Unit -2 Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology in which species interact with one
another and their surroundings. In other terms, an ecosystem consists of a series of interactions
between species and their surroundings.

The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G.Tansley(1935).

Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem refers to the explanation of living beings and the physical features
of the environment in which the organisms live.

Each ecosystem has two main components:

1. Abiotic Components
The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the abiotic
components. These are Climatic Factors that include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
and Edaphic Factors including soil, pH, topography minerals etc.

2. Biotic Components
The living organisms such as plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are
present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their feeding, biotic components can be classified as Producers, Consumers and
Decomposers

Producers
 ● They are called autotrophs as they can produce food through the process of
photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on
producers for food.
● Plants, Algae and photosynthetic bacteria are all examples of producers.
● They are found at the lowest trophic level. Consequently, all other organisms higher up
on the food chain rely on producers for food.

Consumers
Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food. Consumers
are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers and
quaternary consumers.

i. Primary consumers or first order consumers: These are the animals which feed on
plants or the producers. They are called Herbivores. Examples are deer, rabbit, cow,
buffalo, and giraffes.
ii. Secondary consumers or Second order consumers : These organisms feed on the
herbivores are called primary carnivores. Examples are crows, dogs, cats, snakes.
iii. Tertiary consumers or third order consumers : These organisms are the largest
carnivores which feed on secondary consumers. Examples are Wolves
iv. Quaternary consumers or Fourth order consumers : These are the largest carnivores
which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animals.
Examples are lions, Tigers and Hawk

Decomposers or Reducers
● These organisms break down dead matter (degrade the complex organic substances into
simpler compounds) to derive their nutrients and the decomposed material returns back to
the land, which will again be utilized by the producers to produce more food.
● They are called Saprotrophs (ie. sapro = rotten ; trophos = feeder )
● Examples are Earthworms, dung beetles and many species of fungi and bacteria.
Functions of an Ecosystem
The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients. Functions of an
ecosystem are of three types.

• Primary function: The primary function of all ecosystem is manufacture of starch

(photosynthesis).

• Secondary function: The secondary function of all ecosystem is distribution energy in the form
of food to all consumers.

• Tertiary Function: All living systems diet at a particular stage. These dead systems are
decomposed to initiate third function of ecosystems namely “cycling”.
The following are 3 broad functions of an ecosystem:

● Energy Flow
● Nutrient Cycling
● Decomposition
● Ecological Succession.

Energy Flow and Nutrient cycling

● The flow of energy through living organisms in an environment is known as energy flow.
● Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, Sun is the only source of energy for all
ecosystems on Earth..
● At the first trophic level, primary producers use solar energy to produce organic
material through photosynthesis.
● The herbivores at the second trophic level, uses the plants as food which gives them
energy. A large part of this energy is used up for the metabolic functions of these animals
such as breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood
circulation and body temperature.
● The carnivores at the third trophic level, feeds on the herbivores and derive energy for
their sustenance and growth. If large predators are present, they represent still higher
trophic level and they feed on carnivores to get energy.
● However, a part of energy is lost as heat and agrees with the phenomenon of
thermodynamics.
● Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through photosynthesis and passes through the
different tropic levels or feeding levels.
● So, all organisms are dependent for their food on producers, either directly or indirectly.
● Hence, there exists a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to
consumers.
● Decomposers which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects break down
wastes and dead organisms, and return the nutrients to the soil, which is then taken up by
the producers.
The tropic levels are arranged in the following way,
• The green plants or producers represent first tropic level T1,
• The herbivores or primary consumers represent second tropic level T2.
• The carnivores or secondary consumers represent third tropic level T3.
• The tertiary consumers are fourth tropic level T4.
DECOMPOSITION
Decomposers break down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide,
water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition

Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including faecal
matter, constitute detritus, which are the raw material for decomposition.

The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely:

o Food chain
o Food web
o Ecological Pyramids.

FOOD CHAINS

A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients through a succession of
organisms through repeated process of eating and being eaten

Food chain starts with the producers, then moves to the consumers and finishes with the
decomposers.
Types of food chain:

In nature, the food chains have been distinguished into three types:

Grazing food chain: The grazing food chain starts from the green plants and from autotrophs it
goes to herbivores (primary consumers) to primary carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to
secondary carnivores (tertiary consumers) and so on.

Photosynthesis provides energy to the lowest trophic level in a grazing food chain.

Example:

Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle (on land);

Phytoplankton → zooplankton → fish → seal → great white shark (on water)

Parasitic food chain:

A parasite is an organism that lives inside or on another living organism in order to survive.

Parasitic food chain is a type of food chain that starts from herbivore, but the food energy
transfers from larger organisms to smaller organisms, without killing in case of a predator.

Example: Trees → Fruits eating birds → Lice and bugs, is an example of a parasitic food chain
because lice and bugs are parasites that take energy in the form of food from fruit-eating birds.

Detritus food chain:

Detritus food chain is the type of food chain that starts with dead organic materials. The dead
organic substances are decomposed by microorganisms. The organisms that feed on dead organic
matter or detritus are known as detritivores or decomposers. These detritivores are later eaten by
predators.

Examples:

Litter → Earthworms → Snake → Eagle.

Mangroves leaves→ Detritus→ Micro organisms→ Crab→ Small fishes→ Large fishes.
Dead organic matter → Worms→ Frog→ Snake→ Hawk.
 Food Web

● The word ‘web’ means network. Food web can be defined as ‘a network of
interconnected food chains so as to form a number of feeding relationships amongst
different organism of a biotic community.’
● The same food resource may be a part of more than one chain.. A food web comprises of
all the food chains in a single ecosystem.
● If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the chain will be
affected largely.
● The food web provides more than one alternative for food to most of the organisms in an
ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival.

Ecological succession

“Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community over

time.”

● Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with
respect to the changing environment.
● In an area, the sequence of communities that undergo changes is called sere. Thus, each
community that changes is called a seral stage or seral community.
● If we consider an area where life starts from scratch through the process of succession, it
is known as primary succession. However, if life starts at a place after the area has lost all
the life forms existing there, the process is called secondary succession.
● It is obvious that primary succession is a rather slow process as life has to start from
nothing whereas secondary succession is faster because it starts at a place which had
already supported life before. Moreover, the first species that comes into existence during
primary succession is known as the pioneer species.
Primary Succession

Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of soil
or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.

When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only made up of
rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to form soil. The soil then
becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help in the survival of different animals and
progress from primary succession to the climax community.

If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.

Secondary Succession

Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg., a climax
community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as
secondary ecological succession. Small plants emerge first, followed by larger plants. The tall
trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the
climax community arrives.
Ecological pyramid

Ecological Pyramid are the diagrammatic representation of trophic structures in which

the trophic level are depicted in successive stage.

The pyramid is formed on the basis of the number of organisms, energy and biomass,
and just like the name suggests, these are shaped in the form of a pyramid.

Types of Ecological Pyramid

1. Pyramid of Numbers

● This represents the total numbers of individuals (population) present in each trophic
level. It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
● The term “pyramid of numbers” was first coined by Elton in 1972.
● This pyramid is quite convenient especially when it comes to counting the number of
organisms

Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.

In the Upright pyramid of numbers, the numbers of organisms mostly reduce from bottom to
top.

o It usually occurs in pond and grassland ecosystems where plants occupy the base of the
pyramid.
o The next levels of the pyramid include the consumers
An inverted pyramid is actually the opposite of the upright pyramid.

It can closely be observed in tree ecosystem, where trees are the producers and insects are the
consumers

The producers in the tree ecosystem are the least in numbers, and the population of consumers
gradually increases at each trophic level

2. Pyramid of Biomass
o It represents the total amount of biomass (mass or weight of biological material or
organism) present in each trophic level. It is expressed in gram per unit area.
o The pyramid is usually larger at the bottom but as it goes up it reduces in size and
becomes smaller
o The pyramid of biomass has two forms inverted and upright pyramids
o The aquatic ecosystem is characterized by an inverted pyramid because phytoplankton
producers are located at the base of the pyramid, while consumers have larger biomass
and they are located at the top
o Upright pyramid example is the terrestrial ecosystem. It has a large base mainly
consists of primary consumers, the smaller trophic levels are located at the top

Upright Pyramid of Biomass & Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

3. Pyramid of Energy

Pyramid of energy is an upright pyramid that illustrates the flow of energy from producers to
consumers

The pyramid of energy is based on the concept of the flow of energy in a food chain proposed
by Lindemann.

The energy is highest at the producer level and gradually decreases as it moves to the subsequent
levels, including herbivores (primary consumer), carnivores (secondary, tertiary consumers).

Types of Ecosystem

There are two main ecosystems:

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems: Terrestrial ecosystems are classified into various types based on
temperature and annual rainfall. A few examples of terrestrial ecosystems are listed below:
a. Grassland Ecosystems
b. Forest Ecosystems
c. Desert Ecosystems

2. Aquatic Ecosystems: Aquatic ecosystems are majorly two types:

a. Freshwater/Inland Ecosystems
b. Marine/Saltwater Ecosystems

Forest ecosystem

It is natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild animals. A forest ecosystem
is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and microorganisms (Biotic
components) in that area functioning together with all non living physical (abiotic) factors of the
environment. In India, the forests occupy about 18-20% of the total land area.

There are a few types of forest ecosystems listed below:

1. Tropical Evergreen Rainforest: Only a small percentage of tropical forests are rainforests
where average rainfall is 80-400 inches in a year. This forest is characterized by deep and dense
vegetation consisting of tall trees reaching different levels.

2. Tropical Deciduous Rainforest: The main characteristic of tropical deciduous rainforest is

broad-leaved trees along with dense bushes, shrubs, etc. Two main seasons – summer and winter
are distinctly visible there. This type of forest is found in many parts of the world. A large
variety of flora and fauna are found here.

3. Temperate Evergreen Forest: Temperate evergreen forest is a type of forest that is

characterized by a smaller number of trees but an adequate number of ferns and mosses.
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest: Temperate deciduous forest evolves in the moist temperate
region with sufficient rainfall. Here also, winter and summer are well defined, and trees shed
their leaves during winter. Dominant trees are maple, oak, peach, etc.

Components of Forest Ecosystem

Producers:

In a forest ecosystem, trees and other plants get their energy from sunlight. Plants produce
their food, in the form of carbohydrates.

Consumer:

Primary – elephants, deer etc.

Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc.

Tertiary – lions, tigers etc.

Decomposers:

Leaves, needles and old braches fall to the forest floor as trees grow. Eventually all plants and
animals die. These materials are decomposed by bacteria, ants and termites. Millipedes and
earthworms also help to break down dead matter.

Characteristics of Forest Ecosystem

1. Warm temperatures and sufficient rainfall are characteristics of forests, resulting in the
formation of numerous ponds, lakes, etc.
2. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
3. The forest supports many wild animals and protects biodiversity.
4. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients, which support the growth of trees.

Grassland ecosystem

● Ecosystem with huge open lands where the vegetation includes different types of
grasses with very few numbers of trees is known as the grassland ecosystem.
● The grassland ecosystem occupies about 40% of the total land area throughout the world.
● Tropical grasslands are found in countries near the equator such as Australia, South Asia,
Africa and Northern South America.
● Temperate grasslands are found in the countries situated between the Equator and Pole
such as North America, Europe, South Australia, South Africa, South America.
 ● Major grasslands of India are Alpine moist meadows (Greater Himalayas), Terai
Grasslands on Ganga and Brahmaputra plains, Phulmdis (floating grasslands) of Manipur
and many more.
● Some species of grasses found in grassland are- purple needle grass, buffalo grass, wild
oats, ryegrass etc.

Characteristics of Grasslands

The important characteristics of grasslands are mentioned below:

Rainfall / Precipitation: Grasslands require limited rainfall annually. Both tropical and
temperate grasslands receive different amounts of rainfall. The precipitation in temperate
grasslands is snowy or dew.

Temperature: The temperature varies according to the season. In summer, the temperature in
grasslands can go up to 38º C making it extremely hot and in winter the temperature can drop up
to -40º C, leading to chilly winters.

Regular fire in grasslands: Regular fire in grasslands is very important as it increases the
growth of grass in fields but also restricts the growth of trees.

Poor Vegetation: Less rainfall and dry climate are the cause of poor vegetation in grasslands.
Due to poor vegetation, only dry grasses are found in the grasslands and no trees.

Components of Grassland ecosystem

Producers in the grassland ecosystem include plants such as star grass, acacia trees, jackalberry trees,
lemongrass, red oat grass, etc.

Consumers

Deer, mouse, rabbits, cows, sheep, etc. are the primary consumers of the grassland ecosystem.
They take the grass (producers) as food. Snake, foxes, jackals, etc. are the secondary consumers.
And hawks, owls, etc. are the tertiary consumers

Decomposers

The fungi, bacteria, termites, etc. come under the category of decomposers in the grassland
ecosystem

Desert Ecosystem
Desert ecosystem is the driest ecosystem of the earth and this is the reason it has less
vegetation and less diversity of life. It is one of the parts of the terrestrial ecosystem. The
plants and animals of the desert ecosystem have mastered the art of survival in harsh
conditions. A desert ecosystem is basically devoid of any rainfall or precipitation.

Characteristics of Desert Ecosystem

● Arid environment
● Extreme temperatures
● High wind velocity.
● Sparsity of cloud cover.
● Absence of water vapour in air.

Subtropical deserts

Subtropical deserts are very hot and dry. Africa’s Sahara Desert is an example of a subtropical
desert.

Temperate deserts / Cold Deserts

Temperate deserts, also known as cold deserts, occur at higher latitudes and therefore have cooler
temperatures. Their aridity is caused by being far from the ocean or from being close to high
mountains that prevent moist air from reaching inland. The largest temperate desert is the Gobi
Desert of central Asia.

Coastal deserts

Coastal deserts occur close to the ocean. Although they receive little or no rainfall, fog brings
moisture inland, which provides a source of water for the deserts’ inhabitants.

Examples of coastal deserts include the Namib of southern Africa and the Atacama Desert of
South America.

Polar deserts

Polar deserts are regions that are permanently covered by ice. Polar air is very dry and produces
little or no rain. Earth’s two largest deserts are polar deserts, one covering Antarctica; the other in
the Arctic.

Components of Desert ecosystem

Producer

These are shrubs, especially some grasses, bushes and few trees. Some lower plants like
xerophytic mosses and lichens may also be present.
Consumers:

Reptiles, insects, nocturnal rodents, birds, and camels are the main consumers they are able to
live under xeric conditions.

Decomposers

Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter, decomposers are poor in
desert ecosystem.

The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of which are thermophillic

Aquatic Ecosystem

● An aquatic ecosystem is one that is based on water.

● The word 'aquatic' is derived from the Latin word 'aqua', which means water.
● So, in a water-based setting, an aquatic ecosystem is a community of species that live
together, interact, and to some extent rely on one another.
● Aquatic ecosystems are divided into the following subcategories based on the
concentration of salt content.
● Freshwater ecosystems: Rivers, lakes and ponds.
● Brackish Water Ecosystems: Mangroves, Estuaries, etc.
● Marine ecosystems: Oceans, Seas, etc.

Pond ecosystem:

A pond ecosystem is a freshwater ecosystem on which different living organisms depend for
their survival and nutritional needs. Ponds, due to their light penetration, are capable of
supporting a diverse range of water plants.

Abiotic Factors: Non-living things that help the pond ecosystem survive to include hummus,
oxygen in the water, light, heat, and minerals.

Producers

The main producers in the pond or lake ecosystem are photosynthetic algae and shallow water
plants .The floating minute plants are called phytoplanktons, and other aquatic plants, etc.

Primary Consumers

The primary consumers consist of small herbivorous animals that feed on food converted by
producers such as algae and also feed on other water plants to sustain themselves. These animals
are snails, insects, and tadpoles. They also include various microscopic animals that are called
zooplankton.

Secondary Consumers
The second level in the pond food web makes up secondary consumers who feed on the primary
consumers. The animals in the second level are frogs,small fish, crayfish, other amphibians, and
reptiles like water snakes and turtles.

Tertiary Consumers

Tertiary consumers eat primary and secondary level animals. The third level consumer includes
large fish, water birds, hawks, prawns and human beings. However, human beings are classified
as top consumers.

Decomposers

Bacteria and fungi are the decomposers. They break down decaying and dead aquatic plants and
animals. The recycling of elemental nutrients by decomposers makes available the nutrients to
new generations of plants.

Review Questions
2 marks questions

1. What is ecosystem
2. What are biotic and Abiotic components? Give example.
3. What is autotrophs
4. What are heterotrophs?
 5. What is saprotrophs
6. What are types of consumers
7. What is trophic level
8. What is food chain
9. What is food web
10. What is grazing food chain
11. What is saprophytic food chain
12. What is parasitic food chain
13. What is ecological pyramid
14. What is pyramid of number
15. What is pyramid of biomass
16. What is pyramid of energy
17. What is ecological succession
18. What is primary succession
19. What is secondary succession
20. What is climax community
21. What is forest ecosystem
22. What is grassland ecosystem? Give example
23. What is desert ecosystem? Give example
24. What is aquatic ecosystem
25. What is pond ecosystem

5 marks
1. Discuss the structure and function of ecosystem
2. Write a note on types of ecosystem
3. Explain energy flow in an ecosystem
4. Explain food chain and its types with example
5. Explain food web with example
6. What are the types of ecological pyramid
7. Write a note on ecological succession and its types
8. Explain the types of natural ecosystem
9. Explain the types of forests in India
10. Briefly explain the pond ecosystem with a diagram