○ The galaxy’s distance from the Earth can be determined using the
brightness of a supernova in that galaxy.
● The current estimate for H0 = 2.2 × 10–18 per second.
● The Hubble constant can be used to estimate the age of the universe:
𝑑 1
𝑣
= 𝐻0

○ Finding an age for the universe shows all the matter in the
Universe was present at a single point.

Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is microwave radiation of a specific

frequency, which is observed at all points in space around us.

● CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed and expanded into
the electromagnetic spectrum’s microwave region as the Universe expanded.
● The Big Bang Theory predicted CMBR, so its existence strongly supports it.

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